Public International Law: A Multi-Perspective Approach

González Hauck, Sué (Ed.); Kunz, Raffaela (Ed.); Milas, Max (Ed.) Book Public International Law: A Multi-Perspective Approach Provided in Cooperation with: Taylor & Francis Group Suggested Citation: González Hauck, Sué (Ed.); Kunz, Raffaela (Ed.); Milas, Max (Ed.) (2024) : Public International Law: A Multi-Perspective Approach, ISBN 9781003451327, Routledge, London, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003451327 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/290437 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Pub lic International La w Public International Law: AMulti-Perspective Appr oach is a compr ehensive yet critical intr oduction to the diverse feld of public international law . Bringing together a unique range of perspectives fr om ar ound the world and fr om dif fer ent theor etical appr oaches, this textbook intr oduces both the overar ching questions and doctrines of public international law , as well as the specialised sub-felds. These include emer ging felds such as international law in cyberspace, international migration law , and the international climate r egime. The book includes numer ous case examples, r efer ences to debates and contr oversies in the literatur e, and focus sections addr essing topics in mor e depth. Featuring an array of pedagogical featur es, including learning objectives, suggested further r eading and r esour ces, and QR codes to interactive exer cises, this book is ideal for students studying this feld for the frst time and also of fers something new for students who would like to deepen their knowledge via a diverse and engaging range of perspectives. The Open Access version of this book, available at www .taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Cr eative Commons Attribution-Shar eAlike (CC-BY -SA) 4.0 License. Sué González Hauck is a postdoctoral scholar at the German Center for Integration and Migration Studies (DeZIM), Berlin and at the Helmut-Schmidt University , Hamburg. Raf faela Kunz is a postdoctoral scholar and lectur er at the University of Zurich. Max Milas is a PhD student at the University of Münster . ‘Public international law scholarship has since the days of its “founding fathers” been dominated by single author ed sums. The biases inher ent in such a model have become all too obvious, which is why Public International Law: AMulti-Perspective Appr oach is just the collection we needed. International law will only be r econfgur ed in decades to come if the extent to which it has meant very dif fer ent things for dif fer ent people is r ecognized in textbooks themselves. W e owe the diversity of our students this very diversity of perspectives’. Fr édéric Mégr et , Full Pr ofessor , Co-director of the Centr e for Human Rights and Legal Pluralism, Hans& T amar Oppenheimer Chair in Public International Law , McGill University ’Put together with both car e and fair , featuring terrifc voices both seasoned and new , covering both key concepts and contemporary concerns, taking us fr om history to futur e, deep sea to outer space, cor es to peripheries, and open access to boot, this is a delightful cocktail of a textbook. Ilook forwar d to many happy hours with it’. Surabhi Ranganathan , Pr ofessor of International Law and Dir ector of Postgraduate Education, University of Cambridge Pub lic International La w A MUL TI-PERSPECTIVE APPROACH EDITED BY SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK , RAFF AELA KUNZ , AND MAX MILAS Designed cover image: oobqoo/Getty Images © First published 2024 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third A venue, New Y ork, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the T aylor& Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 selection and editorial matter , Sué González Hauck, Raffaela Kunz, Max Milas; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Sué González Hauck, Raffaela Kunz, Max Milas to be identifed as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This publication was funded by the German Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, W omen and Y outh. The Open Access version of this book, available at www .taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Shar eAlike (CC-BY -SA) 4.0 Licence. T rademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or register ed trademarks, and ar e used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue recor d for this book is available fr om the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hauck, Sué González, editor . | Kunz, Raffaela, editor . | Milas, Max, editor . T itle: Public international law : a multi-perspective approach / edited by Sué González Hauck, Raffaela Kunz, and Max Milas. Description: Abingdon, Oxon [UK] ; New Y ork, NY : Routledge, 2024. | Includes bibliographical refer ences and index. Identifers: LCCN 2023048214 | ISBN 9781032587479 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032587448 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003451327 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: International law . Classifcation: LCC KZ3410 .P83 2024 | DDC 341—dc23/eng/20231013 LC recor d available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023048214 ISBN: 978-1-032-58747-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-58744-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-45132-7 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003451327 T ypeset in Avienir , Bell and Bembo by Apex CoV antage, LLC https://openrewi.or g/en/pr ojects/pr oject-public-international-law/ v C O NT E NT S List of Contributors ix Pr eface/For ewor d xi Part I History , Theory , and Methods 1 HIS TO RY OF INTE RN A TIO NAL L A W 3 Sué González Hauck 2 O VE R ARCH IN G QUES TI ONS 25 Su é Gon z ále z Hauc k , Ma r nie L loyd d, Dan iel Ric ard o Qu irog a - V illa ma rí n, and Mi ria m Bak M cKen na Intr oduction (Sué González Hauck) 25 § 2.1 Inter national La w and Violence (Mar nie Llo ydd) 28 § 2.2 Consent (Sué González Hauck) 42 § 2.3 Enfor cement (Daniel Ricardo Quir oga-Villamar ín) 47 § 2.4 Self-Deter mination (Mir iam Bak McK enna) 54 3 A PPROA CH E S 63 Su é Gon z ále z Hauc k , V e rena K a hl, Ba ş ak Etkin, Al ex Gre en, T am si n Phillip a Paige, and K an ad Bag c hi Intr oduction (Sué González Hauck and V erena Kahl) 63 § 3.1 P ositi vism (Başak Etkin and Alex Green) 69 § 3.2 Thir d W orld Appr oaches to Inter national La w (Sué González Hauck) 79 § 3.3 F eminist and Queer Theor y (V er ena Kahl and T amsin Phillipa P aige) 84 § 3.4 Marxism (Kanad Bagchi) 97 4 M E T H O D S 111 Su é Gon z ále z Hauc k , Ma x Mila s, Sil via Steinin g er , an d T am sin Philli pa Paig e Intr oduction (Sué González Hauck) 111 § 4.1 Case Analysis (Max Milas) 116 § 4.2 Inter disciplinar ity (Silvia Steininger and T amsin Phillipa P aige) 128 vi CONTENTS Part II General Inter national Law 5 INTE RN A TIO NAL L A W AN D DOM ES TI C L A W 1 4 3 Raf f ae la Kun z 6 SOURCE S OF INT ERN A TIO NAL L A W 1 55 Cr aig Egg et t , T a x iarc hi s Fi sk ator i s, Ma rko Svic ev ic, V ic tor Stoic a, Raf fa ela Kun z, L uc as C a rl os L im a, an d Ber na rd o Mag e s te C a s tela r C am p os Intr oduction (Craig Eggett) 155 § 6.1 T reaty La w (T axiarchis Fiskator is and Mark o Svicevic) 161 § 6.2 Customar y Inter national La w (Victor Stoica) 181 § 6.3 General Pr inciples (Craig Eggett) 190 § 6.4 Other Sour ces (Rafaela Kunz, Lucas Carlos Lima, and Ber nardo Mageste Castelar Campos) 199 7 SUB J EC T S AND ACTO RS 21 7 V iljam Eng s trö m, Ale x Gree n, Ragh avi V i s wa nat h, Gra ż y na Ba r ano w sk a, T am si n Phillip a Paige, Jen s T . T heil en, Juliana S an tos d e C ar valh o, V ere na K ah l, He Chi, Su é Gon z ále z Hauc k , A n ne P eter s, an d Raf f ae la Kun z Intr oduction (Viljam Engstr öm) 217 § 7.1 States (Alex Gr een) 224 § 7.2 Indigenous P eoples (Ragha vi Vis wanath) 248 § 7.3 Inter national Organisations (Grażyna Barano wska, Viljam Engstr öm, and T amsin Phillipa P aige) 259 § 7.4 Indi viduals (J ens T . Theilen) 273 § 7.5 W omen (J uliana Santos de Car v alho and V er ena Kahl) 282 § 7.6 Nongo v er nmental Organisations (He Chi) 291 § 7.7 Cor porations (Sué González Hauck) 299 § 7.8 Animals (Anne P eter s) 305 § 7.9 Cities (Sué González Hauck and Rafaela K unz) 313 8 JURIS DIC TION 3 1 9 Su é Gon z ále z Hauc k a nd Ma x Milas 9 ST A TE R ESP ONS IB ILIT Y 333 Walter A rév alo - Ramíre z 1 0 DIPL OMA TIC RE L A TIONS 34 7 Walter A rév alo - Ramíre z vii CONTENTS 1 1 IMMUNITIES Beat r ice A . Walton 35 7 1 2 PEAC EFUL SET TLEME NT OF IN TER NA TIO NA L DIS PUTES Vi sha k ha Cho udha r y 379 1 3 USE OF FORCE Mar ko S v icev ic 401 Part III Specialised Fields 1 4 L A W OF A RM ED CONFLIC T A nne D ien el t an d Imd ad Ulla h 421 1 5 L A W OF TH E SE A Al ex P . Dela C r uz a nd T a ms in Philli pa Paige 437 1 6 INT ER NA TIONAL ENVIRONMENT AL L A W Ab bas P oorhashem i 453 1 7 INTER NA T ION AL CLIM A TE CHA NGE L A W Th alia V ive ros - Ue ha ra 469 1 8 I NTERNA TIONAL MIGR A TION L A W P atrick Lu k usa Ka dima 487 1 9 INTER NA T ION AL L A W IN C Y BE RSP ACE Pia Hü s c h 501 20 SP A CE L A W De ep a K an sr a 5 1 7 21 INTE RN A TION AL HU MA N RI GHT S L A W A nnali s a Ciam pi, Ma x Mila s, T ha mil V en th an A na nt havi nayag an, Gra ż y na Ba r ano w sk a, Ad ama ntia Ra ch ov it sa, Je ns T . Th eile n, V ere na K ahl, Walter A rév alo - Ramí rez, a nd A n dré s Rou s s et-Siri Intr oduction (Annalisa Ciampi) § 21.1 Recur r ing Themes in Human Rights Doctr ine (Max Milas) § 21.2 United Nations Human Rights System (Thamil V enthan Anatha vina y agan and Grażyna Barano wska) § 21.3 Afr ican Human Rights System (Adamantia Racho vitsa) 53 1 531 542 558 566 xiv PREF ACE/FOREWORD suppor t fr om the Ger man Centr e for Integ ration and Mig ration Studies (DeZIM) with funds fr om the Ger man Ministr y of Family Afair s, Senior Citizens, W omen and Y outh. This fnancial suppor t has made it possible for us to k eep this publication Open Access. W e therefor e remain deeply grateful to DeZIM, par ticularly to Dr . Noa Ha, V olk er Knoll-Ho y er , Dr . Cihan Sinanoglu, and Benjamin Schw arze . Ev a V ogel has been immensely helpful, suppor ting us in fnishing the manuscr ipt and pr o viding feedback fr om a student’ s per spectiv e . § § § PA R T I H I S T ORY , T HEORY , A ND ME T H ODS 1 This chapter has been made available under a (CC-BY -SA) 4.0 license. DOI: 10.4324/9781003451327-2 C HAP TE R 1 H I S T OR Y O F I N T ERN A T IO N A L L A W S U É G O N ZÁ L EZ H A U C K BOX 1.1 Requir ed Knowledge and Learning Objectives Requir ed knowledge : None Learning objectives : Understanding the historical r efer ences in other chapters of the book; common r efer ences to international law’ s historical origins and development. BOX 1.2 Interactive Exer cises Access interactive exer cises for this chapter 1 by positioning your smartphone camera at the dot-flled box, also known as a QR code. Figur e 1.1 QR code r eferring to interactive exercises. A . INTRODUC TION Scholarly disciplines ar e constituted thr ough ho w they tell their histor y . It is impossib le to under stand public inter national la w without under standing its histor y . This does not imply r ev ealing the tr ue essence of inter national la w by pinpointing a fx ed or ig in or un v eiling the cor rect w a y to inter pret specifc legal doctr ines through their or ig ins. 2 Ne v er theless, histor ies of inter national law do teach about the cr eation of r ules, 1 https://openre wi.org/en-pr ojects-project-pub lic-inter national-la w-histor y-of-inter national-law/ 2 Anne Orford, International Law and the Politics of History (CUP 2021). 4 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK institutions, concepts, and doctr ines, shedding light on ho w the la w per petuates past injustices into the pr esent. 3 Impor tantly , lear ning about inter national law’ s contr ibution to domination, exploitation, and injustice entails lear ning ho w the w orld can be changed for the better . B. OF ORIGINS AND F OUNDING M Y THS I. CH OOSI NG A S T AR TI NG P OI NT Histor ies necessar ily requir e a star ting point. Distinct appr oaches to inter national legal histor y are , in par t, character ised b y difer ing methods of selecting and por tra ying this star ting point. While some accounts trace inter national la w’ s or ig ins to the r ules go v er ning inter-polity relations in ancient India, Mesopotamia, Syr ia, Egypt, Greece , and Rome , 4 the most pr ev alent star ting point consists of the combination of Hugo Gr otius’ w ork De jure belli ac pacis (Latin: ‘Of the La w on W ar and P eace’) in 1625 and the P eace of W estphalia in 1648. This common point of depar tur e typically aligns with a conception of histor y as an endea v our that por trays ‘ho w things actually w ere’ in the past. 5 Not all appr oaches to histor y , ho w ev er , assume ‘the existence of immobile for ms that precede the exter nal w orld of accident and succession’. 