A Review of the Impact of the Digital Transformation on the Global and European Economy

Wysokinska, Zofia Article A Review of the Impact of the Digital Transformation on the Global and European Economy Comparative Economic Research. Central and Eastern Europe Provided in Cooperation with: Institute of Economics, University of Łódź Suggested Citation: Wysokinska, Zofia (2021) : A Review of the Impact of the Digital Transformation on the Global and European Economy, Comparative Economic Research. Central and Eastern Europe, ISSN 2082-6737, Łodz University Press, Łodz, Vol. 24, Iss. 3, pp. 75-92, https://doi.org/10.18778/1508-2008.24.22 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/259278 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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Central and Eastern Europe Volume 24, Number 3, 2021 h tt p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 8 7 7 8 / 1 5 0 8 - 2 0 0 8 . 2 4 . 2 2 A Review of the Impact of the Digital Transformation on the Global and European Economy Zofia Wysokińska https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8052-794X Ph.D., Full Professor at the University of Lodz, Faculty of Economics and Sociology Department of World Economy and European Integration, Lodz, Poland e-mail: zofia.wy[email protected] Abstract The paper aims to present digital transformation as a process that has been taking place in the digital economy and the European Union’s economy in recent years and its impact on changes in the economic and social sphere. As a starting point, this paper considers the importance of advanced technology products in the global production and trade in the global and European economy, including information and communi‑ cation technologies, which constitute the primary basis for the development of the digital economy. The paper shows that leading technologies can allow sustainable development goals (SDGs) to be achieved faster and more effectively. It is necessary to eliminate the persistent, significant income differences between developing and highly developed countries and disparities in access to the use of innovative solutions (including social innovation). Keywords: transformation, digital economy, advanced technology products, global economy, European Union JEL: O13 76 Zofia Wysokińska Introduction – The position of advanced technology products in global and European exports Technology isacrucial factor that influences economic competitiveness inthe global and European economies. High‑tech industries are booming ininternational trade,1 and their dynamism helps improve performance inother sectors. Investments inre‑ search, development, innovation, and skills, which are essential for economic growth and the development ofthe knowledge‑based economy, are akey EU policy area. Inthe period 2015–2018, advanced technology products2 had arelatively stable share inthe total global exports ofthe 75 countries surveyed, 3 amounting tomore than 18%, with aslight decrease inthis share in2018 compared tothe previous year – from 18.75% to18.47% (Table 1). Table 1. Analysis of the export of advanced technology products for 75 countries, considering 10 product groups (including group 891: arms and ammunition), USD billion, % YEAR 2015 2016 2017 2018 Export of all products 15 026,6 14 634,6 16 063,3 17 538,6 Export of advanced technology products 2 804,2 2 738,1 3 011,2 3 238,6 Export dynamics (previous year = 100%) 100,00 97,64 109,97 107,55 Export dynamics (2015 = 100%) 100,00 97,64 107,38 115,49 The share of exports of advanced technology products in the export of all products 18,66 18,71 18,75 18,47 Export dynamics (previous year = 100%) 100,00 100,25 100,19 98,51 Export share dynamics (2015 = 100%) 100,00 100,25 100,45 98,95 Note: The number of countries depends on the availability of data for ten selected product groups; all data for the group of selected countries. Source: UN COMTRADE database. Table 2 presents the analysis of the export of advanced technology products for 26 European Union (EU) countries (excluding Romania and Slovenia due to a lack of data), considering 10 product groups.4 Based on these results, we can conclude that throughout the analyzed period of 2015–2018, the value of exports of advanced technology 1 See Table 1. 2 Excluding group 891: arms and ammunition. 