A tripartite approach to social inclusion in selected slums in Lagos State, Nigeria

Popogbe, Oluwaseyi Omowunmi; Akinleye, Simeon Oludiran; Oke, David Mautin Article A tripartite approach to social inclusion in selected slums in Lagos State, Nigeria Review of Economics and Political Science (REPS) Provided in Cooperation with: Cairo University, Cairo Suggested Citation: Popogbe, Oluwaseyi Omowunmi; Akinleye, Simeon Oludiran; Oke, David Mautin (2023) : A tripartite approach to social inclusion in selected slums in Lagos State, Nigeria, Review of Economics and Political Science (REPS), ISSN 2631-3561, Emerald, Bingley, Vol. 8, Iss. 1, pp. 2-18, https://doi.org/10.1108/REPS-06-2022-0040 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/316069 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ A tripartite approach to social inclusion in selected slums in Lagos State, Nigeria Oluwaseyi Omowunmi Popogbe Department of Economics, Crawford University, Igbesa, Nigeria and Department of Economics, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria, and Simeon Oludiran Akinleye and David Mautin Oke Department of Economics, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria Abstract Purpose –This study aims to examine the social inclusiveness of slum dwellers by focusing on three key institutions which are social relations, government and the labour market. The literature emphasises the activities of these three institutions as indicators of social inclusion. Also, they accurately describe the social interactions of slum inhabitants at different levels. Design/methodology/approach –Three large slums (Makoko, Ilaje and Iwaya) in Lagos State were purposively selected for this study. Using a multi-stage sampling technique, there was the first level of cluster sampling across the communities and second-level random sampling of household heads in the clusters. In all, 400 respondents were sampled but 388 valid responses were used for the analysis. Findings –The study found minimal levels of inclusion in many of the indicators. However, Makoko had a higher degree of inclusion with respect to social relations and political participation compared to the other locations. Due to the poor level of governance, the resilience of slum dwellers has waned. Research limitations/implications –The study was limited to three of the largest slums in Lagos State. Moreover, due to threats of eviction in recent times, many respondents were reluctant to provide adequate answers to some of the questions asked. However, the responses gotten were adequate to provide appropriate awareness and relevant recommendations. Originality/value –The use of primary data made it possible for novel results to be generated on social inclusiveness in selected slums. The study extends the frontier of knowledge on social inclusion. Keywords Slums, Deprivations, Participation, Social inclusion Paper type Research paper 1. Introduction Slums are fast becoming a present-day reality for urban cities due to the uncontrolled rise in globalisation and urbanisation. As a result, rising inequality, deteriorating environment, deficient urban services, poor hygiene and inadequate water supply, among others are major features of the slums (Cheema, 2020). These slums are largely occupied by migrants and non-nationals who come to settle in the city in order to have access to a better standard of living. Unfortunately, many of these people are excluded from economic, social and political participation; and thus, experience the unpalatable side of urbanisation REPS 8,1 2 JEL Classification —I0, H7, I38 © Oluwaseyi Omowunmi Popogbe, Simeon Oludiran Akinleye and David Mautin Oke. Published in Review of Economics and Political Science. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode The authors would like to appreciate the anonymous reviewers for the scholarly review they provided. This has improved the outcome of this research. The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at: https://www.emerald.com/insight/2631-3561.htm Received 17 June 2022 Revised 19 September 2022 Accepted 28 September 2022 Review of Economics and Political Science Vol. 8 No. 1, 2023 pp. 2-18 Emerald Publishing Limited e-ISSN: 2631-3561 p-ISSN: 2356-9980 DOI 10.1108/REPS-06-2022-0040 (De Dong and Fernandez-Monge, 2020). They often suffer from social exclusion with little or no access to facilities enjoyed by those living in the highbrow areas of the city. Slum residents, who are already impoverished due to the multiple exclusions they face, become even poorer because social and community networks are barely provided (Cheema, 2020; Arimah, 2001). Additionally, the incapacity of the government to lessen social exclusion may cause disorder and insecurity among slum dwellers. This may threaten the safety of the larger population. Evidence of similar insecurity challenges are documented in the literature (Boudjadja and Boussouf, 2022;Engelke and Nordenman, 2014;Kyed, 2017). The proportion of people living in urban slums in several Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries is around 60% of the total population (United Nations, 2017). Slums are widespread worldwide, and they are also present in North Africa. However, compared to SSA, North Africa has a slower pace of slum expansion. In total, 40% of urban residents in various North African nations reside in slums (Arimah, 2001). Specifically, 20% of the entire population in Egypt live in slums, 4% in Tunisia; and 10% in Morocco (Arimah, 2001;Hussein, 2015). These slum dwellers are often reluctant to leave their current residence despite numerous