6 An alter nati v e per specti v e on or ig ins seeks star ting points not as temporal mark er s for the foundation of something, but as the cir cumstances that best explain its emergence, for mation, and her itage . 7 Another appr oach to histor y r ejects such or ig in stor ies altogether , arguing that past e v ents, ideas, and people must be examined only for their r ole in their o wn time . 8 Ho w e v er , la wy er s are typically ‘trained in the ar t of making meaning mo v e acr oss time’. 9 Choosing a star ting point for the histor y of inter national la w pr esupposes kno wing, at least r oughly , what inter national la w is. The dominant under standing of inter national la w por tra ys it as the legal framew ork go v er ning relationships betw een so v ereign States. 10 Fr om this point of vie w , the star ting point in the histor y of inter national la w must depict ho w States and so v er eignty emerged and when so v er eign States star ted to ha v e relationships go v er ned by la w . If inter national la w is, more br oadly , under stood as la w of global encounter , 11 one ma y infer that the interactions shaping the laws cur rently 3 Cf . Alasia Nuti, Injustice and the Reproduction of Histor y: Structural Inequalities , Gender and Redress (CUP 2019). 4 Hiralal Chatterjee , Inter national Law and Inter-State Relations in Ancient India (Mukhopadhy a y 1958); David J Beder man, International Law in Antiquity (CUP 2004). 5 Leopold v on Ranke , Gesc hic hten der romanisc hen und ger manisc hen V ölker von 1494 bis 1514 (Dunck er& Humblot 1885) 8. 6 Michel Foucault, ‘Nietzsche , Genealo gy , Histor y’ in Michel F oucault and Donald F Bouchard (eds), Language , Counter-Memory , Practice (Donald F Bouchar d and Sher r y Simon trans., Cor nell Univ er sity Press 1977) 142. 7 Ibid 145. 8 Mark Bevir , ‘The Contextual Approach’ in George Klosk o (ed), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Political Philosoph y (OUP 2011) 11. 9 Anne Orford, ‘On Inter national Legal Method’ (2013) 1 LRIL 166, 172. 10 On States, see Green, § 7.1, in this textbook. 11 Sundhy a P ahuja, ‘Laws of Encounter: AJ ur isdictional Account of Inter national La w’ (2013) 1 LRIL 63. 5 HISTORY OF INTERNA TIONAL LAW go v er ning global encounter s did not pr imar ily and exclusi v ely ar ise fr om interactions betw een States but betw een Empires, the inhabitants of the land these Empir es sought to conquer , and the companies they sponsor ed to car r y out these conquests. II . INTE RN A T IO NAL L A W ’S FOUN DI NG M Y TH S AN D THE PRO BLEM WIT H HIS TOR IE S OF GR E A T MEN Inter national la w is f amously r iddled with institutional anxiety: ‘Does it e v en exist?’, ‘Does it matter ?’, ‘Is it reall y la w?’, 12 and, ‘Are w e , inter national la wy er s, the good guys’ or , as the popular meme goes, ‘Are w e the baddies?’ 13 Inter national la w has afr med its existence b y pro viding a ‘bir th cer tifcate’ (the P eace T reaties of Münster and Osnabr ück or ‘P eace of W estphalia’) and a ‘f ather’ (mainly Hugo Gr otius). 14 T ogether , the P eace of W estphalia and Gr otius’ w ork De iure belli ac pacis libr i tres (Latin: ‘Thr ee books on the la w of war and peace’) estab lished State so v ereignty as the sour ce of inter national la w’ s binding for ce , thus establishing inter national la w as real la w . Additionally , g r ounding inter national la w’ s existence in peace tr eaties and casting Hugo Gr otius as a secular , peace-lo ving humanitar ian has allo w ed inter national la wy er s to see themselv es as in v ested in a pr oject ser ving humanity in the pur suit of peace , order , and justice . In contrast, Thir d W orld Appr oaches to Inter national La w 15 (TW AIL) scholar s ha v e dra wn attention to inter national la w’ s sustained and central r ole in leg itimising and maintaining the colonial pr oject. These cr itical histor ies of inter national la w draw a difer ent line of continuity fr om the wr itings of Hugo Gr otius and Francisco de Vitor ia to the establishment of inter national la w as a for malised discipline in the 19th centur y and to inter national la w in its present for m. As the ne wly founded Dutch Republic w as looking to asser t itself against P or tugal and Spain, the Dutch East India Compan y (V OC) ask ed Grotius to wr ite a defence of the Compan y’ s pr iv ateer ing campaign in w ater s under P or tuguese contr ol. 16 Gr otius completed the r esulting manuscr ipt, De Indis , in 1607–1608 and published part of it in 1609 under the title Mare Liberum (Latin: ‘The Fr ee See’). In his subsequent w ork, De jure belli ac pacis , Gr otius pr o vided a comprehensi v e tr eatise on inter national law combining natural la w per spectiv es – g r ounding legal v alidity in sources be y ond law , such as God or r eason – with positivist concepts, der i ving legal v alidity from rules and the so v er eign’ s will and consent. 17 The comprehensi v e systematicity and fusion of 12 See Quiro ga-Villamar ín, § 2.3; and Etkin and Green, § 3.1, in this textbook. 13 https://imgfip .com/i/5uzgn v 14 See Randall Lesafer , ‘The Grotian T radition Revisited: Change and Contin uity in the Histor y of Inter national La w’ (2002) 73 BYBIL 103, 104, with fur ther refer ences. 15 See González Hauck, § 3.2, in this textbook. 16 Mar tine Julia v an Ittersum, ‘Hugo Grotius: The Making of a F ounding Father of Inter national La w’ in Anne Orford and Flor ian Hofmann (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law (OUP 2016) 82, 84. 17 David J Beder man, ‘Reception of the Classical T radition in Inter national Law: Gr otius’ De Jur e Belli ac P acis’ (1996) 10 Emor y Inter national La w Revie w 1, 2; Stef an Kadelbach, ‘Hugo Grotius: On the Conquest of Utopia b y Systematic Reasoning’ in Stef an Kadelbach and other s (eds), System, Order , and Inter national Law (OUP 2017) 134. 6 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK naturalist and positi vist legal concepts in De jure belli ac pacis led to Gr otius being dubbed the ‘f ather of inter national la w’. 18 As scholar s of inter national la w and inter national relations sought to r ein vigorate the pr oject of a peaceful inter national order cr eated and maintained by inter national la w after the Second W orld W ar (WWII), the y did so by r eclaiming Gr otius and sk etching a ‘Gr otian tradition’ of inter national la w and inter national relations. In a ‘Gr otian’ inter national community , the po w er of the so v ereign State is supposed to be r estr icted b y the rationality of the la w . 19 Recent w ork focusing on the connection betw een Gr otius’ w ork and colonialism not only calls into question the fatter ing self-image of inter national la w as a peace-seeking humanitar ian discipline . It also challenges the assumption that the or ig ins of moder n inter national la w can be found exclusi v ely in Eur ope . Placing Gr otius in the context of his r ole as legal advisor to the V OC sho ws that the questions he addressed in his w ork did not or ig inate on the Eur opean continent but, outside Eur ope , thr ough the colonial encounter . 20 Hugo Gr otius’ strongest competitor for the r ole of ‘f ather of inter national la w’ is Francisco de Vitor ia. Vitor ia w as the fr st scholar to adapt the Roman concept of ius gentium (Latin: ‘La w of P eoples’) to what w e reco gnise no w as an inter national context, 21 namely the colonial encounter betw een the Spanish Empire and indigenous peoples in what is no w kno wn as South Amer ica and the Car ibbean. 22 The question of whether Vitor ia w as using ius gentium to condemn or at least reign in colonial violence or whether he w as justifying and ther eby enab ling it is a hotly debated question. It is debated so fer cely because it is equated with the question of whether inter national law has been, fr om the beg inning, humanitar ian or imper ialist in natur e. 23 Other fgur es on whom inter national legal scholar s ha v e relied as ‘father s’ include Francisco Suár ez (1548–1617), Alber ico Gentili (1552–1603), Emer de V attel (1714–1767), and J er emy Bentham (1748–1832), who coined the ter m ‘public inter national la w’. As inter national la w as a discipline is increasingly tr ying to incr ease 18 Mar tine Julia v an Ittersum, ‘Hugo Grotius: The Making of a F ounding Father of Inter national La w’ in Anne Orford and Flor ian Hofmann (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law (OUP 2016) 82, 88–89. 19 Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (Macmillan 1977) 23–25; Bar r y Buzan, ‘The English School’ (2001) 27 Revie w of Inter national Studies 471, 476; Richard Little , ‘The English School’ s Contr ibution to the Study of Inter national Relations’ (2000) 6 Eur opean J our nal of Inter national Relations 395, 396; Her sch Lauter pacht, ‘The Gr otian T radition in Inter national La w’ (1946) 23 Br itish Y earbook of Inter national La w 1; Stef an Kadelbach, ‘Hugo Gr otius: On the Conquest of Utopia by Systematic Reasoning’ in Stef an Kadelbach, Thomas Kleinlein, and Da vid Roth-Isigkeit (eds), System, Or der , and Inter national Law (OUP 2017) 134, 155. 20 José-Man uel Bar reto , ‘ Cerberus : Rethinking Gr otius and the W estphalian System’ in Mar tti K oskenniemi and others (eds), Inter national Law and Empire: Historical Explorations (OUP 2017) 149, 154. 21 James Br o wn Scott, The Spanish Or igins of Inter national Law: Francisco de Vitoria and His Law of Nations (Clarendon Pr ess 1934) 3. 22 Antony Anghie , Imper ialism, Sovereignty , and the Making of International Law (CUP 2005) 13–14. 23 Paolo Amor osa, Rewr iting the History of the Law of Nations: How James Brown Scott Made Fr ancisco de Vitor ia the Founder of Inter national Law (OUP 2019) 1. 7 HISTORY OF INTERNA TIONAL LAW female r epresentation not only in inter national institutions but also in the histor y of inter national (legal) thought, 24 Chr istine de Pizan has emerged as the str ongest contender for the title of ‘mother of inter national la w’. 25 Her claim to the title r ests on the f act that she wr ote a book on the la ws of w ar and that she did so long before Gr otius and e v en before Vitor ia, Gentili, and Suárez. 26 Ho w ev er , for feminist and cr itical histor ies to fulfl their objectiv es of challeng ing con v entional nar rati v es and foster ing change in our perception of the past, pr esent, and futur e , it is essential to pr ior itise amplifying the v oices and visibility of histor ically marg inalised people as w ell as under scor ing the collectiv e components of scholarly pur suits, rather than simply substituting traditional accounts of g reat men with those of g r eat w omen. C . TURNING POINTS IN HISTORIES OF INTERNA TION AL L A W I. P OR TUGU ESE AN D SP AN ISH COLON IAL CONQU ES T AND T HE TR EA T Y OF TORD ESILL A S As afor ementioned, one w ay of telling the history of inter national la w is as a histor y of colonial encounter . The fr st per iod of Eur opean colonialism featured a r i v alr y betw een P or tugal and Spain. The P or tuguese , o v er the cour se of the 15th centur y , sailed the Atlantic coast of Afr ica, reached the Indian Ocean, and, in 1452, obtained a ser ies of papal g rants allo wing them to conquer the lands they encounter ed and to enslav e their inhabitants. 27 The ‘Catholic Monar chs’ Isabella Iof Castile and F er dinand II of Aragon, in tur n, funded Chr istopher Columbus’ expedition aimed at disco v er ing a w estw ard r oute to the Indies thr ough the Atlantic . Instead of India, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. 28 The ‘disco v er y’ of this island and other islands in the Car ibbean dur ing Columbus’ initial v o y age led the Catholic Monarchs to seek P ope Alexander VI’ s endor sement of their claim to the ‘New W orld’. After ongoing colonial r iv alr ies betw een the Spanish and P or tuguese monar chs and respecti v e papal bulls and tr eaties, 29 the Catholic Monar chs and J oão II, King of P or tugal, di vided up their spheres of infuence in the Atlantic b y ag r eeing on a demarcation line in the T reaty of T ordesillas, signed on 7 J une1494. 30 The T reaty of T or desillas marks an impor tant tur ning point 24 Immi T allg ren, Portraits of W omen in Inter national Law: New Names and Forgotten Faces? (OUP 2023); See Santos de Car v alho and Kahl, § 7.5, in this textbook. 25 Mar ia T eresa Guer ra Medici, ‘The Mother of Inter national Law: Chr istine de Pisan’ (1999) 19(1) P arliaments, Estates and Representation 15–22. 26 Franck Latty , ‘Founding “Fathers” of Inter national La w’ ( EJIL: T alk! , 15 Jan uar y2019) <www .ejiltalk.org/ founding-f ather s-of-inter national-law-r ecognizing-chr istine-de-pizan/> accessed 25 August2023. 27 Wilhelm Gre w e , The Epoc hs of Inter national Law (M By er s, trans., de Gr uyter 2000) 230 et seq. 28 See David S Ber r y , ‘The Car ibbean’ in Bardo Fassbender and Anne P eter s (eds), The Oxfor d Handbook of the History of Inter national Law (OUP 2012) 578. 