A Review on the Advances in the Structural Performance, Porosity, and Permeability of Porous Concrete for Sustainable Construction Application

564 Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 10(2) 2025 pp. 564-574 p ISSN: 2635-3342; e ISSN: 2635-3350 Review Article A Review on the Advances in the Structural Performance, Porosity, and Permeability of Porous Concrete for Sustainable Construction Application *Adua, F.O. and Odeyemi, S.O. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Kwara State University, PMB 1530, Malete, Nigeria. *[email protected]; [email protected] http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18061935 ARTICLE INFORMATION ABSTRACT Article history: Received 04 Nov. 2025 Revised 24 Nov. 2025 Accepted 25 Nov. 2025 Available online 30 Dec. 2025 Porous concrete is a type of concrete that contains fissures that facilitate the passage of water. It is an innovative material that allows water to percolate through its structure, reducing stormwater runoff and improving urban drainage. This ecofriendly concrete is made with a unique mixture of aggregate, cement, and admixtures, creating a permeable matrix that enables water to infiltrate and recharge groundwater. Porous concrete consists of the same basic components as conventional concrete but is characterized by high porosity and permeability. Compared to conventional concrete, permeable concrete possesses numerous outstanding properties such as breathability, water permeability, sound absorption, water purification, improvement of surface soil environments, mitigation of surface runoff, and alleviation of urban heat island effects. Permeable concrete shows broad application prospects in road engineering, landscaping, and environmental engineering, but further research and standardization are needed to support its widespread adoption. This review explores the properties, applications, and benefits of porous concrete, focusing on the recent advances of its structural performance, porosity, and permeability for sustainable construction applications. Porous and pervious concrete are closely related. Pervious concrete achieves its functionality by having a high degree of porosity, allowing water to pass through it. And in this review, both are considered for a comprehensive report. © 2025 RJEES. All rights reserved. Keywords: Porous concrete Permeable concrete Pervious concrete Green concrete Eco-friendly Recycled aggregate 1. INTRODUCTION Green porous concrete, often referred to as permeable or porous concrete, is one such innovative material that has gained prominence for its exceptional ecofriendly properties and diverse applications (Barraud et al., 1999). Green porous concrete is a remarkable departure from traditional concrete, 565 F.O. Adua and S.O. Odeyemi / Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 10(2) 2025 pp. 564-574 renowned for its impervious nature (Abrar, et al. 2017). In contrast to regular concrete, which channels rainwater and runoff into storm drains, green porous concrete features a distinctive permeable composition, enabling water to flow through its surface and penetrate the ground below (Ladd, 2004). This permeability opens the door to a wide array of environmentally beneficial applications (Kováč and Sičáková, 2018). Concrete’s versatility, durability, sustainability, and economy have made it the world’s most widely used construction material. Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, and water. The materials are proportioned and mixed to produce concrete suited to the job for which it is intended (Hidayat et al., 2019). Porosity is one of the main characteristics of pervious concrete once rainwater percolates through this porous structure, which is defined by pore size, pore distribution and geometric tortuosity (Liu, Chi, and Chen, 2020). Pores can be categorized as effective pores, which allow the passage or storage of water, and isolated pores, which are not permeable to water (Tarefder and Ahmad, 2016). Thus, the permeability coefficient is used to characterize the water flow capacity of pervious concrete, in which the permeability coefficient and mechanical strength are largely dependent on the pore structure of the pervious concrete (Chandrappa and Biligiri, 2018). Porous concrete has a moderate static Strength compared to normal concrete due to its high intentional meso-size air pore content, while its fragmentation behaviors under dynamic loading is considerably different from that of normal concrete (Ozbek, Weerheijm, Schlangen, and K.V., 2013). Porous concrete with a 30% fine aggregate reduction and the water-cement ratio of 0.35 in normal concrete mix design has the highest compressive strength of 5.19 MPa and the highest flexural strength of 0.383 MPa (Prabowo, Setyawan, and Sambowo, 2013). Porous concrete with a 30% fine aggregate reduction and the water-cement ratio of 0.4 in normal concrete mix design has the highest porosity of 20.807% (normal concrete method) and 27.696% (VIM method), also has the highest permeability of 1.363 cm/s (in horizontal). The highest permeability of 3.132 cm/s in vertical achieved with a 30% fine aggregate reduction and the water-cement