eviction threats, which is a situation that is similar to that in other slums on the African continent. In Nigeria, the city with the largest slum settlements is Lagos State with about 66% of Lagosians living in slums (United Nations World Urbanisation Prospects, 2021). Africa has a high dependency ratio and many households have large family members (National Research Council, 2006). It is thus not surprising that households in the slums of Lagos State are large including numerous extended relatives. Many of the household heads have to struggle hard to fend for the family. Since these slum dwellers live in the city, relatives who live in remote areas may find it difficult to support the deprived in the city; since there is a general belief that those living in the city are richer than those in the rural settlements. Meanwhile, rural dwellers may be better off than urban slum dwellers because they have access to better amenities (non-crowded settlements, arable lands for farming and better environmental conditions) compared to slum dwellers in urban cities. Therefore, it is not unlikely that urban slum dwellers suffer lower social inclusion compared to rural dwellers. Indeed, this constant rise in underserviced slums in urban cities may imply “ruralisation”for the cities (Cheema, 2020). The implementation of urban development initiatives frequently results in more marginalised neighbourhoods. This is a result of indications of informal settlements nearby developed areas. The Makoko slum, which is close to Lagos Island, is a good example (Ajayi et al., 2019a;Simon et al., 2013). The majority of individuals who live and work on Lagos Island are from the middle and higher classes; however, the majority of Makoko slum residents are extremely poor and have appalling living conditions (Ajayi et al., 2019a; Popogbe et al., 2021). The living conditions portray the low level of social inclusion slum residents enjoy. Some broad dimensions of social inclusion that have been established in the literature are social and cultural inclusion, political participation inclusion and labour market inclusion (Arimah, 2010;Bangwayo-Skeete and Zikhali, 2011;Jehoel-Gijsbers and Vrooman, 2007; Majeed and Liaqat, 2019). Although it is well understood that the participation of slum dwellers in the labour force is largely informal and characterised by low wages (Ajayi et al., 2019b;Morakinyo et al., 2012;Sheng et al., 2018;Pawar and Mane, 2013), the roles of social institutions and the government are rather ambiguous, and without a common knowledge in the literature. It has been observed that despite the acceptance of democracy, the governance process in many countries is still autocratic in nature. Sadly, the most disadvantaged are women, children and non-nationals (Varieties of Democracy, 2018). On the other hand, some studies have reported the roles of the government in the economy (Salim and Drenth, 2020). This study, therefore, seeks to understand the roles of family members, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), governance and the labour market in ensuring social inclusion for Tripartite approach to social inclusion 3 slum dwellers in some selected slums in Lagos State. These slums have been carefully selected as they are densely populated and form part of the largest slums situated in Lagos State (World Bank, 2006). Lagos State is the largest and fastest-growing city in Africa (Kazeem, 2016). However, the relevance of this study in Lagos State cannot be underestimated. The United Nations Population Division (2012) have estimated that by 2030, over 55% of the developing countries’population will live in the city; while 66% of the world’s population will live in urban areas. Furthermore, a severe threat to human survival as well as the sustainability of life on Earth has been established by the patterns of urban development and human activity that are currently occurring in Lagos State (Simon et al., 2013). The majority of Lagos State’s terrain is bad because so much of the area is only 5 meters above sea level. As a result, there are additional issues with poor drainage and a lack of firm land on which to construct and install the essential municipal infrastructure. Due to the government’s failure to meet the demand for housing, a large proportion of the urban poor build shanties along waterfronts as a temporary housing alternative (Ajayi et al., 2014). All these have continued to blight the beauty of the city. From the foregoing, it is, therefore, paramount to proactively ensure social inclusion for urban slum dwellers. This study is, therefore, timely and germane to the current realities of urbanisation in Lagos State. The remaining sections of this article consist of a brief literature review, the methodology, analysis and conclusion from the study. 