3 Own study – data according to UN Comtrade database. Calculations of export trends of ad‑ vanced technology products in selected countries of the world and the European Union in 2015– 2018 – according to the UN international commodity nomenclature – Standard International Trade Classification, (SITC) Rev.3 for High‑Skill and Technology Intensive Manufactures, which include the goods of section 5, divisions 75; 76; 87; 88 and groups: 776; 792; 891; 892; 896; 897 – The Least De‑ veloped Countries Report 2014 UNCTAD, Growth with structural transformation: A post–2015 de‑ velopment agenda, https://unctad.org/system/files/official‑document/ldc2014_en.pdf (accessed: 1.08.2018) p. XII. The surveyed countries in this study are 75 countries of the world that reported their data on the export of technologically advanced goods to the UN Comtrade database. 4 Excluding group 891: arms and ammunition. 77 A Review of the Impact of the Digital Transformation on the Global and European Economy products inthe EU systematically increased, reaching apeak in2018 ofUSD 732.5 bil‑ lion. The dynamics oftheir exports in2018, compared to2015, rose tothe level of115%. Itshould benoted, however, that although the share ofthe analyzed products inthe trade ofthe surveyed EU countries (excluding Romania) was characterized byan up‑ ward trend in2015–2017, itdecreased in2018, from 12.26% to11.90% (Table 2). The share ofexports ofadvanced technology products inEU exports inthe analyz‑ ed period was approx. 6 percentage points lower than the share ofthis product group inthe world trade. This resulted i. a. from the growing position ofmainly Asian coun‑ tries inthe production and export ofgoods with ahigher degree ofprocessing and technology content. According tothe European Innovation Ranking, published bythe European Commission in2019, South Korea and Japan’s positions deserve particular attention (European Commission 2020b; see also: Komisja Europejska 2019). Table 2. Analysis of the export of advanced technology products for 26 selected European Union countries*, considering 10 product groups (including group 891: arms and ammunition), USD billion, % YEAR 2015 2016 2017 2018 Export of all products for 27 selected countries 5 143,0 5 148,1 5 637,9 6 155,2 Export of advanced technology products 637,0 643,8 691,0 732,5 Export dynamics (previous year = 100%) 100,00 101,06 107,33 106,01 Export dynamics (2015 = 100%) 100,00 101,06 108,47 114,99 The share of exports of advanced technology products in the export of all products 12,39 12,51% 12,26 11,90 Export share dynamics (previous year = 100%) 100,00 100,96 98,01 97,11 Export share dynamics (2015 = 100%) 100,00 100,96 98,95 96,08 Note: all data for the group of selected countries. * No complete data for Romania and Slovenia Source: UN COMTRADE database. Export of advanced technology products In2019, the EU–27 countries exported almost aquarter ofadvanced technology prod‑ ucts tothe United States (24.7%), followed byChina (11.7%) and the United Kingdom (11.0%). Exports increased from €188 billion to€382 billion between 2009and2019, which meant anaverage annual growth rate of7.4%. Among the six largest partners ofthe EU–27, exports tothe United States increased the most inabsolute terms, from €36 billion to€94 billion, while exports toChina showed the highest average annual growth rate (12.9%). Pharmacy represented the most considerable value inthe export ofadvanced tech‑ nology products in2019 (€91.7 billion). Itwas also the group with the highest average annual growth rate (12.9%) between 2009and2019. Growth rates above 5% were also 78 Zofia Wysokińska observed inthe export ofaerospace (9.4%), scientific instruments (7.6%), and electrical machinery (5.8%). Lower growth rates were recorded inthe groups ofcomputers and office machines (2.2%), non‑electric machinery (2.9%), chemistry (3.1%), armament (3.8%), and electronics‑telecommunications (4.9%). In2019, pharmacy was the most important group ofhigh‑tech products inEU–27 exports tothe United States, Swit‑ zerland, Japan, and Russia. The USA was the leading partner inEU–27 exports inas many asseven categories, including electronics‑telecommunication (next toChina). Inexports toGreat Britain, computers and office machines was the leading product group (based onEurostat 2021). The 2019 trade deficit with China was mainly due todeficits inelectronics‑telecom‑ munications (‑€48 billion) and computers and office machines (‑€39 billion). The trade surplus with the UK was broken down into more groups, the four largest ofwhich were pharmacy (€4 billion), electronics‑telecommunications, scientific instruments, and computers and office machines (all three €3 billion). Inthe case ofthe United States, there was both alarge deficit inaerospace (‑€14 billion) and aneven more significant surplus inthe group ofpharmacy (€18 billion) (Eurostat 2021). Summary: – The production ofadvanced technology products inthe EU showed amarked increase from €288 billion to€337 billion between 2008and2018. – Between 2015and2018, the value ofexport ofadvanced technology products inthe EU grew steadily, reaching the apogee in2018 of€732.5 billion. The 2018 dynamics ofexports, compared to2015, increased tothe level of115% (similar tothe analyzed global export of75 world countries). The share ofadvanced tech‑ nology products inthe EU was stable atapprox. 