ratio of 0.35 in normal concrete mix design (Prabowo, Setyawan, and Sambowo, 2013). Non-sand concrete with water cement ratio of 0.4 and aggregatecement ratio of 1:6 in mixed design proportion contribute the highest compressive and flexural strength of 3.712 MPa and 0.963 MPa (Darwis, Baehaki, and Supriyadi, 2017). Non-sand concrete with water cement ratio 0.4 and the aggregate cement ratio of 1:4 in mixed design proportion contribute the highest water absorption of 4.775% (Darwis, Baehaki, and Supriyadi, 2017). The properties of pervious concrete are highly influenced by many factors, which include water–cement ratio, degree of compaction, gradation of aggregates, and volume of binder. Yu, Sun, Wang, and Hu (2019) studied the impact of aggregate size on compressive strength and reported that compressive strength was enhanced with an aggregate size of up to 7 mm, beyond which there was no effective improvement in strength. They also reported that the strength improved as the cement paste thickness around the aggregates increased up to 1.15 mm, after which it was comparatively constant. The effect of the water–cement ratio on the compressive strength of planting concrete, i.e., concrete with pores in which plants can germinate, was examined by Chen, Du, Zhao, Shi, and Xue (2022). They noted that the water–cement ratio affects the pores in the concrete to a great extent; as the water–cement ratio increases, the pores decrease. Similar behavior was observed by Sahdeo S. , Ransinchung, Rahul, and Debbarma (2020), who noticed that a water–cement ratio beyond 0.35 resulted in the cement paste descending to the ground surface of the concrete. A considerable amount of research has been performed to improve the mechanical properties of pervious concrete by incorporating fibres, admixtures, waste cloth strips, etc. Juradin, Mihanovic, Ostojic-Škomrlj, and Rogošic (2022) stated that pervious concrete is highly susceptible to steel reinforcement corrosion and researched whether adding waste cloth strips could increase the mechanical properties. A study in which macro synthetic fibres were added to pervious concrete was carried out by Kevern, Biddle, and Cao (2015), who noted that the inclusion of macro synthetic fibres is beneficial for the application of pervious concrete in high-traffic highways due to its improved toughness and fracture resistance. It was also pointed out that incorporating microfibers at higher dosages results in the 566 F.O. Adua and S.O. Odeyemi / Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 10(2) 2025 pp. 564-574 degradation of the properties of pervious concrete due to inadequate bonding between the cement paste and the aggregate. Investigations on the utilization of recycled aggregates also provided some valuable outcomes in terms of enhancing the properties of pervious concrete. Guo, et al. (2020) investigated the effect of recycled aggregates in pervious concrete. They found that concrete with 25% recycled aggregates exhibited greater compressive strength than the other mixture proportions considered in the study. Studies have also indicated that the employment of 100% recycled aggregates reduce the performance of pervious concrete (Deb, et al., 2022) (Kaplan, Gulcan, Cagdas, and Bayraktar, 2021). Zhang, Li, Lu, Yang, and Wang (2022) analyzed the effect of admixtures on the behavior of pervious concrete and concluded that mineral admixtures effectively improved the strength rather than the pore characteristics. They also found that the anti-stripping property was improved by including mineral admixtures and worsened by adding a superplasticizer. All of these studies on pervious concrete have mainly highlighted the influence of various factors such as aggregate gradation, water–cement ratio, fibres, and admixtures on the mechanical and hydraulic properties of pervious concrete. A few studies were also carried out on cylindrical specimens to evaluate the effect of compaction on the properties of pervious concrete, and these concluded that the compaction methods highly influenced the strength properties (Sahdeo et al., 2021), (Ansari and Mahajan, 2020) (Anburuvel and Subramaniam, 2022). Figure 1 below shows images of porous concrete specimen and pavements. Figure 1: Porous concrete However, the impact of the aggregate size with different compaction levels on pervious concrete has not yet been investigated in detail. Hence, it is desirable to know the factors, such as compaction and aggregate size, which influence the mechanical and hydraulic properties of the pervious concrete. In addition, the predominant factor that controls the different properties of pervious concrete needs to be identified to improve its performance in various applications. This research is significant because it highlights the important factor which controls the various properties with different compaction levels and aggregate sizes. 2. CONSTITUENTS OF POROUS CONCRETE Porous Concrete is generally composed of cement, coarse aggregates (conventional or recycled), water and admixtures (additives and additions). The choice of the grain size distribution of the coarse aggregates depends on the final properties’ requirement: a continuous grading is recommended if greater strength is required; on the other hand, greater permeability may be obtained using more uniform particle sizes (Sumanasooriya and Neithalath, 2011). 