2. Literature review The concept of social inclusion is multidimensional in nature. However, broadly speaking, it has been regarded as an equal opportunity for all citizens to fully participate in their society (European Commission, 2004). Social inclusion also refers to the access to development benefits and public services by all members of society such that outcomes lead to better human conditions (Cheema, 2020). Thus, irrespective of socioeconomic or ethnic status, all should be allowed participation in society (Henderson and Barnes, 2015). On the other hand, slums have basically been used to describe settlements where people live under substandard economic and social conditions. Slums are also known as informal settlements; often overcrowded, without proper waste disposal systems, inadequate housing and other appalling living conditions (Morakinyo et al., 2012;Popogbe et al., 2021). Many such informal settlements are prevalent in neglected parts of developing countries where public services are scarcely made available to citizens (Mahabir et al., 2016). It is, therefore, important to conscientiously ensure social inclusion for slum dwellers. This is because continuous exclusion will lead to further environmental degeneration and contaminable disease for urban dwellers (Morakinyo et al., 2012). Many dimensions of social inclusion have been discussed in the literature. Although there is no consensus on the number and nature of dimensions to be used, three basic dimensions have been emphasised. These dimensions include social, political and economic participation (Jehoel-Gijsbers and Vrooman, 2007). These dimensions were also emphasised in the study by Henderson and Barnes (2015). The study noted that access to social support, engagement and participation and empowerment would enhance social inclusion. Proper governance and social institutions have also been noted to enforce social inclusion (Cheema, 2020;Mahabir et al., 2016). Governance is a process which involves three main actors: the state, the private sector and civil organisations (Cheema, 2020). The role of civil society in governance cannot be overemphasised because the government do not have all the wherewithal to provide for the needs of citizens. Local governance ensures inclusiveness only if it is inclusive and participatory. In examining the connection between local governance and hindrances to REPS 8,1 4 political and social exclusion in Indonesia, Salim and Drenth (2020) asserted that the central government provide the local government with needed funding and policies on improving slums. Respondents from one of the communities sampled opined that the provision of public services is often politicised. On the other hand, some other respondents in the second community asserted that a lack of trust in government and law implementation inconsistencies have greatly impaired the political participation of the residents. Salim and Drenth (2020) thus recommended the need for Indonesia to engage intermediaries (such as community leaders and activists) so as to interface between the government and the marginalised groups. Goswami and Manna (2013) opined that this can be done by NGOs conducting mass sensitisation programmes of available schemes which slum dwellers can benefit from. Similarly, Nidhi (2021) found that slum dwellers have always been faced with discrimination in the struggle for inclusion. This is because they are underprivileged and, oftentimes, suffer the most deprivation. The study, therefore, opined that providing a livelihood framework is a starting point for putting an end to urban poverty. The study by Ajayi et al. (2019c) further complemented this proposition. The study showed that Makoko slum dwellers would accept a slum upgrade only if their rights of occupancy are guaranteed. Therefore, the provision of better living standards must be complemented by the security of tenure. Another challenge encountered by slum dwellers is poor urban governance. This stems from an inability to meet the needs of slum residents, especially with respect to public amenities (Mahabir et al., 2016;Morakinyo et al., 2012). Slum dwellers have to settle in areas with low-security tenure which is relatively affordable for them rather than accessing areas with highly established property rights. The government is often times unwilling to provide urban services to slum residents because of the fear of further proliferation of the slums. In reality, they frequently issue eviction notices to slum inhabitants so that the occupied space can be used for other developmental purposes at the expense of the slum dwellers (Ajayi et al., 2019a,b;Ajayi and Soyinka-Airewele, 2020). Ironically, despite various evictions and continued neglect of these vulnerable members of the society in Lagos State, slum proliferation is still on the rise. Thus, it is important for the government to take proactive steps in responding to urbanisation and incorporating the urban poor in urban planning (Morakinyo et al., 2012). Despite the economic relevance of informal settlements in providing services that serve both the immediate environment and the city as a whole, very minimal attention has been given to slums’resettlement from the angle of their economic enterprise (Sheng et al., 2018). This is because slum dwellers are basically providers of cheap labour, and their inclusion in the labour market is, therefore, restricted to the quality of skills they possess (Morakinyo et al., 2012). Furthermore, the conditions around their jobs are often unfavourable (van de Heijden et al., 2019). As a result, the advantages they receive from their jobs are constrained, and they have limited access to lending facilities. The empirical study by Sajuyigbe (2017) further revealed that ensuring financial and social inclusion for women-owned enterprises enhanced the performance of the business. Meanwhile, contrary to popular misconception, many slum dwellers do not simply remain there because they like the environment; rather, they do so for socioeconomic reasons (Ajayi et al., 2019c). Consequently, the use of cooperative groups to empower slum residents has been advocated (Tripathi and Agarwal, 2013). Their study asserted that the role of cooperative societies in slums may need to be strategically planned if success will be achieved in such an unstructured environment. It is, therefore, important to begin to place priority