29 For an o v er view , see Thomas Duv e, ‘T reaty of T ordesillas’ ( Max Planc k Encyc lopedia of Public International Law ) <https://opil.oupla w .com/display/10.1093/la w:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e2088> accessed 5 August2023, paras 4–10. 30 Ibid. 8 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK in the histor y of inter national la w , not only because the spher es of infuence outlined in this tr eaty established the di vision betw een Hispanic and P or tuguese par ts of the Amer icas – the latter constituting toda y’ s State of Brazil – but also because it marks a step a w a y fr om relying on pur ely papal author ity and g r ounding legal claims in inter- State ag reements instead. 31 In this sense , the T r eaty of T or desillas is a plausible star ting point for histor ies of inter national la w both as the la w of inter-State relationships and as the la w of colonial encounter . II. SO VEREIGNT Y , S ECULAR ISM, AND THE MY TH OF ‘WESTPHALIA ’ The late 16th centur y and, more impor tantly , the 17th centur y w er e piv otal in shaping so v er eignty as the dominant paradigm for go v er ning political interactions in Eur ope . J ean Bodin’ s publication of Six Livres de la Répub lique (French: ‘Six Books of the Republic’ or ‘Six Books on the Commonw ealth’) in 1576, 32 which encapsulated the no w canonical defnition of so v ereignty as absolute and per petual po w er , accountable to no higher ear thly author ity , 33 initially remained largely aspirational. 34 Ho w ev er , dur ing the 17th centur y , so v ereign States g radually acquir ed the capacity to asser t contr ol o v er their ter r itor ies, shifting author ity fr om inter per sonal dynamics to a ter r itor ial frame w ork. 35 Simultaneously , char tered companies lik e the V OC , established in 1602, wielded so v er eignty o v er ter r itor ies and par ts of the sea wher e they pursued trading monopolies. In ar eas where the y lack ed the necessar y monopolistic contr ol, these companies adv ocated for free tra v el and trade . 36 As seen abo v e , among the infuential fgures who adv ocated for freedom of the seas and fr ee trade in the inter est of the V OC was Hugo Gr otius. 37 Alongside Gr otius, another component in many nar rativ es of inter national la w’ s or ig ins is the P eace of W estphalia in 1648. The peace ag reements in Münster and 31 Ibid, paras 15–21. 32 Jean Bodin, On Sov ereignty: Four Chapters from ‘The Six Books of the Commonwealth’ (Julian H Franklin, trans., CUP 1992) 33 Sophie Nicholls, ‘So ver eignty and Go v er nment in J ean Bodin’ s Six Livres de la République (1576) ’ (2019) 80 J our nal of the Histor y of Ideas 47, 49, 63; Daniel Lee , The Right of Sovereignty: Jean Bodin on the Sov ereign State and the Law of Nations (OUP 2021). 34 William F Church, Constitutional Thought in Sixteenth-Century Fr ance: AStudy in the Ev olution of Ideas (Har var d Univ er sity Press 1941). 35 Hendr ik Spr uyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors (Pr inceton Univ ersity Press 1994). 36 For mor e infor mation on char tered companies and their impact on inter national law and international relations, see González Hauck, § 7.7, in this textbook; Sudipta Sen, Empire of Free T rade: The East India Compan y and the Making of the Colonial Marketplace (Univ er sity of P ennsylvania Pr ess 1997); HV Bo w en, The Business of Empire: The East India Compan y and Imper ial Br itain, 1756–1833 (CUP 2006); Emily Er ikson, Between Monopoly and Free T rade: The English East India Compan y , 1600–1757 (Pr inceton Univ er sity Press 2014); Rupali Mishra, A Business of State: Commerce , Politics , and the Bir th of the East India Company (Harvar d Univ er sity Press 2018); Andr ew Phillips and JC Shar man, Outsourcing Empire: How Compan y-States made the Moder n W orld (Pr inceton Univ er sity Press 2020). 37 Mar tine van Ittersum, Proft and Pr inciple: Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutc h Power in the East Indies , 1595–1615 (Br ill 2006). 9 HISTORY OF INTERNA TIONAL LAW Osnabr ück collectiv ely constitute the P eace of W estphalia, concluding the Thir ty Y ear s’ W ar in Eur ope. The P eace of W estphalia w as the focal point of a longer dev elopment r esulting in the establishment of a system of so v er eign States centred ar ound ter r itor iality . 38 ‘W estphalia’ is fr equently used to descr ibe an inter national system character ised by unfetter ed State so v ereignty and little to no r ules go v er ning ho w States ar e to ex ercise their so v er eignty – especially within their ter r itor ies. 39 This m yth of ‘W estphalia’ tells a stor y in which the peace settlements of Münster and Osnabr ück estab lished a system of so v er eign States that per sists toda y . 40 Ho w ev er , attr ib uting the establishment of moder n inter national la w based on State so v ereignty to the P eace of W estphalia is, at best, a simplifcation. 41 P ar ticularly , the cor ner stone of the ‘W estphalian System’, ter r itor ial so v er eignty , w as not explicitly refer enced in the tr eaties. The peace tr eaties did pr esuppose the so v ereignty of the Sw edish and French kings in the sense that the y w ere not subor dinate to the author ity of the Emper or or the P ope. Ho w ev er , this conception of so v er eignty difered fr om the character istics of the 19th-centur y conception. 42 The latter , commonly associated with the ‘W estphalian System’, included the so v er eign author ity to dictate the la w . In contrast, the so v er eignty r eferenced in the peace tr eaties of Münster and Osnabr ück w as g r ounded in natural la w ideas and the ideal of solidar ity among monar chs. 43 Rather than intr oducing a system of abstract ter r itor ial so v ereignty , the P eace of W estphalia maintained a per iod of personal po w er r elations within a complex patchw ork of imper ial and pr incely so v er eignties until the early 19th centur y and the fnal br eakdo wn of the Holy Roman Empire . 44 The simplifcations of histor ical pr ocesses and the habitual refer ence to ‘classical’ inter national la w or ‘classical’ notions of so v ereignty as ‘W estphalian’ ha v e consequences for pr esent-da y arguments about inter national la w . The m yth of ‘W estphalia’ establishes a hierar ch y where arguments der i v ed fr om so v ereignty seem to align with the system, and arguments encr oaching on this so v ereignty ar e framed as exceptions. Moreo v er , it por tra ys this nor mati v e hierarch y as ‘natural’. By presenting these conditions as natural, the m yth of ‘W estphalia’ and its associations obscure the functioning of inter national la w as a language of po w er . 45 38 Bardo Fassbender , ‘W estphalia, P eace of (1648)’ ( The Max Planc k Encyclopedia of Public Inter national Law , Februar y2011) <https://opil.ouplaw .com/displa y/10.1093/la w:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690- e739?prd=EPIL> accessed 25 August2023. 39 Leo Gross, ‘The P eace of W estphalia, 1648–1948’ (1948) 42 AJIL 20. 40 Ibid; Gerard J Mangone , A Shor t History of Inter national Organization (McGra w-Hill 1954) 100. 41 Andreas Osiander , ‘So v ereignty , Inter national Relations, and the W estphalian Myth’ (2001) 55 IO 251, 260–262. 42 Cf . Saskia Sassen, T er r itor y , Authority , Rights: From Mediev al to Global Assemblages (Pr inceton Univ er sity Press 2008). 43 Fassbender (n 38) para 21. 44 Maïa Pal, Jurisdictional Accumulation. An Earl y Moder n Histor y of Law , Empires , and Capital (CUP 2021) 35. 45 T amsin Phillipa P aige, Petulant and Contr ary: Approac hes by the Permanent Five Members of the UN Secur ity Council to the Concept of ‘Threat to the Peace’ Under Ar tic le 39 of the UN Char ter (Br ill Nijhof 2019) 29. 16 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK The de v elopment of inter national human r ights la w 90 in the for m of , inter alia, the Uni v er sal Declaration of Human Rights, 91 the Genocide Con v ention, 92 the Con v ention on the Elimination of Racial Discr imination, 93 and the tw o Human Rights Co v enants 94 w as also moti vated b y the goal of not letting the atr ocities committed dur ing WWII happen again. 95 In the Atlantic Char ter , 96 a declaration signed in 1941 b y US President Franklin D . Roose v elt and Br itish Pr ime Minister W inston Churchill, the tw o heads of State laid out the cor ner stones of what the post-w ar inter national order should look lik e . 97 The pr inciples afr med in this declaration included self-deter mination, fr ee trade and free access to r esources, economic cooperation, impr o v ed labour standards, social secur ity , and the abandonment of the use of for ce . The Atlantic Char ter laid out the foundations for the cr eation of the United Nations, which w as created in 1945 at the San Francisco Confer ence , in which 50 States par ticipated. 98 The pur poses of this ne w inter national organisation with a uni v er salist mandate , as laid out in the preamb le and in ar ticle 1 UN Char ter , 99 ar e to maintain inter national peace and secur ity , to dev elop fr iendly r elations based on equal r ights and self-deter mination of peoples, to achie v e inter national cooperation in economic , social, cultural and humanitar ian matter s, and to pr omote and encourage r espect for human r ights. Unlik e the LoN , the UN w as not designed to ensure these goals thr ough detailed legal pr ocedures b ut thr ough Great P o w er cooperation, as expr essed most str ikingly in the k ey r ole g iv en to the fv e P er manent Member s of the UN Secur ity Council (UNSC; the UK, China, France , the So viet Union, and the US). 100 IX. FORMAL DEC OLONIS A TION After most of the Amer icas had gained independence fr om the colonial metr opoles in the 19th centur y and after some LoN mandates lik e Egypt, Lebanon, Syr ia, and Iraq 90 See Ciampi, § 21, in this textbook. 91 Uni v er sal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December1948) UNGA Res 217 A(III). 92 Con v ention on the Pre v ention and Punishment of the Cr ime of Genocide (adopted 9 December1948, entered into for ce 12 J anuar y1951) 78 UNTS 277. 93 Inter national Con v ention on the Elimination of All For ms of Racial Discr imination (adopted 7 Mar ch1966, entered into for ce 4 J anuar y1969) 660 UNTS 195. 94 Inter national Co v enant on Civil and P olitical Rights (adopted 16 December1966, enter ed into force 23 March1976) 999 UNTS 171; International Cov enant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December1966, entered into for ce 3 J anuar y1976) 993 UNTS 3. 95 Alejandr o Baer and Natan Sznaider , Memor y and Forgetting in the Post-Holocaust Era: The Ethics of Nev er Again (Routledge 2017). 96 Declaration of Pr inciples (signed and entered into force 14 August1941) 204 LNTS 381. 97 Kr üger (n 75) 695. 98 Ibid 696. 99 Char ter of the United Nations (concluded 26 J une1945, entered into for ce 24 October1945) 1 UNTS XVI. 100 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, ‘Histor y of Inter national Law , Since W orld W ar II’ in Rüdiger W olfr um (ed), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Inter national Law (2011) <https://opil.oupla w .com/displa y/10.1093/ la w:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e714> accessed 7 August2011, para 6; See Barano wska, Engstr öm, and Paige , § 7.3, in this textbook. 17 HISTORY OF INTERNA TIONAL LAW had become independent in the fr st half of the 20th centur y , it w as after the conclusion of WWII that a tidal w a v e of decolonisation sw ept acr oss the globe . The str uggle for independence dur ing this time w as explicitly and tightly link ed to the str uggle o v er public inter national la w . 101 In 1947 the par tition of Br itish India into independent India and P akistan mark ed the beg inning of this post-WWII decolonisation era. 102 Meanwhile , the ideals of Pan- Afr icanism began to gather momentum, championed b y fgures lik e the Jamaican jour nalist Mar cus Gar v ey and tak en up by Kw ame Nkr umah, who w ould become Ghana’ s fr st president, and P atr ice Lum umba, the fr st pr ime minister of the Repub lic of the Congo , who w as later mur der ed at the orders of Belg ian ofcer s, among other s. 103 The y ear 1960 sa w not only a multitude of Afr ican countr ies gaining their independence but also the adoption of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countr ies and P eoples b y the UNGA, stating that foreign r ule w as a violation of human r ights, r eiterating the r ight to self-deter mination, and calling for an immediate end of all for ms of colonial r ule . 104 This declaration w as a major achie v ement for the newly independent States that had become members of the UN , transfor ming the UNGA into a platfor m for anti-colonial r esistance . 