12%. – The largest part, almost aquarter ofthe export ofadvanced technology products from EU countries, was sent tothe United States, and then toChina and Great Britain (approx. 11%). The export increased from €188 billion to€382 billion inthe analyzed decade, corresponding toan average annual growth rate of7.4%. –There was arelatively large deficit inthe EU trade inadvanced technology prod‑ ucts with China. The second partner for which the EU recorded atrade deficit was Vietnam, while atrade surplus with the United Kingdom, the United States, and Russia was observed. The impact of digital technologies on economic and social development Digitization has transformed economic activity worldwide inrecent years, thanks toradically reduced costs ofcollecting, storing, and processing data and significantly increased computing power.5 5 Own study based on: UNCTAD 2017b; 2018a, pp. 1–30; 2019. 79 A Review of the Impact of the Digital Transformation on the Global and European Economy UN reports show the scale ofnew opportunities that the development ofthe dig‑ ital economy allows, including assistance tosmaller companies indeveloping coun‑ tries inaccessing the global market, which allows for more effective integration with the global market and creates new opportunities togenerate income. Information and communication technologies (ICT), e‑commerce, and new digital applications are used topromote entrepreneurship, including women’s empowerment asentrepreneurs and traders, and tosupport creative and innovative production activities and create attractive new jobs. Also, mobile and digital solutions contribute tofacilitating finan‑ cial integration. Through access tothe Internet, small companies indeveloping coun‑ tries may have achance toaccess various services “inthe cloud” and obtain funding for their activity onInternet platforms. However, UNCTAD (United Nations Conference onTrade and Development) ex‑ perts say that many developing countries, particularly the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), are still too poorly prepared totake advantage ofthe many opportunities that digitization presents. There isalso arisk that digitization will increase polari‑ zation and worsen income inequality, assignificant gains inlabor productivity can bemainly generated byanarrow group ofhighly skilled professionals (UNCTAD 2019). High dynamics ofdevelopment are typical ofeconomies that largely use inter‑ net platforms, where operation brings significant benefits, especially tofirst contrac‑ tors. Indeed, the top four companies inthe world (bymarket capitalization) – Apple, Alphabet (Google), Microsoft, and Amazon – are closely linked tothe digital econ‑ omy (based onUNCTAD 2017a). There are also concerns about how data flows are used inthe context ofprivacy and online security issues. The rapid pace ofevolution ofthe digital economy results from technologies and innovations that have developed over several decades and are becoming increasingly common. High‑speed broadband access toincreasing computing power, storage, and lowered ICT hardware and data management costs have facilitated the digitization process. The key technologies un‑ derpinning the growing digital economy are advanced robotics, artificial intelligence, the Internet ofThings (IoT), cloud computing, big data analytics, and three‑dimen‑ sional (3D) printing. Global digital platforms have taken many steps tostrengthen their competitive po‑ sition, including acquiring potential competitors and expanding into new markets. The most important achievements are the acquisition ofLinkedIn byMicrosoft and WhatsApp byFacebook. Alphabet (Google) and Microsoft have invested intelecom‑ munications equipment, buying Motorola and Nokia, respectively. Major platforms have also made other significant acquisitions inthe retail, advertising, and marketing industries, entering the non‑residential real estate markets. Other steps include stra‑ tegic investment inresearch and development (R&D) and lobbying innational and international decision‑making circles. Atthe same time, strategic partnerships be‑ tween multinational enterprises (MNEs) intraditional sectors are explored. For ex‑ ample, Walmart cooperates with Google touse Google Assistant; Ford and Daimler joined Baidu onthe Apollo platform; Google has built the Android Automotive plat‑ 80 Zofia Wysokińska form with Volvo and Audi. Intel and Facebook are working together todevelop anew Artificial Intelligence.6 The economic geography ofthe digital economy does not follow the traditional North‑South division. Itis