2.1. Cement Cement is a material that has both adhesive and cohesive properties, namely a binder. Portland cement is defined as hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinker which mainly consists of hydraulic calcium silicates together with commonly used materials, namely gypsum. Cement is a binder when added with 567 F.O. Adua and S.O. Odeyemi / Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 10(2) 2025 pp. 564-574 water, the cement will form a cement paste. If combined with coarse aggregate, it will become a porous concrete mixture. Cement is a very complex industrial product, with different mixtures and compositions. Changes in the chemical composition of cement by changing the percentage of the 4 main components of cement can produce several types of cement according to the purpose of the user (Purnamasari, Gazali, and Januar, 2022). A variety of cement types can be used in the production of concrete but the most common is Portland cement; other types include Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) (Adesanya and Raheem, 2009), rapid hardening cement (Mujedu, Adebara, and Lamidi, 2014), Sulphate resistant cement etc (Alp, Deveci, Süngün, Yilmaz, and Mal, 2009). The required type of concrete to be produced determines the type of cement to be used (Adewole, Olutoge, and Habib, 2014). One of the types of cement which only harden by reaction with water is the Portland cement, it forms a water-resistant product from clinker pulverization which involves calcium silicates and calcium sulphate. Gana, Atoyebi, and Ichagba (2020) performed an experimental study on the effects of different brands of Nigerian cement on the properties of pervious concrete. Four different brands of Portland cement; Dangote Falcon (grade 32.5), Elephant Supaset (grade 42.5), Elephant Lafarge (grade 32.5) and Dangote 3*(grade 42.5), based on the results of the experimental study, It is discovered that Dangote Falcon cement had the highest compressive strength followed by Elephant Supaset, Elephant Lafarge and Dangote 3* in that order after 28 days curing period. All specimens met the minimum strength of 6 N/mm2 after 28 days of curing recommended by BS-5224 (BS-5224, 1976.). Elephant Lafarge cement was the most permeable. By visual inspection, all brands of cement produced pervious concrete with very similar aesthetics, the finest being Elephant Supaset then Elephant Lafarge, Dangote Falcon and Dangote 3* in that order. Elephant Lafarge cement had the highest void content with 20.43% followed by 20.13%, 19.52%, 18.31% respectively for Dangote 3*, Dangote Falcon, Elephant Supaset. 2.2. Aggregate Aggregate is natural mineral grain in the form of split, gravel, and sand which functions as a filler in the concrete mixture. Aggregates are the most ingredients in concrete composition, usually fill like 60-80% of mortar volume or concrete. Coarse aggregates consist of split or gravel with grain particles larger than 5 mm or between 9.5-37.5 mm (ASTM, 2013). Aggregate gradation is grain size distribution of aggregate either coarse aggregate or fine aggregate. It might also be called the aggregate grouping of different sizes as a percentage of the total aggregate or a cumulative percentage of smaller grains of each series of filter openings. It also aims to determine the proportion of fine aggregates to total aggregates. Aggregate gradation will affect the amount of cement content or water demand in concrete. Good gradation will provide the optimum level for obtaining maximum density and strength of concrete. In fresh concrete, aggregate gradation will affect workability, homogeneity, and segregation. In rigid concrete, aggregate gradation will affect the impermeability properties and density of concrete (Hazairin et al., 2019). Uniform gradation is aggregate gradation with relatively equal grain size. This aggregate consists of a narrow boundary of the fractional size. This aggregate gradation is usually used for lightweight concrete or nonsand concrete, for filling aggregates with gap gradation and for poor or unqualified aggregates mixture. Uniform gradation is also called open graded gradation because it contains only a small number of fine aggregates with larger the pore volumes between aggregates. Continuous gradation is aggregate gradation with a grain size of both coarse aggregate and fine aggregate well distributed or having complete grain size. Continuous gradation causes the pore volumes between aggregates to be smaller, so the density becomes high because of good interlocking. Continuous gradation has the best compressive strength of concrete (Hazairin et al., 2019). Gap gradation is aggregate gradation with an incomplete grain size of aggregate. Thus, this gradation will show a horizontal line in the graph (Hazairin et al., 2019). Aggregate is a natural mineral grain in the form of split, gravel, and sand which functions as a filler in the concrete mixture. Aggregates are the most common ingredients in