TRANSPORT COSTS AND AGRICULTURAL MARKET ACCESS AMONG SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN HOMABAY COUNTY, KENYA

International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 280 TRANSPORT COSTS AND AGRICULTURAL MARKET ACCESS AMONG SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN HOMABAY COUNTY, KENYA Jared Odoyo Olwa, Yasin Kuso Ghabon Faculty of Business and Economics, Maseno University, Kenya INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN MANAGEMENT Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm ISSN 2249-5908 ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT ©2025 RS Publication Paper ID: IJRM693D753C4AD50 Published: 2025-12-22 DOI: https://dx.doi.org /10.5281/zenodo.18 021827 Page No: 280-299 This study examines the effect of transport costs on agricultural market access among smallholder farmers in Homabay County, Kenya. Anchored in Spatial Economics Theory, the research employed a quantitative correlational design, collecting data from 350 respondents (smallholder farmers) across the county's sub-counties using structured questionnaires. A stratified random sampling approach ensured balanced representation, achieving an 88% response rate (n=308). Findings revealed a strong negative and statistically significant relationship between transport costs and market access (r=-0.698, p<0.01). Regression analysis indicated that transport costs account for 49% of the variance in market access (R²=0.49). The regression coefficient (β=-0.675, p<0.001) confirmed that a one-unit increase in transport costs leads to a 0.675-unit decrease in market access. These results support the rejection of the null hypothesis, confirming a significant negative effect of transport costs. The study concludes that elevated transport costs, stemming from poor road conditions, seasonal fluctuations, long distances, and limited options, substantially hinder market availability, price realisation, sales volumes, access to information, and timely deliveries, thereby constraining economic opportunities in this underdeveloped rural setting. It recommends strategic investments in resilient rural infrastructure, subsidies for fuel and shared transport, and digital tools for market linkages to bolster smallholder resilience and integration. Keywords: Transport Costs, Market Access, Smallholder Farmers, Rural Infrastructure, Spatial Economics. Cite This Paper: Jared Odoyo Olwa and Yasin Kuso Ghabon (2025). "TRANSPORT COSTS AND AGRICULTURAL MARKET ACCESS AMONG SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN HOMABAY COUNTY, KENYA". INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN MANAGEMENT (IJRM), vol. 15, no. 6, 2025, pp. 280-299. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18021827 International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 281 I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Agriculture stands as a fundamental pillar of sustenance and economic activity in many societies, particularly in rural areas where it provides essential food, income, and employment opportunities. In developing nations, where a significant portion of the population depends on farming for survival, the sector's efficiency directly influences household welfare and community stability (Zheng, 2025). Smallholder farmers, often operating on limited land with basic resources, play a crucial role in national food production, yet they frequently encounter systemic obstacles that diminish their productivity and market engagement. These challenges include erratic weather patterns, limited access to inputs, and, notably, logistical hurdles that inflate the cost of bringing produce to consumers. In Kenya, agriculture employs over 70% of the rural workforce and contributes approximately 25% to the gross domestic product, underscoring its centrality to the economy (KNBS, 2024). The sector encompasses a diverse range of activities, from staple crop cultivation like maize and sorghum to cash crops such as cotton and sweet potatoes, which are vital for both domestic consumption and export potential. However, the promise of agricultural prosperity is often undermined by inadequate infrastructure, especially in remote counties where transport networks remain underdeveloped. Homabay County, situated along the shores of Lake Victoria in the Nyanza region, exemplifies this predicament. With a predominantly rural population reliant on rain-fed farming and fishing, the county's agricultural output is substantial, yet farmers grapple with high post-harvest losses estimated at 20-30% due to delays in reaching markets (Homabay County Government, 2025). The county's topography, featuring hilly terrains and flood-prone lowlands, exacerbates road degradation, making seasonal mobility a persistent issue. Transport costs in such contexts encompass not only fuel and vehicle expenses but also the indirect burdens of poor roads and distances, which collectively erode profit margins. For smallholders managing plots under two hectares, these costs can consume up to 40% of potential earnings, International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 282 compelling many to sell at suboptimal local prices rather than venturing to urban centres like Kisumu or Nairobi (Mercy Corps AgriFin & Dalberg, 2020). This scenario mirrors broader patterns in sub-Saharan Africa, where rural isolation perpetuates poverty cycles by restricting access to competitive markets and timely information. In Kenya, government initiatives under the Agricultural Sector Transformation and Growth Strategy (ASTGS) aim to address these gaps