consistently led byone highly developed and one develop‑ ing country: The United States and China. These two countries account for 75% ofall blockchain patents, 7 50% ofglobal IoT spending, and over 75% ofthe global public cloud computing market. These two countries hold 90 percent ofthe world’s 70 larg‑ est digital platforms’ capitalized market value. Europe’s share is4%, while Africa and Latin America together have only 1%. The seven ‘super platforms’ – Microsoft, Apple, Amazon, Google, Facebook, Tencent, and Alibaba – account for two‑thirds ofthe total market value. Therefore, inmany digital technologies, the rest ofthe world, especial‑ ly Africa and Latin America, lag far behind The United States and China (UNCTAD 2019, p.3). The diversified pace of development of the digital economy in different regions of the world In2015, the global production ofICT goods and services accounted for around 6.5% ofglobal gross domestic product (GDP), and approximately 100 million people are em‑ ployed inthe ICT services sector alone. The export ofICT services increased by40% between 2010and2015. Global e‑commerce sales in2015 reached USD 25.3 trillion, 90% ofwhich was inthe form ofbusiness‑to‑business e‑commerce and 10% inthe form ofbusiness‑to‑consumer (B2C) sales. UNCTAD estimates that B2C cross‑border e‑commerce was worth around USD 189 billion in2015, which corresponded to7% oftotal B2C e‑commerce. Sales ofrobots also peaked, and the worldwide shipments of3D printers more than doubled in2016 toover 450,000, approaching 6.7 million in2020. Global Internet access in2019 had increased 66‑fold compared to2005. Atthe same time, itis important tomonitor the geographic structure ofthe on‑ line business. Although the number ofInternet users increased by60% between 2010and2015, more than half ofthe world’s population remained offline. Broadband Internet indeveloping countries, ifavailable, isrelatively slow and expensive, limit‑ ing businesses’ and individuals’ ability touse itproductively. Only 16% ofthe world’s adult population used the Internet topay bills orpurchase goods. And while more than 70% ofthe population inseveral developed countries has already purchased 6 UNCTAD 2019, pp. 6–9. 7 Blockchain is a decentralized and dispersed database in an open‑source Internet network with a peer‑to peer (P2P) architecture without central computers and without a centralized place of data storage, used for recording individual transactions, payments, or accounting entries, encoded us‑ ing cryptographic algorithms. In fact, blockchain is a kind of decentralized and dispersed register of transactions, or in other words, it is a decentralized transaction platform in a dispersed network infrastructure. Blockchain is a public and open register that can be accessed by anyone, Rochowicz 2018; see also: UNCTAD 2019, p. 6. 81 A Review of the Impact of the Digital Transformation on the Global and European Economy goods and services online, the equivalent share inmost LDCs was only 2% (UNCTAD 2017b, pp.1–2). Meanwhile, most micro, small, and medium‑sized enterprises (MSME) indevel‑ oping countries are still poorly prepared totake advantage ofthe digital economy. Small businesses tend touse the Internet tosell online much less frequently than large companies. Only 4% ofall 3D printers are used inAfrica and Latin America. The use ofrobots isalso very limited inmost developing countries, except for some coun‑ tries inAsia where they are used quite widely. Asthe digital economy evolves, there isagreater need toensure that asmany people and companies aspossible indevelop‑ ing countries can benefit from the digital economy. Depending onthe definition ofthe digital economy, estimates ofits size range from 4.5 to15.5 percent ofglobal GDP. Interms ofvalue‑added estimates inthe ICT sec‑ tor, the United States and China together account for almost 40%. However, interms ofGDP share, this sector isthe largest inTaiwan, Ireland, and Malaysia. Global em‑ ployment inthe ICT sector increased from 34 million people in2010 to39 million in2015, with computer services accounting for the largest share (38%). The share ofthe ICT sector intotal employment increased from 1.8% to2% over the same peri‑ od (UNCTAD 2019, pp.15–17). Digital technologies have asignificant impact onthe development ofthe Micro, Small, and Medium‑sized Enterprises (MSME) sector, especially indeveloping coun‑ tries. Itmeans they have achance topresent their offer onthe digital platform and bet‑ ter access tothe global market. Itallows companies toreduce costs, streamline their supply chain, and more easily sell products and services worldwide. The ability ofcountries and businesses touse new digital resources has become akey determinant ofcompetitiveness. However, the overall