concrete composition, usually, fill like 60-80% of the mortar volume or concrete. Coarse aggregates consist of split or gravel with grain particles larger than 5 mm or between 9.5-37.5 mm (ASTM, 2013). The compressive strength of pervious concrete is significantly influenced by the shape of the aggregates used. Angular aggregates provide better interlocking, enhancing compressive strength. However, the 568 F.O. Adua and S.O. Odeyemi / Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 10(2) 2025 pp. 564-574 increased surface area may require more cement paste to coat the aggregates, which can affect the overall efficiency of the mix (Sumanasooriya and Neithalath, 2011).Rounded aggregates, while improving workability, may not contribute as significantly to compressive strength due to their smoother surfaces and lower interlocking capability (Chandrappa and Biligiri, 2016). Aggregate shape also influences the tensile strength of concrete, albeit indirectly. Tensile strength is significantly affected by the bond between the cement paste and aggregates. Angular aggregates, by providing better mechanical interlock with the cement paste, generally contribute to higher tensile strength compared to rounded aggregates. The irregular shapes and rough surfaces of angular aggregates enhance the bond strength, thereby improving the material's resistance to tensile stresses (Mehta and Monteiro, 2014). Aggregate shape plays a crucial role in the permeability of pervious concrete. Rounded aggregates tend to create more uniform and larger voids, which can enhance water flow through the concrete (Montes et al., 2005, Montes, Lavalava, and Hasselback, 2005). Angular aggregates, on the other hand, might reduce permeability because their shape can lead to tighter packing and smaller voids. Irregular aggregates can provide a balance, offering sufficient strength and reasonable permeability (Siddique, Schutter, and Noumowe, 2008). 2.3. Water Water meets the requirements as drinking water also meets the requirements for concrete mixed materials (but that does not mean that concrete mixing water must meet the requirements for drinking water). In general, water that can be used for mixing concrete is water which when used will produce concrete with a strength of more than 90% of the strength of concrete using distilled water. For treatment water, water used for stirring can also be used, but it must be one that does not cause stains or deposits that damage the surface color so that it is unsightly. Iron and organic substances in water are generally the main causes of soiling or discoloration, especially if the treatment is long enough (Kardiyono, 1992). While any consumable water can be used for mixing, the proportion of water is fundamental for the improvement of the voids in pervious concrete. Water-to-cement extents can run from 0.27 to 0.30 with extents as high as 0.40. Wary control of water is fundamental (Harshith and Esar, 2020). 3. STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE This includes analysis on the compressive, tensile and flexural strength of porous concrete, including the effects of aggregate size, binder composition, and reinforcement methods. Compressive strength is a measure of the ability of pervious concrete to withstand axial loads that compress it. This property is vital for structural integrity and load-bearing capacity. Tensile strength measures the ability of pervious concrete to resist forces that attempt to pull it apart. While tensile strength is inherently lower than compressive strength in concrete, it is particularly critical for pervious concrete used. Odeyemi (2021) performed an experiment on the mechanical properties of granite-gravel porous concrete, and it was observed that the optimal combination for the granite-gravel blended porous concrete is 12% granite, 88% gravel, and a water-cement ratio of 0.66%. This combination gave a porous concrete with a compressive strength of 48.4 N/mm2, percentage porosity of 6% and a compacting factor of 0.91. Hazairin et al. (2019) performed an experimental study to determine the compressive, split-tensile, flexural strengths, and permeability of porous concrete with various gradation of coarse aggregates. The compressive strength of porous concrete has decreased as the air content increases. On the other hand, the split-tensile strength of porous concrete has increased as the air content increases. The experimental results show that gap gradation is recommended due to its better compressive and flexural strengths. In porous concrete, aggregate gradations influence the air content. The highest air content results in the lowest compressive strength of concrete. The designed air content should be controlled to maintain the expected compressive strength of porous concrete. Yilmaz and Tugrul (2012) studied the effects of aggregate shape on the mechanical properties and permeability of porous concrete. Their research indicated that angular aggregates, with their rough texture and irregular shapes, provide better interlocking and higher mechanical strength compared to rounded aggregates. However, angular aggregates may also reduce permeability due to their