through infrastructure upgrades, but implementation in peripheral areas like Homabay lags, hampered by funding constraints and climatic vulnerabilities (KIPPRA, 2024). Homabay county's strategic location near Lake Victoria offers untapped potential for integrated agro-fisheries value chains, yet underdeveloped feeder roads hinder the evacuation of produce, leading to spoilage and lost revenue. Recent developments, such as the expansion of sugarcane and cotton cultivation, have increased output volumes, but without reliable transport, farmers remain vulnerable to exploitative middlemen (KNBS, 2025). Market access, defined here as the ease of reaching buyers, realising fair prices, achieving desired sales volumes, obtaining price and demand intelligence, and expanding buyer networks, is inextricably linked to transport efficiency. High costs not only limit physical reach but also deter investment in improved seeds or irrigation, stifling long-term growth. This study investigates these dynamics among smallholder farmers in Homabay, employing Spatial Economics Theory to unpack how transport frictions shape spatial disparities in agricultural outcomes. By focusing on this locale, the research seeks to inform localised policies that enhance connectivity, boost incomes, and foster inclusive rural development in Kenya's evolving agricultural landscape. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Smallholder farmers in Homabay County face rising transport costs that make it difficult to access agricultural markets, leading to lower incomes, wasted produce, and increased rural poverty. Poor road conditions, long distances to trading centers, fluctuating fuel prices, and limited transport options increase these costs, making faraway markets hard to reach and forcing farmers to rely on low-paying local markets. Although the county has some road rehabilitation programs, their impact is limited due to budget constraints and environmental challenges like flooding, leaving International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 283 infrastructure problems unresolved (Homabay County Government, 2025). Research shows these barriers persist, with some studies reporting productivity improvements from better connectivity, while others highlight ongoing challenges in lake-basin areas (Naikumi, 2024; KIPPRA, 2024). In Homabay, where many households depend on farming, these problems reduce sales, limit price negotiation, and restrict access to market information, weakening contributions to household and national food security. This study addresses the gap by examining how transport costs affect market access in this area. 1.3 Objectives of the Study 1.3.1 General Objective To determine the effect of transport costs on agricultural market access among smallholder farmers in Homabay County, Kenya. 1.3.2 Specific Objectives To assess the levels of transport costs and agricultural market access; to establish the relationship between transport costs and agricultural market access; to analyse the predictive effect of transport costs on agricultural market access. 1.3.3 Research Question H₀: Transport costs have no significant effect on agricultural market access among smallholder farmers in Homabay County, Kenya? II. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Theoretical Review 2.1.1 Spatial Economics Theory Spatial Economics Theory became an important idea in the early 1990s, changing how economists understand the relationship between geography, trade, and economic activity. Paul Krugman introduced it in his 1991 paper, "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography." The theory International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 284 combines ideas from new trade theory and industrial organisation to explain why businesses and industries cluster in some areas and spread out in others (Krugman, 1991, as cited in Redding, 2024). Krugman suggested that economic activity tends to gather where there are advantages like good market access and economies of scale. These “pulling” forces outweigh “pushing” forces like high transport costs and competition for fixed resources. A key idea is the "iceberg" transport cost, where part of the goods is effectively lost during transportation, making products more expensive and reducing trade over long distances. Building on earlier works such as Lösch's spatial equilibrium, the theory explains why industries group in certain places, leading to uneven development across regions. Over time, the theory has been refined. Models now include quantitative simulations to see how policies affect migration, trade flows, and productivity (Henderson & Thisse, 2024). Recent improvements also use data-based methods to measure how infrastructure investments change the distribution of economic activity (Kourtit et al., 2024). Supporters highlight its policy importance, showing that reducing transport barriers can encourage growth. In developing countries, the theory helps explain why cities benefit more than rural areas when connectivity is poor, leaving rural areas isolated. Critics point out some limits. Early models assumed regions were similar and competition was perfect, which oversimplifies reality, ignoring things like local rules or environmental problems (Zheng, 2025). Relying on increasing returns also misses important factors like technology sharing or climate resilience, which are especially important in farming areas. Henderson and Thisse (2024) note that while the theory works well for predictions, testing it in real life often needs a mix of statistical and qualitative