105 Amid the ideolo g ical divide of the Cold W ar (see C.X.), leaders lik e Sukar no of Indonesia, J a w aharlal Nehr u of India, Josip Br oz Tito of Y ugosla via, and Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt con v ened the Non-Aligned Mo v ement. This coalition of nations, seeking to a v oid alignment with the super po w er s and r ejecting imper ialistic ambitions, found its r oots in the 1955 Bandung Confer ence 106 and was for mally established in 1961 in Belg rade . Economic justice pla y ed a vital r ole in post-colonial aspirations. The creation of the United Nations Confer ence on T rade and Dev elopment (UNCT AD) in 1964 aimed to challenge the cur r ent inter national economic system and pr omote a New Inter national Economic Or der (NIEO). 107 The pr inciples of the NIEO encompassed the fr eedom of ne wly independent nations to regulate m ultinational cor porations, nationalise foreign pr oper ty , for m commodity associations (lik e OPEC), and establish equitab le pr ices for ra w mater ials. Fur ther mor e, it emphasised technolo gy transfer and dev elopment 101 Sundh y a Pahuja, Decolonising International Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Univ ersality (CUP 2011); J ochen v on Ber nstorf and Philipp Dann (eds), The Battle for Inter national Law: South-Nor th Perspectives on the Decolonization Er a (OUP 2019). 102 Ian T albot, A Histor y of Moder n South Asia: Politics , States , Diasporas (Y ale Univ er sity Pr ess 2016) 131 et seq; Pr iy asha Saksena, ‘Building the Nation: So v ereignty and Inter national Law in the Decolonisation of South Asia’ (2020) JHIL 1. 103 Adom Getachew , W orldmaking After Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination (Pr inceton Univ er sity Press 2019) 6 et seq. 104 UNGA Res 1514 (XV) (1960), GA OR 15th Session Supp 16, 66. 105 Getachew (n 103) 73 et seq. 106 Luis Esla v a, Michael Fakhr i, and V asuki Nesiah (eds), Bandung , Global Histor y , and Inter national Law: Cr itical P asts and Pending Futures (CUP 2017). 107 Antony Anghie , ‘Legal Aspects of the New Inter national Economic Or der’ (2015) 6 Humanity 145. 18 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK assistance de v oid of conditionalities. Other inter national instr uments related to the NIEO include the Declaration on P er manent So v ereignty o v er Natural Resources 108 and the Char ter of Economic Rights and Duties of States. 109 X . THE COLD W A R WWII’ s conclusion in 1945 mark ed the beg inning of the Cold W ar , 110 a time of confr ontation betw een the W ester n capitalist bloc led b y the US and the Easter n communist b loc led b y the So viet Union (USSR). This per iod, character ised b y ideolo g ical and geopolitical r iv alr y betw een these super po w er s, lasted until the USSR’ s collapse in 1991. The Cold W ar w as a ‘hot’ w ar in many parts of the w orld, as the US and the So viet Union inter v ened militar ily in the reg ions the y deemed to belong to their ‘spher es of infuence’ and engaged in pr o xy w ar s. These inter v entions and pr o xy w ar s w ere so widespr ead that pr ominent inter national legal scholar s argued o v er whether the r elativ ely ne w prohibition of the use of for ce enshr ined in ar ticle 2(4) UN Char ter had already died. 111 Among the pr o xy w ar s w ere the K orean W ar and the Vietnam W ar , as w ell as the wars in Afghanistan and Angola. J apan had pr eviously annex ed K orea, and after J apan’ s defeat in WWII the US and the USSR di vided K orea into tw o zones of occupation, which later became tw o so v er eign States, communist North K orea and capitalist South K orea. In 1950, Nor th K or ean militar y forces cr ossed the border , g iving r ise to a violent confict. As the USSR w as temporar ily pr otesting the UNSC’ s f ailure to let the r ecently established P eople’ s Republic of China tak e China’ s UNSC seat, the UNSC passed se v eral r esolutions condemning Nor th K orea’ s action and author ising militar y for ce in suppor t of South K or ea. 112 After the USSR realised that its intended bo ycott had not reached its goal of paralysing the UN , it took up its seat again and v etoed fur ther resolutions on the confict. 113 Subsequently , the UNGA passed a r esolution titled ‘Uniting for P eace’, in which it claimed author ity to issue resolutions on matters of the maintenance of inter national peace and secur ity in cases where the UNSC failed to do so . 114 It w as, in f act, the UNGA under this Uniting for P eace Resolution that author ised the fr st UN peacek eeping for ce, the United Nations Emergency F orce , in the Suez W ar . 115 In this case , it w as the French and Br itish v etoes that had paralysed the UNSC . 116 108 UNGA Res 1803 (1962) GA OR 17th Session Supp 17, 15. 109 UNGA Res 3281 (1974) GA OR 29th Session Supp 31, 50. 110 See Matthew Cra v en and other s (eds), Inter national Law and the Cold W ar (CUP 2020). 111 Thomas Franck, ‘Who Killed Ar ticle 2(4)? Or : Chang ing Nor ms Go v er ning the Use of For ce by States’ (1970) 64 AJIL 809; Louis Henkin, ‘Repor ts of the Death of Ar ticle 2(4) Are Gr eatly Exaggerated’ (1971) 65 AJIL 544. 112 Nico Kr isch, ‘The Secur ity Council and the Gr eat P o w er s’ in V aughan Lo w e and other s (eds), The United Nations Secur ity Council and W ar (OUP 2008) 133, 149. 113 Dominik Zaum, ‘The Secur ity Council, the General Assembly , and W ar : The Uniting for P eace Resolution’ in V aughan Lo we and others (n 112) 154, 156–157. 114 UNGA Res 377 (1950) GA OR 5th Session Supp 20, 10. 115 UNGA Res 1000 (1956) GA OR 1st Emergency Special Session Supp 1, 2. 116 Zaum (n 113) 154. 19 HISTORY OF INTERNA TIONAL LAW The Vietnam W ar began in 1955 as a similar pr o xy w ar betw een communist North Vietnam, back ed b y China and the USSR, and capitalist South Vietnam, back ed by the US and its allies. The main fght w as betw een the South Vietnam militar y with hea vy US suppor t on one side and communist Viet Cong guer r illa tr oops on the other side. While some inter national legal histor ians claim that the Vietnam W ar w as ‘conducted without an y ser ious discussion of its la wfulness’, 117 there w er e at least some pr ominent debates in this r egard. 118 Mor e per tinent, ho w ev er , was the question of ho w to account for how this w ar w as car r ied out. US w ar cr imes in Vietnam w er e the subject of the fr st inter national people’ s tr ib unal, the so-called Russell T r ibunal, which ser v ed as a model for later ci vil society in v estigations into human r ights ab uses. 119 Fr om 1979 to 1989, Afghanistan w as another battleg r ound for super po w er r iv alr y . The communist go v er nment in Afghanistan w as f acing r esistance fr om mujahideen fghter s, which led the So viet Union to inter v ene on behalf of the Afghan go v er nment. The US , in tur n, pr o vided the mujahideen with ar ms, training, and funding. 120 The withdra w al of So viet forces in 1989 not only signalled the er osion of So viet po w er and infuence , but it also set the stage for pr otracted instability and w ar s in Afghanistan and the whole r eg ion. 121 The T aliban, which later assumed po w er o v er Afghanistan, w ere one faction of the mujahideen, who had been supported by the US . Both So viet and US foreign policy dur ing the Cold W ar w er e defned by doctr ines r efecting their per spectiv es on inter v ention and contr ol in what they consider ed their spher es of infuence . 122 The So viet Brezhne v Doctr ine , pr oclaimed in 1968, asser ted the So viet Union’ s r ight to inter v ene militar ily in any socialist countr y and w as used to justify inter v entions in Hungar y (1956) and Czechoslo v akia (1968). 123 The US doctr ines w er e r ooted in the 1823 Monroe Doctr ine , according to which Eur opean interfer ence in the afair s of the W ester n Hemispher e w ould be considered a thr eat to US inter ests and which the US had since then used as a rationale for inter v entions and infuence in Latin Amer ica and the Car ibbean. The T r uman Doctr ine fr om 1947 took this idea of a US spher e of infuence fur ther so that it de v eloped global reach. The J ohnson Doctr ine fr om 1965 combined the Monr oe and the T r uman Doctr ines and w as used to justify US militar y inter v entions in the Dominican Republic in 1965; 117 K osk enniemi (n 100) para 28. 118 J ohn Nor ton Moore , Law and the Indo-China W ar (Pr inceton Univ er sity Press 1972) 358 et seq; Richar d Falk, ‘Inter national Law and the United States Role in the Viet Nam W ar’ (1966) 75 Y ale La w J our nal 1122. 119 J ohn Dufett (ed), Against the Cr ime of Silence: Proceedings of the Russell Inter national W ar Crimes T r ibunal (Ber trand Russell P eace Foundation 1968). 120 Shr i Prakash, ‘US In v olv ement in Afghanistan: Implications for the Future’ (2003) 10 Jour nal of P eace Studies 1, 6. 121 Raf ael Reuv eny and Aseem Prakash, ‘The Afghanistan W ar and the Breakdo wn of the Soviet Union’ (1999) 25 Revie w of Inter national Studies 693. 122 Thomas D Grant, ‘Doctr ines (Monr oe, Hallstein, Br ezhnev , Stimson)’ (Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public Inter national Law , March2014) <https://opil.oupla w .com/displa y/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/la w- 9780199231690-e697?rske y=e8aNEz&result=11&pr d=MPIL> accessed 24 August2023. 123 Leon Romaniecki, ‘Sources of the Br ezhnev Doctr ine of Limited So v ereignty and Inter v ention’ (1970) 5 Israel La w Revie w 527. 20 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK the suppor t of the anti-communist ‘Contras’ in Nicaragua, which led to the landmark Nicar agua ICJ judgment; 124 and the US inter v ention in Grenada in 1983. 125 Gi v en that both the So viet Union and the US possessed nuclear w eapons, the threat of nuclear destruction loomed o v er the whole per iod of the Cold W ar . Inter national organisations and inter national diplomacy , ther efore , focused on disar mament and non-pr oliferation of nuclear w eapons. Thr ee landmark ICJ cases, the Nuc lear W eapons Advisor y Opinion, 126 the Nuc lear T ests case , 127 and the Marshall Islands case, 128 deal with questions r elating to nuclear w eapons and inter national la w . XI . IMP OR T AN T DEVE LOPMENT S IN T HE 21 S T CENT URY The end of the Cold W ar with the collapse of the USSR spark ed a sense of optimism amid e v er y one committed to liberal inter nationalism and ev en f amously pr ompted Francis Fukuy ama to declar e ‘the end of histor y’. 129 P ost-So viet transitions and incr eased inter national cooperation foster ed hopes for a more peaceful w orld in what man y call the ‘golden nineties’. The NA T O inter v ention in K oso v o in 1999, car r ied out without UNSC author isation, shattered this optimism. 130 The inter national climate changed completely with the attacks on the W orld T rade Center in New Y ork City on 11 September2001 car r ied out by the ter r or ist netw ork al-Qaeda, operating out of Afghanistan. Afe w da ys after the attacks, US Pr esident George W Bush declared the so-called W ar on T er r or and, later that y ear , in v aded Afghanistan. The UNSC adopted Resolution 1368 131 on 12 September2001 condemning the attacks and declar ing them to be a thr eat to inter national peace and secur ity . Resolution 1373, adopted later in the same month, 132 w ent a lot fur ther and became one of the central elements of inter national la w arguments related to the ‘W ar on T er r or’. 133 Another w ar related to the W ar on T er r or w as the US in v asion of Iraq in 2003. Abr oad consensus 124 Militar y and P aramilitary Activities in and Against Nicar agua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Mer its) [1986] ICJ Rep 14. 125 Isaak IDore , ‘The US In v asion of Grenada: Resur rection of the J ohnson Doctr ine’ (1984) Stanfor d Jour nal of Inter national Law 173. 126 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuc lear W eapons (Advisor y Opinion) [1996] ICJ Rep 226. 127 Nuc lear T ests (A ustralia v Fr ance) (Judgment) [1974] ICJ Rep 253. 128 Obligations Concerning Negotiations Relating to Cessation of the Nuc lear Ar ms Race and to Nuc lear Disar mament (Marshall Islands v United Kingdom) (Preliminary Objections, Judgment) [2016] ICJ Rep 833. 129 Francis Fukuy ama, The End of History and the Last Man (Free Pr ess 1992). 130 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, ‘ “The Lady Doth Protest T oo Much” Koso v o , and the T ur n to Ethics in Inter national La w’ (2002) 65 MLR 159. 131 UNSC Res 1368 (2001) 4370th meeting. 132 UNSC Res 1373 (2001) 4385th meeting 133 J osé E Alv arez, ‘The UN’ s “W ar” on T er ror ism’ (2003) 31 Inter national Jour nal of Legal Infor mation 238; Ntina Tzouv ala, ‘The “Unwilling or Unable” Doctr ine and the P olitical Econom y of the W ar on T er r or’ (2023) 14 Humanity 19. 