tendency to pack more tightly and reduce void spaces. According to Megasari (2020), there is a very significant relationship 569 F.O. Adua and S.O. Odeyemi / Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 10(2) 2025 pp. 564-574 between the compressive strength of porous concrete and the variation in the composition of Coarse Aggregate. Based on research of Purnamasari et al., (2022), by using reliable aggregates that porous concrete, given the addition of fly ash and treated using swamp groundwater water can improve or enhance its performance. According to Khonado (2019), the variation of porous concrete with the optimum compressive strength, which is 15.517 MPa at the age of 28 days of concrete, is the variation with the largest aggregate size composition among the others, so it can be seen that the larger the aggregate size in the mixture, the higher the compressive strength result. As for the variation of the porous concrete mixture that is effectively drained by water or with optimum permeability is the variation that has a uniform aggregate size composition with a permeability value of 2.322 cm/second. It can be seen that the more uniform the size of the aggregate in the mixture, the higher the permeability value because the voids or pores of the concrete will be larger and more numerous. 4. POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY Porosity is the most important factor determining pervious concrete properties (permeability, compressive strength, flexural strength). Higher porosity improves permeability but decreases the mechanical properties of the samples. The total porosity not only affects the permeability of the mix but also represents the characteristics of coarse aggregate (Ngo, Phan, Nguyen, Nguyen, and Ken, 2023). The strength and water permeability performance of pervious concrete is greatly related to porosity, and the size of porosity is related to the tightly packed porosity of aggregates and the number of cementitious materials (Qin, Pang, Tan, and Bao, 2021). In the proportion design process of pervious concrete, how to control a reasonable amount of slurry is the key to ensuring the strength and water permeability performance of pervious concrete (Adil, Kevern, and Mann, 2020; Shan et al., 2022). The proportion design of ordinary concrete first considers the strength factor and then considers the working performance and durability performance, but porous concrete is different in its proportion design to take into account the water permeability performance and mechanical properties, that is, first of all, to ensure that it has a certain degree of water permeability performance, so it is very important to choose the appropriate method of proportion design when carrying out the proportion design of permeable concrete (Mohammed et al., 2018, Yu, Guo, Liu, Cai, and Huang, 2023, Debnath and Sarkar, 2020). At present, there are mainly volumetric methods, mass methods, specific surface area methods, ball model parcel methods, etc. The key parameters are aggregate compact packing density, target porosity, and slurry volume, with target porosity as the control index, the size of slurry volume through the target porosity, and then the dosage of each component of the proportion (Taheri, Ramezanianpour, Sabokpa, and Gapele, 2021; Grubeša, Barišić, Ducman, and Korat, 2018; Shen, Lu, Zheng, Liu, and Poon, 2021). AlShareedah and Nassiri (2021) stated that pervious concrete is a solution for urban green infrastructure. The adoption of permeable pavements in cities around the world makes the need for researchers to address the lack of standards for mix optimization, pavement design and characterization methods that lead to inadequate strength and durability of field pavements. Sahdeo, Ransinchung, Rahul, and Debbarma (2020) stated that pervious concrete pavements are a new type of pavement technology that has received a lot of attention due to their ability to provide stormwater runoff. This pavement technology consists of special types of concrete that have few or no fines and interconnected voids. Shukla and Gupta (2020) mentioned that previous concrete is concrete with a high void ratio, which, when used in concrete planes, allows the direct passage of precipitation or water flow from different sources when the concrete glue covers the whole and allows the flow of water to pass through the concrete block. Elango et al. (2021) discussed the various skills of pervious concrete on the basis of binder, admixtures, and coarse aggregate size. The strength, permeability, void ratio as well as density of pervious concrete were studied. Cui et al. (2017) specified that pervious concrete is widely used in various fields due to its high permeability, and the most important design parameters of pervious concrete are its strength and permeability. However, there are few studies on the relationship between the two so far. Li, Feng, Zhu, Chu, and Kwan (2021) showed that permeable concrete needs a lot of pores to achieve high permeability, but if there are too many pores, its strength may be severely reduced. It was shown that connectivity porosity is the controlling factor in determining permeability, while the porosity and water-to-carbon ratio are the controlling factors in determining compressive strength. 