impact ofdigitization can vary widely between countries and economic sectors. This makes itincreasingly im‑ portant for governments toprovide them with asufficient supply ofskilled workers with strong cognitive, adaptive, and creative abilities necessary tooperate modern devices inthe ICT sector. Indeveloping the digital economy, the need for international cooperation intoday’s world isincreasing, mainly toprevent adverse effects leading tothe widening ofdigital divides and the generation ofeven bigger income inequalities. Digitization creates many new opportunities for entrepreneurs and business‑ es, aswell asbenefits for consumers. Anexample ofthis isthe global development ofe‑commerce. Consistency with international commitments such asthe 2030 Agen‑ da for Sustainable Development requires international efforts toensure that nocoun‑ try isleft behind inthe digital transition.8 8 For more on this topic, see UNCTAD 2018b. 82 Zofia Wysokińska The growing role of e-commerce Although e‑commerce isan integral part ofthe developing digital economy, its ef‑ fects are still difficult tomeasure. The development ofglobal e‑commerce illustrates how the increased use ofICT isreshaping production and trade, which significantly impacts developing countries. Official statistics onleading e‑commerce markets, in‑ cluding business‑to‑business and business‑to‑consumer e‑commerce, show that global e‑commerce has reached USD 25.3 trillion. China has become the world’s largest e‑commerce market for individual customers (USD 617 billion), followed closely bythe United States (USD 612 billion). The United States, onthe other hand, has the largest B2B market worth more than USD 6 trillion and isfar ahead ofJapan (USD 2.4 trillion) inthis respect. Nodeveloping ortrans‑ forming economy, except China, was placed inthe top ten e‑commerce markets in2015 (UNCTAD 2018b, pp.1–3). The business‑to‑business segment currently has the largest share inthe e‑com‑ merce market, while the business‑to‑consumer segment isgrowing rapidly. Infact, inmost developing and transition countries, online shoppers make upasmall frac‑ tion ofall internet users. Unlike social networks, where activity rates are relatively high among Internet users indeveloping countries, the percentage ofInternet users engaging ine‑commerce ismuch lower. Itmay reflect limited purchasing power and inhibiting factors such asalack ofconfidence and limited purchasing possibilities, including the lack oflocal language content and unsatisfactory level ofdelivery and payment services (UNCTAD 2018b, pp.1–3). The 2017 value ofglobal e‑commerce was estimated atUSD 23.8 trillion, based onarevised methodology. The value ofglobal B2B e‑commerce in2018 was USD21tril‑ lion, representing 83% ofall e‑commerce, comprising both sales ononline market platforms and electronic data interchange transactions. B2C e‑commerce was valued atUSD 4.4 trillion, upby 16% from 2017. Cross‑border B2C e‑commerce sales amount‑ ed toUSD 404 billion in2018, representing anincrease of7% over 2017. The Unit‑ ed States continued todominate the overall e‑commerce market, remaining among the top three countries byB2C e‑commerce sales, alongside China and the United Kingdom. Together they had more than 1.4 billion people shopping online in2018 (UNCTAD 2020). The idea and concept of the European Union’s Digital Single Market OnMay 20, 2010, the European Commission published areport entitled “Anew strategy for the single market – atthe service ofEurope’s economy and society” tosupplement the Europe 2020 strategy. The purpose ofthis document was toidentify the need todevelop acomprehensive strategy for the European Single Market, covering all the policies con‑ 89 A Review of the Impact of the Digital Transformation on the Global and European Economy ofnew products. Inaddition topotentially reducing CO 2 emissions byeliminating the need totransport elements, 3D printing can also benefit healthcare, construction, and education. Rapid advances inbiotechnology allow for the precise analysis ofthe human ge‑ nome and the study ofgenes inmedicine, enabling personalized treatment under spe‑ cific conditions inconjunction with artificial intelligence and big data analysis. They also allow for the genetic modification ofplants and animals. Nanotechnology – i.e., the production and application ofmaterials onan in‑ finitely small scale – has important applications inthe water supply (water pu‑ rification), energy‑saving (storage ofbatteries), agriculture (precise agrochemical substance release management), ICT sectors, inthe miniaturization ofthe size ofelectronic components, and inmedicine (drug delivery mechanisms). Renew‑ able energy technologies enable electricity provision inremote and isolated rural areas