21 HISTORY OF INTERNA TIONAL LAW among most inter national la wy er s was that this w ar w as blatantly unla wful, and demonstrations acr oss the w orld denounced this w ar using the language of inter national la w , which also spark ed debates among cr itical inter national la wy er s on whether and ho w they should engage in such arguments. 134 Mo ving into the 2010s, the Arab Spr ing emerged as a signifcant phenomenon r eshaping the inter national legal landscape. 135 Or ig inating in T unisia, these anti- go v er nment pr otests and upr isings quickly spread to countr ies lik e Lib y a, Egypt, Y emen, Syr ia, and Bahrain. These e v ents led to the deposition of the r uler s in T unisia, Lib y a, Egypt, and Y emen but w er e also met with increasingly violent r esponses b y autocratic go v er nments, with the civil w ar in Syr ia being the most extreme example . Be y ond these ev ents, the 21st centur y has seen a m yr iad of de v elopments unfold that continue to shape inter national la w . Rapid technolo g ical adv ancements, including the pr oliferation of the inter net, ha v e led to ne w legal challenges in the realms of pr iv acy , secur ity , and so v er eignty . 136 Climate change has fuelled debates sur r ounding en vir onmental pr otection, responsibility , and the r ights of futur e generations. 137 Additionally , the emergence of r ight-wing populist mo v ements, shifting po w er dynamics, and e v olving regional conficts hav e demanded responses fr om the inter national community . D . C ONCL USION Histor ies of inter national la w are mark ed by trajector ies of both empire and r esistance . Fr om early instances of imper ial conquest, inter national legal nor ms e v olv ed to leg itimise and regulate colonisation. The balance of po w er pr inciple that emerged fr om the Cong ress of Vienna fur ther ex emplifed ho w inter national la w has been used b y po w erful States to asser t dominance o v er w eak er ones. The after math of the w orld w ar s epitomise the dual nature of inter national la w . The League of Nations’ Co v enant entr enched imper ial inter ests thr ough the Mandate System, per petuating hierarchical contr ol o v er for mer colonies. Simultaneously , the pr inciples of self-deter mination and so v er eignty f acilitated the r ise of decolonisation mo v ements. Multiple re v olutionar y mo v ements acr oss the globe and thr oughout the histor y of inter national la w sho w , ho w e v er , that inter national la w can also be har nessed for liberation. Recognising this dual natur e of inter national law is crucial to shaping a more just and equitab le future , wher e inter national law serv es as a catalyst for justice and the dismantling of systems of empir e . 134 Rober t Kno x, ‘Strategy and T actics’ (2010) 21 FYBIL 193; Usha Natarajan, ‘A Third W orld Approach to Debating the Legality of the Iraq W ar’ (2007) 9 IntCLRev 405. 135 A y odeji K P er r in, ‘Intr oduction to the Special Issue on the Arab Spr ing’ (2013) 34 UP aJIntlL i. 136 See Hüsch, § 19, in this textbook. 137 See Viv eros-Uehara, § 17, in this textbook. 22 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK BOX 1.3 Further Readings and Further Resour ces Further Readings · Matthew Craven, Malgosia Fitzmaurice, and Maria V ogiatzi (eds), T ime, History and International Law (Brill 2007) · Bardo Fassbender and Anne Peters (eds), The Oxfor d Handbook of the History of International Law (OUP 2012) · Anne Orford, International Law and the Politics of History (CUP 2021) Further Resour ces · Thomas Skouteris, ‘The T urn to History in International Law’ ( Oxfor d Bibliographies , June2017) <www .oxfor dbibliographies.com/display/ document/obo-9780199796953/obo-9780199796953-0154.xml> accessed 26 August2023 · ‘The History of International Law [T imeline]’ <https://blog.oup.com/2015/09/ history-international-law-timeline/> accessed 26 August2023 § § § 2 This chapter has been made available under a (CC-BY -SA) 4.0 license. DOI: 10.4324/9781003451327-3 C HAP TE R 2 O VE R AR C HI N G Q U EST I O N S S U É G O N ZÁ L EZ H A U C K , M A R N I E L L O Y D D , D AN I E L RI CA R DO Q U I RO GA- VI L L A MA RÍ N , A N D M I RIA M BA K M C K E N N A INTRODUCTION S U É GO NZ Á LE Z H A UCK BOX 2.1 Requir ed Knowledge and Learning Objectives Requir ed knowledge : History of International Law Learning objectives : Understanding why the overar ching questions chosen to be tr eated as such in this textbook play a pivotal r ole acr oss dif fer ent appr oaches and subject ar eas. BOX 2.2 Interactive Exer cises Access interactive exer cises for this chapter 1 by positioning your smartphone camera at the dot-flled box, also known as a QR code. Figur e 2.1 QR code r eferring to interactive exercises. A . INTRO DUC TION This book – in this sense a typical r epresentati v e of the textbook genre – mostly tr eats questions per taining to inter national la w within separate ‘bo x es’, labelled either 1 https://openre wi.org/en-pr ojects-project-pub lic-inter national-la w-nature-and-pur pose-of-inter national-la w/ 32 MARNIE LLOYDD II . CONTES TED N A T URE O F A CH IEV IN G PEA CE OR PROTEC TI ON OF CIV ILIANS THROUGH MILIT ARY F ORCE Does the Lib y a 2011 example pr o v ok e an y par ticular gut r eaction from y ou? Some commentator s applauded that the UNSC had been able to r eact pr omptly to a humanitar ian cr isis, and that States w ere willing to tak e action. 30 This refects ho w the pr omotion of fundamental fr eedoms and human r ights, and the g r o wing notion that mass atr ocities within a State could thr eaten inter national peace and secur ity , ha v e str engthened the moral author ity of arguments justifying ar med r esponses to such thr eats as being in the common interest. 31 This mor e expansionist view has, in tur n, impacted on what might be descr ibed as a more r estr ictiv e and uni v er sal holding to nor ms respecting so v ereignty and non-interv ention. Indeed, Resolution 1973 w as the fr st time that the UNSC had r ecognised and put into action the so-called r esponsibility to pr otect (R2P), which author ised militar y for ce as an exception to the general pr ohibition on the use of for ce betw een States for the pur pose of pr otecting individuals at r isk where the State in question w as not meeting that responsibility . 32 Accepting it might be an imperfect and rather ‘blunt instrument’ but perhaps the best w e ha v e in a bad situation, 33 and/or that lear ning fr om pre vious exper iences might help ensur e future operations do mor e good than har m, 34 man y accept such inter v entions as the lesser evil because the y are conducted in the hope of a v er ting ev en g reater sufer ing. 35 Regar ding Lib y a, for example , repor ts indicated that NA T O bombing killed 72 civilians b ut a v er ted a potentially f ar larger massacre in Benghazi. 36 Other commentator s ha v e expressed concer n about the implementation and/or consequences of the inter v ention. Amongst cr iticisms is that the NA T O 30 See e.g. Thomas G W eiss, ‘Liby a, R2P , and the United Nations’ in Dag Henr iksen and Ann Kar in Larssen (eds), Political Rationale and Inter national Consequences of the W ar in Liby a (OUP 2016) 228; Sally Khalif a Isaac, ‘NA TO’ s Inter v ention in Liby a: Assessment and Implications’ (2012) IEMed Mediter ranean Y earbook 121–123. 31 Anne Orford, ‘Moral Inter nationalism and the Responsibility to Protect’ (2013) 24 EJIL 83, 98. See also Pier re Thielbörger , ‘The Status and Future of Inter national La w after the Liby a Inter v ention’ (2012) 4(1) Goettingen J our nal of Inter national Law 11; J essica Wh yte, ‘The “Danger ous Concept of the Just W ar”: Decolonization, W ars of National Liberation, and the Additional Protocols to the Gene v a Con v entions’ (2018) 9(3) Humanity 313, 330–331; Sigmund Simonsen, ‘The Interv ention in Liby a in a Legal P er spectiv e: R2P and Inter national La w’ in Dag Henr iksen and Ann Kar in Lar ssen (eds), Political Rationale and Inter national Consequences of the W ar in Lib ya (OUP 2016) 245, 249–251; Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagour ias, Regulating the Use of Force in Inter national Law: Stability and Change (Edw ard Elgar 2021) 213. 32 2005 W orld Summit Outcome , GA Res 60/1, UN Doc A/RES/60/1 (24 October2005, adopted 16 September2005) [138]–[139]. 33 Alex J Bellamy , ‘Liby a and the Responsibility to Pr otect: The Exception and the Nor m’ (2011) Ethics& Inter national Afair s 1, 7. 34 See T a ylor B Seybolt, Humanitarian Militar y Inter vention: The Conditions for Success and F ailure (OUP 2008). 35 See e .g. Michael Ignatief, The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of T er ror (Pr inceton Univ er sity Press 2005); b ut contrast also Ey al W eizman, The Least of All Possible Evils: AShort Histor y of Humanitar ian Violence (V erso 2017) 6. 36 W allace (n 14) 1 citing Human Rights W atch 2012. But see also discussion in Alan J Kuper man, ‘A Model Humanitar ian Intervention?: Reassessing NA T O’ s Lib ya Campaign’ (2013) 38(1) Inter national Secur ity 105, 121–123. 33 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS inter v ention exceeded the UNSC’ s author isation in Resolution 1973 b y acti v ely suppor ting reg ime change , arguably tur ning the la wful inter v ention into an unla wful one . 37 This might be compared with the earlier situation in K oso v o wher e NA T O contr o v er sially under took an air campaign against Y ugosla via in 1999 without UNSC author isation, with the operation subsequently being labelled as ‘illegal’ since it w as unauthor ised b ut ‘leg itimate’ under the cir cumstances. 38 Relatedly , while not opposed to R2P , some commentators ha v e examined whether in the par ticular case of Lib ya, r equired legal and ethical thr esholds to justify inter v ention such as last r esor t, sufciently ser ious situation, or pur pose , w er e met. 39 The instability and ci vil w ar in the y ear s follo wing the Lib y a inter v ention, as w ell as an argument that NA T O operations ga v e co v er to violations committed b y anti-reg ime for ces, also led to cr itiques about ill judgement, the inter v ention w or sening the situation, or , at least, that the inter national community inadequately suppor ted Lib ya post-confict. 40 Those same r easons contr ib uted to arguments that the ‘disaster’ of Liby a made it unlik ely that similar humanitar ian actions w ould be adopted in the futur e . 41 Arguments about ‘mission cr eep’ w ere also made b y those v oicing a br oader w ar iness of militar y operations under tak en for humanitar ian and pr otectiv e pur poses. Ther e is concer n, including for man y de v eloping States, about seemingly expanding po w er s of such ‘muscular humanitar ianism’ 42 and the r isks of exploitation b y militar ily po w erful States. 43 Commentator s ha v e noted the discretion and 37 Patr ick CR T er r y , ‘The Lib ya Interv ention (2011): Neither Lawful, Nor Successful’ (2015) 48(2) Comparativ e and Inter national Law J our nal of Souther n Afr ica 162; Geir Ulfstein and Hege F øsund Chr istiansen, ‘The Legality of the NA TO Bombing in Lib y a’ (2013) 62(1) ICLQ 159; Benedetta Ber ti, ‘For cible Inter v ention in Lib ya: Re vamping the “P olitics of Human Pr otection”?’ (2014) 26(1) Global Change , P eace& Secur ity 21, 37. In contrast, arguing the operations did not exceed the mandate , Chr is De Cock, ‘Operation Unifed Pr otector and the Protection of Ci vilians in Liby a’ in MN Schmitt and L Ar imatsu (eds), Y earbook of International Humanitar ian Law (V ol 14, TMC Asser Pr ess 2011) 213; ‘Liby a Letter by Obama, Camer on and Sarkozy: Full T ext’ ( BBC News , 15 Apr il2011) <www .bbc .com/news/w orld-afr ica-13090646> accessed 20 J une2023. 38 Independent Inter national Commission on K oso v o , ‘The Koso v o Repor t’ (Oxford, 23 October2000) 4 <http://www .k oso v ocommission.org> accessed 20 J une2023. 39 See e.g. J ames P attison, ‘The Ethics of Humanitar ian Inter v ention in Liby a’ (2011) 25(3) Ethics& Inter national Afairs 271; Simonsen (n 31) 254–259; Ber ti (n 37). 40 W allace (n 14) 1; Kuper man (n 36) 125–133. See also generally , Alex J Bellamy , ‘The Responsibility to Pr otect’ in P aul D Williams and Matt McDonald (eds), Secur ity Studies: An Introduction (2nd edn, Routledge 2014) 422, 432–433. 41 T er r y (n 37) 181; Ulfstein and Chr istiansen (n 37) 169–171. For other discussion r egarding Lib y a and Syr ia, see Simonsen (n 31) 262–265; Spencer Zifcak, ‘The Responsibility to Pr otect After Liby a and Syr ia’ (2012) 13(1) MJIL 59. 42 Anne Orford, ‘Muscular Humanitar ianism: Reading the Nar rativ es of New Interv entionism’ (1999) 10 EJIL 679. 43 Iain Scobbie , ‘W ar’ in J ean d’Aspremont and Sahib Singh (eds), Concepts for International Law (Edwar d Elgar 2019) 900, 912: ‘[secure] some States’ freedom of action [while er oding] the prohibition of the use of for ce in the ter r itor y of another State’ (citations omitted). See also Thilo Marauhn, ‘Ho w Many Deaths Can Article 2(4) UN Char ter Die?’ in Lothar Brock and Hendr ik Simon (eds), The Justifcation of W ar and Inter national Order (OUP 2021) 449; Rajan Menon, The Conceit of Humanitar ian Inter vention (OUP 2016); T er r y (n 37). 