on the livelihoods of slum dwellers in the discourse of slum upgrade and inclusion. Oghenekohwo (2014) discussed the role of Community and Social Development Project (CSDP) in achieving upgrades. They found that CSDP could eliminate social exclusion through a more strategic reaction to wealth creation and social development projects among Tripartite approach to social inclusion 5 rural residents. Adedayo and Malik (2014) further revealed that urban renewal tends to positively impact the lives of slum dwellers. Living standards would improve as provision of potable water, waste management and proper health care services are provided to residents. The effect of social inclusion has also been shown by some empirical research. Majeed and Liaqat (2019) and d’Errico et al. (2018) revealed that social inclusion can significantly improve health standards. Specifically, the study by Majeed and Liaqat (2019), which is cross-sectional in nature covered 180 countries. The findings showed that various social associations, and gender equality favourably impacted people’s health. This is further supported by d’Errico et al. (2018). However, their study focused on some regions in Senegal. Their findings showed that social inclusion and well-being support household resilience. On another hand, Menon et al. (2015) examined altruism and social inclusion for young offenders in North and South Italy. The study found that socioeconomic characteristics are significant determinants of social inclusion in only South Italy and not North Italy. Interestingly, some people are willing to pay for social investment initiatives in order to gain from social inclusion. Social benefits which result from social inclusion have also been discussed in the literature. According to Wang and Wang (2019), compared to non-indigenes, indigenous people are more likely to experience social benefits. Additionally, their research showed that those with better educational status are more likely to be socially included. 3. Methodology 3.1 Study area Although Lagos State is the smallest state in Nigeria, it occupies an area of 3,577 km, out of which 22% is water. It is projected to have a population size of 15 million (National Population Commission, 2022). It is the epitome of Nigeria’s fast-growing process of urbanisation with numerous slum settlements located in it (Lagos Bureau of Statistics, 2014). The modern economic, social and political forces in interaction with a traditional culture uniquely differentiate life in Lagos State from that of rural areas. Lagos State was the capital of Nigeria from 1914 till 1991 before the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) became the capital (Simon et al.,2013). The red points in Figure 1 reveal the biggest coastal slums in Lagos State. Makoko and Iwaya are both located in Yaba Local Government Area. The Third Mainland Bridge is located on the Southern side and to the Eastern side is the Lagos Lagoon. Both communities are inhabited by various ethnic groups, but largely by Egun-speaking natives. Ilaje community is domiciled in Bariga Local Government Area, with close proximity to the Third Mainland Bridge (Okorowa, 2019). 3.2 Sampling technique Sedgwick (2013) noted that the multi-stage sampling technique is a feasible technique in studies involving the selection of households from various communities. The first sampling stage carried out in this study involved cluster sampling of densely populated streets in each of the selected slums (this is the primary sampling unit). The second stage involved a random selection of households in each of the clusters (secondary sampling units). The community leaders in each of the slums were helpful in the process of this selection. Thus, 100 respondents were selected from Makoko; 150 from Iwaya; and another 150 from Ilaje. Altogether, 400 survey questionnaires were filled but 12 of these were inadequately filled. As a result, 388 appropriately filled questionnaires were used for the analysis. Only household heads who could provide needed information were interviewed in the survey in order to reduce survey bias. The study also took several ethical issues into consideration. Before beginning the fieldwork, the community leaders (“Baale”) were met for their consent. Also, the purpose of REPS 8,1 6 the research was made known to the respondents and only those willing to participate were further questioned. The researchers designed a structured questionnaire in order to generate responses relevant to the study. The questionnaire was divided into two major sections: the demographic/socioeconomic information section and the social inclusion questions’section. To comprehend the overall socioeconomic and demographic data of the respondents, the first section was essential. The second section’s questions were developed based on the literature’s discourse on the roles of social relations, government and the labour market in social inclusion. Four enumerators who could speak the Yoruba Language (an indigenous language spokeninNigeria)tookpartinthesurvey.Thequestionswere read out to respondents in Yoruba Language and corresponding answers were ticked/ noted. An interpreter from the community interpreted questions in the Egun Language (spoken by most of the residents of the slums) for respondents who could not fully comprehend the questions in Yoruba. 