approaches to capture differences across areas. For this study, Spatial Economics Theory helps explain how transport costs affect agricultural market access for smallholder farmers in Homabay. High transport costs act as strong “pushing” forces, keeping farmers away from profitable markets and increasing isolation in areas with poor roads and seasonal floods. The theory predicts that these barriers reduce benefits from clustering, such as better prices or shared market information, leading to lower sales and profits. Using International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 285 Krugman’s framework, the study shows that improvements like road upgrades could reduce isolation, increase access to buyers, and decrease losses. This aligns with the study’s focus on physical barriers in a developing country, where poor infrastructure limits economic opportunities, similar to how the World Health Organization emphasises adapting interventions to local conditions (WHO, 2023). Overall, the theory suggests that reducing transport costs could bring economic benefits, helping rural communities become more resilient. 2.2 Empirical Review Empirical investigations into transport costs and agricultural market access have proliferated in recent years, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where infrastructural shortcomings profoundly affect smallholder viability. Researchers have consistently demonstrated that logistical inefficiencies not only inflate expenses but also distort market participation, with implications for food security and poverty alleviation. According to a study by Naikumi (2024), conducted under the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis, rural road infrastructure significantly bolsters agricultural productivity among Kenyan smallholders. Utilising regression models on county-level data, the analysis revealed that a 10% enhancement in road quality correlates with a 15% rise in output, primarily by curtailing transport delays and costs. However, the benefits were uneven, with arid and semiarid regions showing muted responses due to complementary needs like water access, a finding resonant with Homabay's lake-basin challenges. In a comparative exploration, Ma et al. (2024) delved into barriers impeding farmer-market linkages across developing contexts, including Kenya. Drawing from surveys of over 1,000 producers, their econometric assessment identified transport as a top constraint, accounting for 25% of transaction costs and reducing sales by up to 18%. Solutions like farmer cooperatives emerged as effective, lowering expenses through bulk hauling, though adoption hinged on trust and initial capital—issues prevalent in fragmented rural settings. International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 286 A panel data inquiry by Khan et al. (2025) examined transport infrastructure's ramifications for agricultural efficiency in Asian nations, yielding insights transferable to Africa. Employing fixedeffects regressions, the authors found that road expansions diminished logistics outlays by 1218%, elevating total factor productivity amid varying terrains. Yet, in underdeveloped zones akin to Homabay's hilly interiors, spillover effects were limited without parallel investments in storage, underscoring the necessity for holistic approaches. Zheng (2025) undertook a systematic review of transport development's livelihood impacts in the Global South, synthesising 60+ studies from 2015-2024. The meta-analysis indicated net positives for income diversification, with market access gains of 10-15% in connected areas, but warned of environmental trade-offs like increased emissions. In African cases, including Kenyan vignettes, smallholders reported heightened vulnerability during off-seasons, mirroring Homabay's flood-prone dynamics. Turning to Kenya-specific contexts, Eichsteller et al. (2022) investigated agriculture's povertyreduction potential using mixed methods across rural households. Their capabilities framework highlighted how transport gaps exacerbated by climate shocks—thwarted strategy implementation, with 40% of respondents citing costs as a primary income barrier. Interventions like subsidised trucking yielded modest uplifts, but scalability faltered in remote locales. Mercy Corps AgriFin and Dalberg (2020) mapped Kenya's agricultural logistics, estimating last-mile costs at 28% of market prices through value-chain audits. Digital matchmaking reduced these by 35% in pilot areas, yet fragmentation persisted, with smallholders in Nyanza facing acute hurdles from unreliable matatus. The report advocated public-private hybrids to bridge gaps. More recently, a qualitative probe by Omondi et al. (2023) reviewed small-scale farming challenges, emphasising technological opportunities. Surveys in western Kenya revealed transport as a deterrent to input adoption, with 55% of farmers forgoing improved seeds due to evacuation fears. Digital apps mitigated information asymmetries but faltered without physical links. In lakeregion foci, Homabay County Government (2025) profiled agroprocessing potentials, noting road deficits constraining cotton and sugarcane flows. Quantitative baselines showed 20% yield losses from delays, aligning with KNBS (2025) data on county production dips. International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 287 KIPPRA (2024) assessed digital technologies for market access, finding platforms cut search costs by 22% among smallholders, though transport remained a bottleneck, reducing platform efficacy by half in unconnected wards. A value-chain mapping by Mburu et al. (2025) in Taita Taveta, analogous to Homabay, pinpointed infrastructure as key to agroprocessing. Stakeholder interviews indicated high transport eroded 15% of margins, with recommendations for feeder roads to spur integration. These works collectively affirm transport costs' deleterious influence, advocating multifaceted remedies while revealing contextual nuances in developing agrarian economies. 