inaccessible tocentralized grid systems. Drones can revolutionize the supply ofmaterials, facilitate precision farming, and replace people inhazardous tasks. Inexpensive custom satellites will soon beavailable tomore developing countries and their businesses and universities, enabling them tomonitor yields and envi‑ ronmental damage. The new EU Research Framework Program – Horizon Europe 2021–2027 – fore ‑ sees acontinuation ofactivities that were already present inHorizon 2020, such asICT innovations for SMEs inthe manufacturing sector. The European Commission has proposed allocating €100 billion from the EU budget, while the European Parliament and EU Council reached aprovisional agreement inspring 2019 onthe principles and financing ofHorizon Europe. Activities aimed atcompanies cooperating with Digital Innovation Hubs (DIHs) toexperiment and test innovative digital solutions toimprove their operation are be‑ coming very important here. Organizations participating inpre‑investment test ex‑ periments will beeligible for funding. European DIHs that integrate science, business, public institutions, and NGOs will participate inthese projects, aswill other types ofDIHs orknowledgeable organizations. After 2020, the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), through inclusion inthe EU’s Smarter Europe Program, can also support the construction and mod‑ ernization ofDIHs, especially inthe purchase ofhardware, infrastructure, and soft‑ ware, inproviding services toSMEs and the sector public, etc., provided that their objectives are to: (i) increase research and innovation capacity and the uptake ofad‑ vanced technologies; (ii) allow citizens, businesses and governments ofthe Member States toreap the benefits ofdigitization; (iii) enhance the growth and competitive‑ ness ofSMEs bybuilding local innovation ecosystems; or(iv) develop skills for smart specialization, industrial transformation, and entrepreneurship. The area ofoperation ofdigital innovation hubs usually covers the local economy. Aprerequisite for ERDF investments inDIHs isthat they will bere‑mentioned inthe partnership agreements and operational programs used tomanage funds inEU regions. 90 Zofia Wysokińska New tothe future ERDF program isalso encouraging interregional investment through the new INTERREG Innovation Investment Facility. Itmeans that several re‑ gions (possibly from different Member States) may also decide tojointly invest inDig‑ ital Innovation Hubs inthe near future. References European Commission (n.d.), AFair and Competitive Digital Economy, https://ec.euro pa.eu/digital‑single‑market/en/content/fair‑and‑competitive‑digital‑economy (ac‑ cessed: 13.12.2020). European Commission (2020a), Digitising European Industry, https://ec.europa.eu/digi tal‑single‑market/en/policies/digitising‑european‑industry (accessed: 24.06.2020). 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Value Creation and Capture: Implica‑ tions for Developing Countries, United Nations, Geneva, https://unctad.org/system /files/official‑document/der2019_en.pdf (accessed: 25.06.2020). UNCTAD (2020), Global e‑commerce hits $25.6 trillion – latest UNCTAD estimates, United Nations, Geneva, https://unctad.org/news/global‑e‑commerce‑hits‑256‑tr illion‑latest‑unctad‑estimates (accessed: 8.12.2020). Zofia Wysokińska Przegląd wpływu transformacji cyfrowej na gospodarkę światową i europejską Celem artykułu jest prezentacja rozwoju transformacji cyfrowej jako procesu mają‑ cego miejsce zarówno w gospodarce cyfrowej jak i w gospodarce Unii Europejskiej w ostatnich latach i jej wpływu na przekształcenia w sferze ekonomicznej i społecznej. Jako punkt wyjścia do rozważań w tym artykule przyjęto znaczenie pozycji towarów zaawansowanych technologicznie w produkcji i handlu światowym w gospodarce globalnej i europejskiej, w tym szczególnie technologii informacyjnych i komunikacyj‑ nych, stanowiących podstawową bazę do rozwoju gospodarki cyfrowej. W artykule wykazano, że wykorzystywanie wiodących technologii – w połączeniu z działaniami mającymi na celu wyeliminowanie utrzymujących się znacznych różnic dochodowych między krajami rozwijającymi się i wysoko rozwiniętymi oraz różnic w dostępie do korzystania z innowacyjnych rozwiązań (w tym innowacji społecz‑ nych) – może pozwolić na szybsze i skuteczniejsze osiągnięcie celów zrównoważo‑ nego rozwoju. Słowa kluczowe: transformacja, gospodarka cyfrowa, produkty zaawansowane technologicznie, gospodarka światowa, Unia Europejska © by the author, licensee Łódź University – Łódź University Press, Łódź, Poland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license CC‑BY‑NC‑ND 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by‑nc‑nd/4.0/) Received: 2020‑04‑04; verified: 2021‑01‑24. Accepted: 2021‑05‑15