570 F.O. Adua and S.O. Odeyemi / Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 10(2) 2025 pp. 564-574 Experimental investigation has shown that the hydraulic conductivity of any porous material is inherently dependent on the pore features such as pore size, specific surface area of pores, porosity, and the tortuous flow path (Debnath and Sarkar, 2019, Bhutta et al., 2013; Zaetang, Sata, Wongsa, and Chindaprasirt, 2016). However, the interconnected pore system (the main factor determining the drainage capacity) is most affected by the type of aggregate, not the size of the aggregate (Ćosić, Korat, Ducman, and Netinger, 2015). Pervious concrete using recycled aggregates with many angles often has a porosity greater than the desired porosity and higher than when using normal aggregates (from 2–3%) (Ibrahim and Razak, 2016). Another study showed that recycling of concrete did not affect the porosity but reduced its density and increased its water permeability (Zaetang, Sata, Wongsa, and Chindaprasirt, 2016). Muniter, Alemu, Girum, and Teshome (2023) presented experimental studies on the effects of recycled concrete aggregate on the properties of porous concrete. The porosity of the concrete increases slightly with every 15% increase in RCA by an amount in the range of 8 to 16% due to the increased coarseness of aggregate in the mix and the lack of fine aggregates in the mix. The permeability of porous concrete increases with increasing RCA content by between 17.12% and 35.66% due to the increased void ratio. 5. DURABILITY The durability of concrete is the resistance of concrete to weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, and other degradation processes. Concrete durability is one of the most important considerations in the design of new structures and when assessing the condition of existing structures. Concrete construction is becoming increasingly complex, and the importance of producing structures that are both cost effective and durable has never been higher (Darshan and Jayeshkumar, 2014). Darshan and Jayeshkumar (2014) performed an experimental analysis and found out that water absorption and durability are inversely proportional to each other, meaning that, concrete made by 1:6 mix proportion has more durability and less water absorption and concrete made by 1:10 mix proportion has more water absorption and less durability. Mohammed et al. (2018) studied the effect of fly ash and nanomaterials on pervious concrete mixes to investigate mechanical properties, durability, permeability, water quality, and cost-effectiveness. The study reports that the nanomaterials' mix had greater compressive strength, a higher abrasion resistance, and improved water quality performance than the mixtures incorporated with fly ash. 6. MATERIAL INNOVATIONS Pawan and Sunil (2019) concluded that the use of fibers leads to an increase in compressive strength, split tensile strength of porous concrete as compared to fly ash porous concrete. Also, it was concluded from the research that permeability of porous concrete increases by using fibers as compared to fly ash. Comparatively, the study on both the samples, i.e. fly ash and fiber, found that using fiber is beneficial to improve the properties of porous concrete. (Elizondo-Martinez et al., 2020) made a comparison between porous mixtures made with cement and metakaolin, to understand the effect of these materials on the design parameters, as well as on the final functional and mechanical properties in terms of Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) and permeability. In addition, some innovative and experimental mixtures were produced and tested with the same grading distribution but using the alkali-activation process with metakaolin and waste basalt powder for the production of alternative and eco-friendly mixtures. 7. CONCLUSION Studies have shown that porous concrete, especially when using recycled aggregates, exhibits impressive structural characteristics. Significant benefits include excellent workability, elevated strength, and water permeability resulting from the existing pores. Future research should aim to fine-tune the types and proportions of aggregates to improve targeted properties. Examining the long-term durability of porous concrete in different environmental settings and investigating its use in various sustainable construction initiatives are vital areas for further research work. 8. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance and contributions of the staff of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Kwara State University, Malete, Kwara State, Nigeria. 571 F.O. Adua and S.O. Odeyemi / Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences 10(2) 2025 pp. 564-574 9. CONFLICT OF INTEREST There is no conflict of interest associated with this work. REFERENCES Aamer Rafique Bhutta, M., Hasanah, N., Farhayu, N., Hussin, M. W., Tahir, M. B. M., and Mirza, J. (2013). Properties of porous concrete from waste crushed concrete (recycled aggregate). 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