2.3 Research Gaps While extant literature robustly documents transport costs' adverse effects on agricultural market access, notable lacunae persist, particularly in Kenya's peripheral counties. Broad continental or national studies, such as Zheng (2025) and Khan et al. (2025), offer valuable overviews but often aggregate data, obscuring locale-specific factors like Homabay's seasonal flooding and lakeinfluenced terrains that intensify road impassability (Homabay County Government, 2025). Empirical efforts in Nyanza, including Eichsteller et al. (2022), emphasise poverty linkages yet underexplore granular indicators such as buyer reach amid volatile fuel duties (Farmonaut, 2025). Digital-focused analyses like KIPPRA (2024) highlight information gains but neglect physical transport's mediating role in underdeveloped settings, where cooperatives falter without reliable haulage (Ma et al., 2024). Moreover, quantitative integrations of Spatial Economics Theory remain sparse in smallholder contexts, with few leveraging regression to predict cost-market variances (Naikumi, 2024). This study redresses these by centring Homabay smallholders, dissecting 10item indicators via correlational designs to yield actionable, spatially attuned insights. 2.4 Conceptual Framework A conceptual framework is a structured representation that illustrates the key variables of a study and the assumed relationships among them, guiding the research process and analysis (Ravitch & Riggan, 2021). In this study, the conceptual framework demonstrates how transport costs influence agricultural market access in Kenya by outlining the direct relationship between transport cost International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 288 factors and market access outcomes. The framework helps to clarify variable interactions, guide data collection, and support interpretation of findings. Figure 2.1 presents the conceptual framework showing transport costs as the independent variable influencing agricultural market access as the dependent variable. Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework Source: Author (2025) III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A correlational research design was used to study the relationship between transport costs and agricultural market access. The study focused on smallholder farmers in Homabay County, estimated at 45,000 households practicing crop and mixed farming. These farmers were chosen because they face significant transport challenges in the county’s rural areas (KNBS, 2025). From this population, a sample of 350 respondents was calculated using Yamane's formula at a 95% Transport Costs • Fuel expenses • Vehicle maintenance • Road conditions • Distance covered • Transport charges Agricultural Market Access • Market availability • Price realisation • Sales volumes • Market information • Buyer reach International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 295 The correlation analysis shows a strong negative relationship between transport costs and agricultural market access (r = -0.698, p < 0.01), indicating that higher transport costs are associated with lower market access. This finding aligns with Ma et al. (2024), who reported similar negative associations between transport barriers and market linkages. 4.5 Regression Analysis 4.5.1 Model Summary Table 6: Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 0.698 0.487 0.485 0.70 a. Predictors: (Constant), Transport Costs b. Dependent Variable: Agricultural Market Access The model summary shows a strong correlation (R = 0.698), with transport costs explaining 48.7% of the variation in agricultural market access (R² = 0.487), adjusted to 0.485 for accuracy. This indicates that while transport costs have a significant impact, other factors also influence market access in the context of limited infrastructure. 4.5.2 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Table 7: ANOVA Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 138.45 1 138.45 282.34 .000 Residual 145.89 306 0.477 Total 284.34 307 International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 296 a. Dependent Variable: Agricultural Market Access b. Predictors: (Constant), Transport Costs The ANOVA results show that the regression model is highly significant (F=282.34, p<0.001), indicating that transport costs significantly predict agricultural market access. The model explains a substantial portion of the variation in market access, while the remaining variation is captured in the residuals, confirming that transport costs are a key factor influencing access to markets in Homabay County. 