34 MARNIE LLOYDD selecti vity in responses to situations consider ed cr ises. 44 For some , claims that nor ms justifying militar y action are uni v er sal r ing rather hollo w g i v en the ‘lopsided global ar rangements in which some for ms of sufer ing are r ecognized while a g r eat many mor e are not’. 45 This has led to accusations of W ester n leader ship using inter national la w ‘to target its enemies while pr otecting its fr iends’. 46 As Da vid Kennedy has expr essed, one must imagine that claims to make war in the name of right will rar ely sound sincer e or seem persuasive to those who believe the truth lies elsewher e – who oppose the war , are disgusted by the tactic, or simply expect themselves to be maimed or killed. 47 Relatedly , cr itical scholar ship has pointed out ho w race , gender , and class continue to be implicated in the legal justifcations made for inter v ention, r eplicating histor ical exper iences of domination of the so-called Global South in the application of inter national la w , including to curb emancipator y str uggles. 48 While not alw ays ruling out the need for militar y action in exceptional circumstances in v olving intentional attacks against ci vilians, some call for pr udence and an o v erwhelming consensus of the inter national community befor e the r esor t to for ce . 49 44 See e .g. P attison (n 39) 276; Mar tti K osk enniemi, ‘ “The Lady Doth Protest T oo Much” K osov o , and the T ur n to Ethics in Inter national La w’ (2002) 65(2) MLR 159, 172–173; Chr istine M Chinkin, ‘A “Good” or “Bad” W ar?’ (1999) 93(4) AJIL 841, 847. Regarding the deaths of some people being mor e ‘g r iev able’, and w or th sa ving or defending, than other s, see Judith Butler , Precar ious Life: The Powers of Mour ning and Violence (V erso 2004); Judith Butler , Frames of W ar: When Is Life Gr iev able? (V er so 2009). On the role of inter national la w in these hierarchies, Thomas Gr egor y , ‘P otential Liv es, Impossible Deaths’ (2012) 14(3) Inter national Feminist J our nal of P olitics 327. But see also a contrasting discussion of selectivity/inconsistency in Alex J Bellam y , ‘The Responsibility to Protect T ur ns T en’ (2015) 29(2) Ethics& Inter national Afair s 161, 171–175. 45 Dar r yl Li, ‘ “Afghan Arabs”, Real and Imag ined’ (2011) 260 Middle East Repor t 2, 7. 46 Anne Orford, ‘What Kind of La w Is This? Liby a and Inter national La w’ ( London Review of Books , 29 March2011) <https://www .lrb .co .uk/blog/2011/mar ch/what-kind-of-la w-is-this> accessed 6 December2023. 47 David K ennedy , ‘La wf are and W arf are’ in James Cra wford and Martti K oskenniemi (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Inter national Law (CUP 2012) 177. 48 See e.g. Kather ine Fallah and Ntina Tzouv ala ‘Deploying Race , Emplo ying For ce: “Afr ican Mercenar ies” and the 2011 NA TO Interv ention in Liby a’ (2021) 67(6) UCLA La w Revie w 1580; Anne-Charlotte Mar tineau, ‘Concer ning Violence: AP ost-Colonial Reading of the Debate on the Use of For ce’ (2016) 29 LJIL 95; P ar vathi Menon, ‘W e’ re (Not) T alkin’ Bout a Rev olution: Anti-Colonial Str uggles and Their (Un)justifcations ( V ölker rec htsblog , 1 J une2021) <https://v oelk er rechtsblo g.org/w ere-not-talkin-bout-a-r ev olution-anti-colonial- str uggles-and-their-unjustifcations/> accessed 20 J une2023. See also regar ding IHL and the r ight to wage w ar , Claire V erger io , W ar , States and Inter national Order (CUP 2022) 259–261. See also Anantha vinay agan and Theilen, § 21.8, in this textbook. 49 See e .g. BS Chimni, ‘Justifcation and Cr itique: Humanitar ianism and Imper ialism Ov er Time’ in Lothar Brock and Hendr ik Simon (eds), The Justifcation of W ar and Inter national Order (OUP 2021) 471, 485 and 487; K uper man (n 36) 136. See also K oskenniemi (n 44) 174, discussing that if ther e is no longer r oom for neutral for malism because of a tur n to ethics in legal argumentation, and while ethics is also politics, it might pro vide space at least for a good or better politics if it could in v olv e a ‘culture of r estraint, a commitment to listening to other s’ (emphasis omitted). 35 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS Finally , appr oaches based in pacifsm or non-violence ha v e long accompanied the de v elopment of inter national la w and are seeing r ene w ed interest. 50 F or some , what is impor tant is that the means used to counter ills such as insecur ity or ter ror ism are ‘consistent with the changes w e wish to br ing about’. 51 On a practical le v el, some r esearchers argue that violent methods ha v e been o v er used and ha v e largely f ailed (e .g. to counter ter r or) while non-violent strateg ies ha v e pr o v en mor e successful. 52 Ev en those suppor ting R2P ha v e reinfor ced the impor tance of pre v enting violence in pr eference to militar y responses once a cr isis breaks out. 53 Once in those cr ises, the dilemma often appear s as one betw een action and inaction, wher e ‘doing something’ tends to be under stood as a militar y r esponse . Refecting this, pacifst or non-violent philosophies ha v e been labelled as o v erly idealistic and morally challeng ing, that remaining neutral or non-acti v e implicates the acceptance of violence and might r einforce the dominant or der . 54 Y et, non violent appr oaches do not equate with doing nothing and might still per suade or e v en be coerci v e . 55 Similarly , ther e is a v ast range of diferent w a ys militar y operations to pr otect ci vilians could be under tak en. 56 Limiting the options to either inter v ening militar ily or standing idly b y arguably b link er s us to other possible r esponses, as w ell as to a situation’ s histor ical and political context; for example , under standing better ho w the earlier in v olv ement of other States and inter national institutions might ha v e contr ibuted to the situation at hand. 57 Some thus belie v e pacifst and non-violent 50 W allace (n 14); Richard J ackson, ‘The Challenges of P acifsm and Non violence in the T w enty-Fir st Centur y’ (2023) 1 J our nal of P acifsm and Non violence 28, 30; Alexandre Chr istoy annopoulos, ‘Pacifsm and Non violence: Discer ning the Contour s of an Emerg ing Multidisciplinar y Research Agenda’ (2023) 1 J our nal of P acifsm and Non violence 1; Helen Dexter , ‘Pacifsm and the Pr oblem of Pr otecting Others’ (2019) 56 Inter national P olitics 243; J erem y Moses, ‘Anarch y , P acifsm and Realism: Building a P ath to a Non-Violent Inter national Law’ (2018) 6(2) Cr itical Studies on Secur ity 221. 51 S Lindahl, ‘A CTS Model of Counter ter r or ism’ (2017) 10(3) Cr itical Studies on T er ror ism 523, 528–29. See also W allace (n 14) 13, 25–27, arguing that the pr oblem of disag r eement about the ends requir es us to der i ve leg itimacy fr om the means w e emplo y; Hannah Arendt, On Violence (Har cour t Brace J ov ano vich 1970) 4: ‘the end is in danger of being o v erwhelmed by the means which it justifes and which ar e needed to reach it’. 52 See e.g. Richar d Jackson ‘CTS , Counter ter r or ism and Non-Violence’ (2017) 10(2) Cr itical Studies on T er ror ism 357; MJ Stephan and E Cheno w eth, ‘Why Ci vil Resistance W orks: The Strateg ic Logic of Non violent Confict’ (2008) 33(1) Inter national Secur ity 7–44; W allace (n 14) ch 2. 53 Bellamy (n 33) 427–429, 434–435. 54 Chr isto yannopoulos (n 50) 11; J Ashle y Foster , ‘Wr iting W as Her Fighting: Three Guineas as a P acifst Response to T otal W ar’ in Kathr yn Stelmach Ar tuso (ed), Cr itical Insights: Virginia W oolf and 20th Centur y W omen Wr iters (Salem Pr ess 2014) 59; Richard J ackson, ‘Pacifsm: The Anatom y of a Subjugated Kno wledge’ (2018) 6(2) Cr itical Studies on Secur ity 160, 167. 55 Jackson (n 54) 166; W allace (n 14). 56 Jennifer W elsh, ‘Civilian Pr otection in Lib ya: Putting Coer cion and Contro v er sy Back into RtoP’ (2011) 25(3) Ethics& Inter national Afair s 255, 261. 57 Gina Heathcote, The Law on the Use of Force: AFeminist Anal ysis (T aylor& Francis 2011) 4, 29; Anne Orfor d, Reading Humanitar ian Inter vention: Human Rights and the Use of Force in International Law (CUP 2003) 15; Sundh ya P ahuja, ‘ “Don’ t Just Do Something, Stand Ther e!” Humanitar ian Inter v ention and the Dr o wning Stranger’ (2005) 5 Human Rights& Human W elf are 51, 52–53. 36 MARNIE LLOYDD appr oaches can open up spaces for alter nativ e discussions, destabilising assumptions about militar ism, and might ha v e potential for being mor e global and inclusiv e than the cur r ent inter national system. 58 III . CONTES TED N A TUR E OF CIV ILIA N C A SU AL TIE S DURI NG THE PRO TEC TION OF CIVILIANS In Lib y a in 2011, civilians in se v eral areas became v er y unsafe because of the fghting and man y w ere killed or injur ed. This har m w as r epor tedly caused b y all par ties. 59 Once an ar med confict star ts, IHL places limits on the means and methods of w ag ing w ar to pr otect those not par ticipating (e .g. civilians) and no longer par ticipating (e .g. w ounded or captured combatants). Refecting the non-pacifst natur e of the inter national legal system, IHL does not pr ohibit violence outr ight, ev en violence afecting ci vilians. Rather , trade-ofs for mulated within IHL accept that w ar s will happen but place r estraints on war r ing par ties, balancing humanitar ian pr otections with militar y necessity . 60 Concr etely , although IHL pr ohibits direct and indiscr iminate attacks against ci vilians, it accepts cer tain incidental har m, kno wn colloquially as ‘collateral damage’ (dur ing pr opor tionate attacks on militar y objectiv es under tak en with sufcient pr ecautions to a v oid civilian har m). 61 Imag ine , for example , an air str ik e targeting enem y for ces which also kills a nearby ci vilian. This means that a ci vilian casualty in Lib y a in 2011 might or might not be a result of a violation of IHL depending on the cir cumstances. IHL is f ar less pr otecti v e than the r ules otherwise regulating for ce , such as dur ing la w enforcement operations b y the police . 62 IHL adv ocates argue in suppor t of the vital r estraints IHL places on w ar r ing par ties and point out ho w benefcial increased compliance w ould be in pr otecting people dur ing w ar ; moreo v er , that IHL also does much good that goes unnoticed. 63 Other commentator s appear less enamour ed with IHL. On the abstract lev el, one might accept some har m to b ystander s as una v oidable and par t of the ‘lesser e vil’. Y et, 58 Jackson (n 54) 169; Neta C Cra wfor d, ‘The Cr itical Challenge of P acifsm and Non violent Resistance Then and No w’ (2023) 1 J our nal of P acifsm and Non violence 140; Karen C Sok ol, ‘East Meets W est in Civil Disobedience Theor y and Bey ond’ in Giuliana Ziccardi Capaldo (ed), The Global Comm unity Y earbook of Inter national Law and Jur isprudence 2015 (OUP 2016) 125; W allace (n 14) 253–254 r egarding pa ying attention to the enem y other’ s moral framew orks. 59 Repor t of the Inter national Commission of Inquir y on Liby a, A/HRC/19/68, 8 March2012, [87]–[89]. 60 See e.g. ICRC , ‘The Pr inciples of Humanity and Necessity’ (March2023) <www .icrc .org/sites/def ault/fles/ wysiwyg/w ar-and-law/02_humanity_and_necessity-0.pdf> accessed 20 J une2023. See also Uday Singh Mehta, ‘Gandhi and the Common Logic of W ar and P eace’ (2010) 30(1) Rar itan 134, 147 on IHL pr oviding moral constraint but accepting the lo g ic braiding together w ar , peace, and politics. 61 See Dienelt and Ullah, § 14, in this textbook. 62 See ICRC, Violence and the Use of Force (ICRC J uly2011). 63 Helen Durham, ‘Atrocities in Confict Mean W e Need the Genev a Con v entions More Than Ev er’ ( The Guardian , 5 Apr il2016) <www .theguardian.com/global-de v elopment/2016/apr/05/atr ocities-in-confict- mean-w e-need-the-genev a-con v entions-more-than-e v er> accessed 20 J une2023. 37 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS man y people w ould be unwilling to accept this if they w ere dir ectly afected, and in practice , not all populations ar e subject to the same r isks. Mor eo v er , in the moment, it pr esumably matter s little to a f amily whether the bombs they ar e feeing w ere launched compliantly or not; and, in practice , in v estigations into such civilian har m allegations often str uggle to pr onounce defnitiv ely whether an attack w as pr opor tionate or not, or e v en to deter mine who is a civilian. 64 IHL ’ s acceptance that ci vilians can be la wfully (albeit incidentally) killed, e v en dur ing operations intended to pr otect them, can ther efore cr eate an underlying uneasiness. As such, some commentator s consider IHL to ha v e been for m ulated to pr i vilege militar y necessity o v er humanitar ian considerations. 