3.3 Estimation technique Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were carried out to achieve the objectives of this study. The descriptive statistics reflect the responses to the main questions about the level of inclusion of slum residents and show the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents. The logistic regression was carried out to analyse the socioeconomic factors that impacted inclusion. This technique is relevant because no assumption of this technique has restricted distribution (Ettah et al., 2020). The logistic regression function is given as follows: LogitðPiÞ¼β0þβxi(1) where LogitðPiÞis the probability that a household iis socially included or not. Figure 1. A Lagos State Map showing selected slums along the coastal line Tripartite approach to social inclusion 7 β0is the constant xiis the vector explaining the explanatory variables The explicit form of the model is given as follows: LogitðPiÞ¼β0þβ1x1þβ2x2þβ3x3þβ4x4þβ5x5þβ6x6þβ7x7þmi(2) Where β1-β7are the coefficients x1-x7are the explanatory variables, viz: age, gender, years of formal education, years of living in community, household group, employment status and household composition miis the error term 4. Presentation of results and discussions 4.1 Descriptive statistics The socioeconomic characteristics of respondents are presented in Table 1. This section is crucial since it provides details on the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of survey participants. Although more males participated in the survey in Makoko, more females took part in the survey in Iwaya and Ilaje. Most respondents in Makoko are aged 25 and below and 26–35; while more of the respondents in Iwaya and Ilaje are middle-aged, with their age brackets falling between 26–35 and 36–45. Many of the respondents are married while very few are still single, separated or widowed. With respect to the household size, it was observed that the majority had households comprising 5–7 members, this is, however, very vivid at Makoko. Many also had a relatively small household size of four members and below. Further investigation revealed these smaller households contained a newly-married couple or a group of siblings living together with the eldest taking care of the family. Across all locations, most of the respondents have a formal education of 6 years and below. It has also been reported in the literature that many slum dwellers have little or no formal education (Mishra and Banerjee, 2020). This implies that the majority had only a primary school education. While few had tertiary education in Iwaya and Ilaje, none had in Makoko. The fishing business is prominent in Makoko, thus a majority of respondents fell into this class of occupation. However, in Iwaya and Ilaje, petty trading is prominent with very few of them being civil service providers. Many across the locations are also artisans such as plumbers, carpenters, painters, welders, etc. In understanding how long respondents have lived in the slums, a majority in Makoko and Iwaya claimed to have lived in their communities for 11–15 years. In fact, across all the locations, most people have lived in the slums for over 5 years. Further investigation of those who claimed to have lived for 5 years and below in the community revealed that they had lived in other slums with similar living conditions. The daily income of respondents showed that the majority in Makoko and Ilaje earned N1000 ($2) and below a day while the majority earned between N1001 and N2000 ($2–$4) in Iwaya. Very few earned above N5000 ($10) a day in all the locations. This shows the majority of the respondents earned below the minimum wage of N30000 ($60) per month. 4.2 Assessment of the level of social relations’inclusion One major dimension of social inclusion is social relations. Social relations in the African setting refer to immediate and extended family members and friends (Mafumbate, 2019). REPS 8,1 8 However, NGOs are beginning to connect with slum dwellers due to the periodic interventions they provide. NGOs supply offer relief materials and health services to people suffering from extreme poverty which improves the lifestyle of the poor in the slums (Sara and Mridha, 2021; Singh and Fatmi, 2017). Therefore, the role of NGOs was also considered in this study. The likelihood of being supported by family members is presented in Table 2. In total, 52% of respondents at Makoko would “most likely”be supported by family members and Variable Makoko Iwaya Ilaje Total Gender Male 68 58 61 187 Female 32 84 85 201 Age 25 and below 52 34 26 112 26–35 38 53 43 134 36–45 8 30 33 71 46–55 2 10 24 36 56–65 0 11 9 20 above 65 0 4 11 15 Marital Status Single 2 7 20 29 Married 96 124 119 339 Widowed 0 5 5 10 Separated 2 6 2 10 Household Number 4 and below 32 41 39 112 5–7 50 81 79 210 8–10 8 13 23 44 Above 10 10 7 5 22 Formal Education Attained 6 and below 86 100 66 252 7–12 14 37 56 107 Above 12 0 5 24 29 Occupation Fishing Business 62 28 17 107 Petty trading 10 56 70 136 Artisan 28 38 35 101 Civil Service 0 2 5 7 Others 0 18 19 37 Duration of living in community 5 and below 14 37 30 81 6–10 15 22 32 69 11–15 30 41 20 91 16–20 27 18 28 73 21–30 12 16 19 47 31 and above 2 8 17 27 Daily income N1000 and below 53 34 61 148 N1001-N2000 22 53 47 122 N2001-N3000 7 37 22 66 N3001-N4000 3 1 11 15 N4001-N5000 7 9 3 19 N5001 and above 8 8 2 18 Source(s): Field Survey Most likely Likely unlikely Total (%) Makoko 52 38 10 100 Iwaya 16 47 37 100 Ilaje 21 36 43 100 Source(s): Field Survey (2020) Table 1. 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Corresponding author Oluwaseyi Omowunmi Popogbe can be contacted at: [email protected] For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website: www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm Or contact us for further details: [email protected] REPS 8,1 18