4.5.3 Coefficients Table 8: Coefficients Predictor B Std. Error Beta t Sig. Constant 5.38 0.22 24.45 .000 Transport Costs -0.675 0.040 -0.698 -16.80 .000 a. Dependent Variable: Agricultural Market Access The coefficients indicate that transport costs have a significant negative effect on agricultural market access. The constant (B = 5.38, p<0.001) represents the expected level of market access when transport costs are zero. The transport costs coefficient (B = -0.675, β = -0.698, p<0.001) shows that for every one-unit increase in transport costs, market access decreases by 0.675 units. The strong negative beta confirms that higher transport costs substantially reduce farmers’ access to markets, highlighting the critical role of transport infrastructure in facilitating agricultural trade. V. CONCLUSION The study confirms that transport costs have a strong negative impact on agricultural market access for smallholder farmers in Homabay. High transport costs (mean = 4.18) coincide with low market International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 297 access levels (mean = 2.75), supported by a strong negative correlation (r = -0.698, p<0.01) and regression results (R² = 0.49, β = -0.675). Poor roads and seasonal challenges isolate farmers, reducing sales volumes, fair pricing, and access to market information, as predicted by Spatial Economics Theory through centrifugal forces. While some local networks help slightly, they do not overcome broader infrastructural limitations. These findings highlight the urgent need to improve connectivity to boost market integration, enhance incomes, and strengthen rural food systems in Kenya. VI. RECOMMENDATIONS Policymakers should prioritize improving rural roads in Homabay, focusing on gravel upgrades and proper drainage to reduce seasonal flooding, potentially through collaboration between county and federal governments. Fuel subsidies and shared trucking cooperatives could ease high transport costs. Integrating digital platforms with agricultural extension services could help farmers access market information. Continuous monitoring of these interventions at the ward level would help evaluate effectiveness and support adaptive governance. Future research could expand to multiple counties and consider climate factors for deeper insights. VII. REFERENCES Eichsteller, M., Njagi, T., & Nyukuri, E. (2022). The role of agriculture in poverty escapes in Kenya – Developing a capabilities approach in the context of climate change. World Development, 149, Article 105705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105705 Farmonaut. (2025). Finance Bill 2025: Impact on smallholder farmers in Kenya. https://farmonaut.com/blogs/finance-bill-2025-impact-kenya-farmers Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). Sage. Henderson, J. V., & Thisse, J.-F. (2024). Urban and spatial economics after 50 years. Journal of Urban Economics, 144, Article 103711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2024.103711 Homabay County Government. (2025). Agriculture & agroprocessing profile. https://www.homabay.go.ke/investment-opportunities/agriculture-agroprocessing International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 298 Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis (KIPPRA). (2024). Enhancing market access through digital technologies among smallholder farmers in Kenya. https://kippra.or.ke/enhancing-market-access-through-digital-technologies-amongsmallholder-farmers-in-kenya Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (2024). Economic survey 2024. Government Printer. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (2025). National agriculture production report 2025. https://www.knbs.or.ke/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/National-Agriculture-ProductionReport-2025.pdf Kourtit, K., Nijkamp, P., & Krugman, P. (2024). Managing uncertainty in 21st century regional and urban development. Research in Transportation Economics, 105, Article 101335. Ma, W., Rahut, D. B., Sonobe, T., & Gong, B. (2024). Linking farmers to markets: Barriers, solutions, and policy options. Economic Analysis and Policy, 82, 1102-1112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2024.03.018 Mburu, S., Mwaniki, P., & Omondi, I. (2025). Agro-processing value chains mapping and technology needs assessment for Taita Taveta County, Kenya. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 20(1), 45-58. Mercy Corps AgriFin and Dalberg. (2020). Agriculture logistics in Kenya: Landscape and solutions case studies. https://www.mercycorpsagrifin.org/wpcontent/uploads/2020/09/200907_AgriFin_Logistics-Case-Study_vfinal_PUBLIC.pdf Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2019). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches (2nd ed.). Acts Press. Naikumi, M. N. (2024). Role of rural road infrastructure on agricultural productivity in Kenya (KIPPRA Discussion Paper No. 363). Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis. Omondi, I., Ochieng, J., & Anyango, F. (2023). Small-scale farming: A review of challenges and potential opportunities offered by technological advancements. Sustainability, 15(21), Article 15678. Ravitch, S. M., & Riggan, M. (2021). Reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks guide research (2nd ed.). Sage Publications. International Journal of Research in Management ISSN 2249-5908 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ijrm/ijrm_index.htm Volume 15 No. 6, 2025 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18021827 Original Article ©2025 RS Publication, [email protected] 299 Redding, S. J. (2024). Spatial economics. In Oxford research encyclopedia of economics and finance. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190625979.013.1012 World Health Organization (WHO). (2023). WHO guideline for clinical management of exposure to lead. Zheng, Z. (2025). How does transport infrastructure development impact rural livelihoods in the Global South? A systematic review of the English language academic literature. Environmental Science & Policy, 173, Article 104231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2025.104231