65 Exper ience also sho ws that confict par ties ha v e at times argued, especially r elated to counter ter r or ism, that existing r ules w er e insufcient or inapplicable to the r esponse needed for an exceptional threat. 66 This is seen to r isk a g radual loosening of the r ules, 67 par ticularly where an operation is for a ‘good cause’ and the underlying ‘f ault’ for the violence is percei v ed to lie with the ‘ter r or ists’ or other ‘bad guys’. 68 Despite a stated pur pose of pr otecting civilians, the aim might actually be to defeat the enem y , with incr eased r isks for civilians. 69 Stepping fur ther back, when IHL w as fr st codifed in the 19th centur y , some hoped that r ules restraining the means and methods of w arf are could pr og ressi v ely lead to g reater r estr ictions and ultimately the elimination of w ar . Other s feared that such rules w ould operate to shift focus to the legal technicalities, postponing calls in peace activism for the abolition of w ar . 70 More r ecent UN ‘W omen, P eace , and Secur ity’ initiativ es, which endor sed g reater institutional par ticipation of w omen in peace-building and w ere perhaps hoped b y w omen’ s netw orks to pr og r essi v ely transfor m militar ism, ha v e arguably r esulted in a similar mufing of impor tant feminist peace activism and cr itiques 64 Chr istiane Wilk e , ‘Civilians, Combatants, and Histor ies of Inter national Law’ ( Cr itical Legal Thinking , 28 J uly2014) <https://cr iticallegalthinking.com/2014/07/28/civilians-combatants-histor ies-inter national-la w/> accessed 20 J une2023. 65 Chr is AF Jochnick and Ro ger Nor mand, ‘The Leg itimation of Violence: ACr itical Histor y of the La ws of W ar’ (1994) 35(1) HILJ 49, 65, 68; Amanda Alexander , ‘A Shor t Histor y of Inter national Humanitar ian La w’ (2015) 26(1) EJIL 109, 113. 66 Michael Glennon, ‘Forg ing a Third W a y to Fight; “Bush Doctr ine” for Combating T er ror ism Straddles Divide Betw een Cr ime and W ar’ ( Legal Times , 24 September2001) 68, discussed in Frédér ic Még ret, ‘ “W ar”? Legal Semantics and the Mo v e to Violence’ (2002) 13(2) EJIL 361, 386. 67 Amanda Alexander , ‘The Ethics of Violence: Recent Literature on the Cr eation of the Contemporar y Reg ime of La w and W ar’ (2021) J our nal of Genocide Research 1, 13. 68 See e.g. ICRC (n 15) 45–47. 69 Ibid 47. 70 André Durand, ‘Gusta v e Mo ynier and the P eace Societies’ (1996) IRRC 314; Samuel Mo yn, ‘From Antiw ar to Antitor ture P olitics’ in Sarat and other s (eds), Law and W ar (Stanford Uni v er sity Press 2014) 154; Sam uel Mo yn, Humane: How the United States Abandoned Peace and Reinvented W ar (Far rar, Strauss and Gir oux 2021); David K ennedy , Of Law and W ar (Pr inceton Univ er sity Press 2006); Marnie Lloydd, ‘ “AFe w Not T oo T r oublesome Restr ictions”: Humanitar ianism, Solidar ity , Anti-Militar ism, P eace’ ( Cr itical Legal Thinking , 22 No v ember2022) <https://cr iticallegalthinking.com/2022/11/22/a-fe w-not-too-troub lesome-restr ictions-humanitar ianism- solidar ity-anti-militar ism-peace/> accessed 20 June2023; Dianne Otto , ‘Rethinking “P eace” in Inter national La w and P olitics fr om a Queer Feminist P er spectiv e’ (2020) 126 Feminist Re view 19, 27–30. 38 MARNIE LLOYDD of militar ism. 71 Relatedly , some argue that the denunciation of certain for ms of violence as par ticularly pr oblematic , such as the prosecution of w ar cr imes, creates a boundar y which nor malises other for ms of violence . 72 T o conclude , while the for mulation of IHL fts within the lo g ic of the cur rent inter national legal system, and the humanitar ian consequences of ar med confict w ould undoubtedly be less disastr ous if w ar r ing par ties complied mor e f aithfully with IHL, mor e cr itical arguments that IHL might ultimately f acilitate and leg itimate rather than successfully r estrain violence also hold some w eight. 73 Ey al W eizman descr ibes ho w some violence occur s with the ‘ter r ible for ce of the la w’ rather than in violation of it. 74 IV . I NTER NA TI ON AL L A W OR VIOLENCE, INTERNA TIONAL L A W AN D VI OLENCE, INTERNA TIONAL L A W AS VIOLENCE ? The pr eceding discussion suggests that it becomes o v erly simplistic to say that la w and w ar ar e of tw o diferent w orlds – that in w ar , la w f alls silent or that the pr esence of violence aler ts us to la w’ s f ailings. 75 More accurately , while diferent instances of violence ma y indeed be of a difer ent nature or pur pose , w e can reco gnise the complex r elationship(s) betw een inter national la w and violence . They ar e not of tw o diferent w orlds r ub bing up against each other but ar e already ‘an old couple’. 76 In practice , inter national la w and violence are certainly interconnected since legal argumentation has become a k e y par t of w arfghting, often refer red to as ‘la wf are’. 77 Concer ning legal theor y , scholar s argue that if w e could r each that utopia where peace and secur ity w er e maintained, the la w w ould lose its dr iving for ce; that violence helps establish or construct the la w by g i ving it meaning and social rele v ance . 78 P ar t of the social r elev ance of violence to the la w relates to an assumption that w e cannot (y et) hav e both secur ity and non-violence . Secur ity and violence ar e under stood as a natural and ne v er-ending dilemma that needs to be reconciled b y fnding an appr opr iate balance , 71 Dianne Otto , ‘W omen, P eace, and Secur ity: ACr itical Analysis of the Secur ity Council’ s Vision’ in Fionnuala Ní Aoláin and others (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Gender and Confict (OUP 2018); Sher i Gibbings, ‘Go v er ning W omen, Go v er ning Secur ity: Go v er nmentality , Gender Mainstreaming and W omen’ s Activism at the UN’ (LLM Thesis, Y ork Univ er sity , T or onto 2004), 67–68. 72 Alexander (n 67) 2; Heathcote (n 57) 22. 73 See also Kennedy (n 47) 181. 74 Eyal W eizman, ‘Leg islativ e Attack’ (2010) 27(6) Theor y , Culture& Society 11, 12. 75 Kennedy (n 47) 158. See also Austin Sarat and Thomas K ear ns, Law’ s Violence (Univ er sity of Michigan Press 1995) 2. 76 V anja Hamzić, ‘Inter national La w as Violence: Competing Absences of the Other’ in Dianne Otto (ed), Queer ing Inter national Law: Possibilities , Alliances , Complication, Risks (T aylor& Francis 2017) 77. 77 See e.g. K ennedy (n 47); La wrence Douglas and others ‘Law and W ar : An Intr oduction’ in Sarat and other s (eds), Law and W ar (Stanford Univ er sity Press 2014) 3–4. 78 Hamzić (n 76) 77; Ntina Tzouvala, ‘Ey e in the Sky: Drones, the (Human) Ticking-Time Bomb Scenar io and La w’ s Inhumanity’ ( Cr itical Legal Thinking , 19 Apr il2016) <https://cr iticallegalthinking.com/2016/04/19/ey e- sky-dr ones-human-ticking-time-bomb-scenar io-la ws-inhumanity/> accessed 20 June2023. 39 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS such that cer tain for ms of violence remain a necessar y evil. 79 La w w orks to defne the boundar ies/balance of what is percei v ed to be needed. Austin Sarat’ s statement about la w mor e generally seems to apply also to inter national la w: la w ‘is alw ays violent b ut ne v er only violent; alw a ys or iented to w ards justice b ut nev er fully just’. 80 D . C ONCL USION K e y instr uments of inter national la w , such as the UN Char ter or the Genev a Con v entions 1949, ar e commonly seen as signifcant milestones marking pro g ressi v e achie v ement to war ds the ‘abandonment of the use of force’ and full disar mament. 81 As such, the basic design of collecti v e secur ity might be seen as the only ‘stable w orkhor se’ a v ailable , its imperfect functioning being pr imar ily due to a lack of gen uine willingness of States, 82 as w ell as to the realist vie w that cer tain actor s need to be allo w ed to retain their ar ms in order to enfor ce the disar mament and defend themselv es or other s. 83 Other think er s appear less willing to sit in the ‘not y et’ of peace and justice , and view inter national la w as ha ving a more contested, e v en conspirator y , r ole in violence . Consider , for example , Dianne Otto’ s question about ‘ho w la w helps to r epr oduce the ine vitability of the deadly , anthr opocentr ic, imper ial, neoliberal militar y-industr ial- complex’ and ‘whether there r emain any r emnants of oppor tunity in la w’ with which one might y et w ork if one w anted to imag ine alter nati v e notions of peace . 84 In that dire descr iption, cur rent inter national la w no longer appear s as an aspirational v ehicle for making the w orld a better place . Rather , the logic, practice , and demonstrated interests of the entir e system are being cr itiqued and challenged. The point is not only ho w challeng ing these questions ar e , but rather the r esulting plurality of vie ws on violence and inter national law . Difer ent thinkers and actor s will ha v e diferent r eadings of a situation of violence , and diferent legal, political, and moral judgements and arguments in their application of inter national la w . Inter national legal argument might appear neutral or uni v er sal – for example , when an actor or institution claims to be acting objecti v ely in the interests of humanity or for the common good – but the arguments being r elied upon will be based on cer tain underlying assumptions about the w orld, about inter national la w , and about par ticular author ities being ab le to mak e those deter minations. 85 The v alues being pr ior itised ar e not necessar ily held in common, and can also change o v er time and in difer ent political contexts, or in hindsight. Descr ibing inter national la w as a con v er sation, David K ennedy sa ys 79 See also Mehta (n 60). 80 Austin Sarat, ‘Situating Law Betw een the Realities of Violence and the Claims of Justice: An Intr oduction’ in Austin Sarat (ed), Violence , and the Possibility of Justice (Pr inceton Uni versity Press 2001) 13. 81 Atlantic Char ter betw een the United States and the United Kingdom 1941, fnal pro vision. 82 W eller (n 10) 642–643. 83 Ibid 629. 84 Otto (n 70) 21. 85 Jan Klab ber s, Inter national Law (CUP 2013), 3–4; Orford (n 14) 193. 40 MARNIE LLOYDD [i]nternational law r eminds us to pay attention to opinion elsewher e in the world, to think about consistency over time, to r emember that what we do today may come back to haunt us ... international law only rar ely of fers a defnitive judgment on who is right. 86 Regar ding not only ar med violence b ut most issues of interest to inter national law , inter national la wy er s should, then, look closely and empathetically at the par ticular context, but also consciously and contin ually step back to r efect cr itically about the bigger pictur e . 87 Rather than only w orking out what, in one’ s opinion, the la w sa ys, it becomes impor tant to pa y attention to nar rativ es being used about an y instance of violence , b y whom, to ser v e what pur pose , and with what political consequence . Mor eo v er , who gets to decide? Cr itical refection can also include considerations of ‘when, ho w , and at the behest of whom those r ules ha v e emerged and dev eloped’. 88 This fnal section, ther efore , pr oposes questions which may help foster exploration of students’ individual legal, political, and moral positions ar ound the complex and endur ing relationships betw een violence and inter national la w . • What language is being used in political or public dialo gue to descr ibe the violence or the par ties in v olv ed? By whom? For what pur pose? • What v alues are being expr essed by a particular actor’ s position? Is it being descr ibed as objecti v e, uni v er sal, or in the common interest? • If the one who can defne or decide what is leg itimate and what is not is the one with tr ue p owe r, 89 who is deciding in the situation at hand? • Do the acts of violence repr oduce any po w er dynamics that made those acts possible in the fr st place? In y our view , ‘[i]s violence necessar y at times, and if so , does it, or can it, put an end to fur ther violence’ in the context at hand? 90 • In what w a ys has compliance with the la w pr otected people fr om har m? Or put them at r isk of har m? • In which situations could a non-violent option ha v e been chosen, or in what situations w ere non-violent r esponses rejected or made impossib le? What futur e paths do those decisions possibly close of? What might ha v e been the imag inable r esults of other possible paths not tak en or activ ely r ejected? • Is ‘w ar talk’ used to frame a cr isis, threat, or pr oblem (e .g. w ar on dr ugs, fght against climate change)? T o what efect? 91 86 David K ennedy , The Dark Side of Virtue: Reassessing Inter national Humanitar ianism (Pr inceton Univ er sity Press 2004), 273. 87 Anne Orford, ‘The P olitics of Collectiv e Secur ity’ (1996) 17(2) MJIL 373, 407–409. 88 Helen M Kinsella and Gio vanni Mantilla, ‘Contestation Befor e Compliance: Histor y , P olitics, and P o w er in Inter national Humanitar ian Law’ (2020) 64(3) ISQ 649, 653. 89 Richard De vetak, ‘P ost-Structuralism’ in Burchill and others (eds), Theor ies of Inter national Relations (5th edn, Bloomsbury 2013) 194 citing Der r ida. 90 See discussion in Aisha Kar im and Br uce B Lawr ence , On Violence: AReader (Duke Uni v er sity Press 2007) 78 citing Fanon. 91 Eliana Cusato , ‘Bey ond W ar Nar rati v es: La ying Bare the Str uctural Violence of the P andemic’ in Makane Moïse Mbengue and J ean D’Aspremont (eds), Crisis Nar ratives in International Law (Br ill 2022) 109. 41 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS BOX 2.1.2 Further Readings and Further Resour ces Further Readings · A Alexander , ‘The Ethics of Violence: Recent Literature on the Cr eation of the Contemporary Regime of Law and W ar’ (2021) Journal of Genocide Resear ch 1 · H Dexter , ‘Peace and Violence’ in Paul D W illiams and Matt McDonald (eds), Security Studies: An Intr oduction (3r d edn, Routledge 2018) · D Kennedy , ‘Lawfar e and W arfare’ in James Crawfor d and Martti Koskenniemi (eds), The Cambridge Companion to International Law (CUP 2012) · M Koskenniemi, ‘ “The Lady Doth Pr otest T oo Much” Kosovo, and the T urn to Ethics in International Law’ (2002) 65(2) MLR 159 · A Martineau, ‘Concerning Violence: APost-Colonial Reading of the Debate on the Use of For ce’ (2016) 29 LJIL 95 Further Resour ces · Gavin Hood, ‘Eye in the Sky’ (Entertainment One 2015) (Film) · Olivier Sarbil, Mosul (PBS/Frontline 2017) (Documentary Series) · Brad Evans and others, Portraits of Violence: An Illustrated History of Radical Thinking (New Internationalist 2017) § § § 48 DANIEL RICARDO QUIROGA-VILLAMARÍN deli v ered b y a so v ereign author ity , 115 he w as sceptical that there could r eally be ‘la w’ in the non-hierar chical str uctur es of inter-polity relations. W ithout supranational enfor cement, there can be no inter national law ‘str ictly so called’. Inter national la wy er s hav e str i v ed to f ace this ‘Austinian challenge’. 116 Consider ing that Austin himself exper ienced ‘self-distr ust’ thr oughout his intellectual career , 117 it is perhaps ir onic that his wr itings ultimately transfer red some of these ‘institutional anxieties’ to the inter national legal pr ofession. 118 Some scholar s ha v e embraced its alleged ‘incompleteness’, often b y defending the inter national legal order as a ‘pr imiti v e’ but functional system. 119 Others ha v e r esisted the analogy betw een domestic and inter national la w . 120 In 1995, Franck claimed that inter national la w had enter ed its ‘post-ontolo g ical era’, a time when ‘[i]ts la wy er s need no longer defend [its] v er y existence’. 121 Ho w e v er , as he w as quick to concede , 122 this early optimism – so typical of the post–Cold W ar Nor th Atlantic f aith in liberal legalism 123 – could do with some Austinian scepticism, as questions of non-compliance still haunt the discipline . 124 F or better or w or se , w e ha v e been unable to fully exor cise Austin’ s spectre . In what follo ws, Ir evie w ho w diferent schools of inter national legal thought ha v e attempted, ev en if unsuccessfully , to do so . 125 C . ‘DI FF ERE NT W A Y S OF T HINKING ’ ABOU T C OMPL IANCE 12 6 Despite Austin’ s challenge , it seems that ‘almost all nations obser v e almost all pr inciples of inter national la w and almost all of their obligations almost all of the time’, as Henkin once speculated. 127 Ov er time , Eur opean and US traditions hav e tended to div erge in 115 Ibid 18. 116 Ignacio De La Rasilla Del Moral, ‘The Shifting Or ig ins of Inter national La w’ (2015) 28 LJIL 419, 425. 117 HLA Har t, ‘Introduction’ in The Province of Jur isprudence Deter mined: and, The Uses of the Stud y of Jur isprudence (Hack ett 1998) viii. 118 See González Hauck, § 1, in this textbook. 119 Y oram Dinstein, ‘Inter national Law as a Pr imitiv e Legal System’ (1986) 19 NYUJILP 1. 120 Ian Hurd, ‘The Inter national Rule of La w and the Domestic Analogy’ (2015) 4 GlobCon 365. 121 Thomas Franck, Fairness in Inter national Law and Institutions (OUP 1995) 6. 122 Thomas Franck, ‘The P o w er of Leg itimacy and the Leg itimacy of P o w er : Inter national Law in an Age of P o w er Disequilibr ium’ (2006) 100 AJIL 88, 91. 123 Daniel Ricardo Quir oga-Villamar ín, ‘Fr om Speaking T r uth to P o w er to Speaking P o w er’ s T r uth: T ransnational Judicial Acti vism in an Increasingly Illiberal W orld’ in Lena Riemer and other s (eds), Cynical Inter national Law? Abuse and Circumv ention in Public International and European Law (Spr inger 2020) 11–133. 124 Michael Bothe , ‘Compliance in Inter national Law’ ( Oxford Bib liographies , 2020) <https://o xfordbiblio g raphies. com/view/document/obo-9780199796953/obo-9780199796953-0213.xml> 125 Benedict Kingsbur y , ‘The Concept of Compliance as a Function of Competing Conceptions of Inter national La w’ (1998) 19 MichJIntlL 345. 126 With apolo g ies to Andr ea Bianchi, Inter national Law Theories: An Inquir y into Diferent W a ys of Thinking (OUP 2016). 127 Louis Henkin, How Nations Behave: Law and Foreign Policy (Council on F oreign Relations 1968) 42. 49 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS ho w to mak e sense of this f act. Ifocus on these rather par ochial schools not because of their analytical pr ecision, but because the y became dominant thr ough force or per suasion in ‘almost all’ countr ies thr oughout the 20th centur y . 128 In a global textbook that aspir es to reach an inter national audience Ichose to focus on these traditions not in spite of but because of their imper ial signifcance . I. I NTER NA TI ONA L L A W A S A S YS TE M : E URO PEAN APP ROA CHES Eur opean traditions emphasised the systematicity of inter national la w , arguing that nor ms did not operate on the basis of single regulations b ut w ere link ed in a dense ar rangement ‘within a hierar chy , composing to gether a coherent lo g ical or der’. 129 Building on this ‘Ger manic’ focus, 130 the y defended inter national la w – albeit with melancholy about the defciencies of this inter national system compar ed to the ‘mature’ domestic State . 131 ‘Lik e a Phoenix’, diferent iterations of this argument ha v e surf aced in 20th-centur y mainstream inter national legal thought, 132 with echoes found in later debates r egarding fragmentation, 133 or Global Constitutionalism. 134 An example of this can be found in the ‘Gr otian tradition’. While the 19th centur y has been r ead as one mark ed by the r ise of ‘positi v e’ law , 135 natural la w commitments ha v e r emained str ong in the inter national legal pr ofession w ell into the present da y . 136 In his 1946 ar ticle defending (and perhaps ‘in v enting’) this tradition, 137 Lauter pacht argues that a ‘Gr otian’ approach placed ‘the v alue of human will as an agency shaping the destiny of men [ sic ]’ at the forefr ont of the goals of inter national la w 138 and subjected ‘the totality of inter national r elations to the r ule of la w’. 139 A ‘Gr otian’ r ejoinder to Austin argues that one cannot under stand ho w inter national la w is enforced without pa ying attention to these higher v alues, for the y explain why ‘members of good societies ag r ee to liv e in peace and expect mutual benefts’ fr om mutual cooperation. 140 Reco gnising that law 128 Anghie , ‘T o w ards a P ostcolonial Inter national La w’ (n 111) 127. 129 Ey al Ben v enisti, ‘The Conception of Inter national La w as a Legal System’ (2008) 50 GYIL 393. 130 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, ‘Betw een Coordination and Constitution: Inter national Law as a Ger man Discipline’ (2011) 15 Redescr iptions 45. 131 Daniel Ricardo Quir oga-Villamar ín, ‘Black Flo w er s of Civilization: Violence , Colonial Institutions, and the La w in Coetzee’ s W aiting for the Barbar ians’ (2020) 2 The Graduate Press 37. 132 Bianchi (n 126) 39–43. 133 Mar tti Kosk enniemi and Päi vi Leino , ‘Fragmentation of Inter national Law? P ostmoder n Anxieties’ (2002) 15 LJIL 553. 134 Anne P eter s, ‘The Mer its of Global Constitutionalism’ (2009) 16 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 397; Bianchi (n 126) 44–71. 135 Stephen Nef, Justice among Nations: AHistor y of Inter national Law (Har v ard Uni v ersity Press 2014) 215; Mónica García-Salmones-Ro vira, The Project of Positivism in Inter national Law (OUP 2013). 136 Stephen Hall, ‘The P er sistent Specter : Natural La w , Inter national Order and the Limits of Legal P ositi vism’ (2001) 12 EJIL 269. 137 Er ic Hobsba wm, ‘Introduction: In v enting T raditions’ in Er ic Hobsbawm and T erence Ranger (eds), The Invention of T radition (CUP 2012) 1–14. 138 Her sch Lauter pacht, ‘The Gr otian T radition of Inter national Law’ (1946) 23 BYBIL 1, 5. 139 Ibid 19. 140 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, ‘Imag ining the Rule of La w: Rereading the Gr otian “T radition” ’ (2019) 30 EJIL 17. 50 DANIEL RICARDO QUIROGA-VILLAMARÍN and morality ar e separate spheres of kno wledge , the Gr otian argues that one cannot fully expunge the ‘human sense of justice’ fr om the (inter national) legal system. 141 This does not mean one should expect the inter national legal or der to be upheld in ev er y occasion. It can fnd itself questioned and challenged, but ho w ev er long the ar c of the moral uni v er se might be , it ultimately bends to w ards justice . 142 Gaps in enforcement ar e but a signal of inter national la w’ s incompleteness. Other per specti v es responded to Austin fr om within legal positivism. Gi v en that the most f amous positivist authors, K elsen and Har t, ar e fur ther discussed in this v olume , Iwill only highlight the cr ucial r ole of ‘pr imitiv eness’ in their appr oaches to enfor cement. 143 Har t, a for mer student of Austin, noted in The Concept of Law that inter national la w w as mark ed by its ‘absence of an inter national leg islatur e , cour ts with compulsor y jur isdiction, and centrally organized sanctions’ 144 – ear ning him ‘few fr iends’ in our discipline . 145 Har t considered that inter national la w’ s lack of ‘secondar y r ules’ (meta-nor ms go v er ning the making or breaking of pr imar y obligations, including those that cr eate consequences for non-compliance), under mined inter national la w’ s systematicity . Mor eo v er , Har t noted that ‘[o]ne of the most per sistent sour ces of per plexity about the obligatory character of inter national has been the difculty felt in accepting or explaining the f act that a state which is so v ereign ma y also be bound b y ... inter national la w’. 146 Eur opean legal thought took Har t’ s seemingly unsolv able con undr um to ‘squar e the cir cle’ of compliance . In the f amous S .S . Wimb ledon case of 1923, the PCIJ concluded that the ‘the r ight of enter ing into inter national engagements is an attr ib ute of state so v er eignty’ – ev en if such ag reement entails ‘an abandonment’ of so v er eignty . 147 K elsen also lamented the ‘pr imitiv eness’ of the inter national order . 148 In his 1953 Hague Academ y lectur es, he concluded that ‘pr imiti v e jur idical communities’ are those in which sanctions ar e y et to be centralised 149 – a condition that, alas, also holds tr ue for the ‘inter national community’. 150 This didn’ t under mine inter national la w’ s claim to be a system, but it entailed that it w as one with ‘decentralised’ enfor cement mechanisms, often r equir ing par ties to seek justice thr ough their o wn measures. 151 Lik e his Gr otian contemporar ies, K elsen defended inter national la w’ s incompleteness and eagerly 141 J anne Nijman, ‘Gr otius’ ‘Rule of La w’ and the Human Sense of Justice: An Afterw ord to Martti Kosk enniemi’ s For ew ord’ (2019) 30 EJIL 1105. 142 With apolo g ies to Samuel Mo yn, ‘Dignity’ s Due’ ( The Nation , 16 October2013) <www .thenation.com/ ar ticle/archi v e/dignitys-due/> accessed 25 August2023. 143 Etkin and Green, § 3.1, in this textbook. 144 HLA Har t, The Concept of Law (2nd edn, OUP 1994) 214. 145 Da vid Lefk o witz, ‘What Mak es a Social Order Pr imitiv e? In Defense of Har t’ s T ak e on Inter national La w’ (2017) 23 Legal Theor y 258. 146 Har t, The Concept of Law (n 144). 220. 147 PCIJ , Case of the S .S . ‘Wimbledon’ (17 August1923) 25. 148 J ochen v on Ber nstorf, The Public Inter national Law Theory of Hans Kelsen: Believing in Universal Law (CUP 2010) 90–93. 149 Hans K elsen, Théor ie Du Droit Inter national Public (1994) 84 RdC 71. 150 Ibid 11. 151 Charles Leben, ‘Hans K elsen and the Adv ancement of Inter national La w’ (1998) 9 EJIL 287, 289–292. 51 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS anticipated its maturation thr ough the establishment of per manent and supranational institutions – cour ts and tr ibunals chief among them. Both positi vist and natural- la w–infected traditions in Eur ope sa w the Austinian challenge as an incentiv e to w ork to w ards the ‘completion’ of the inter national legal system. In their view , inter national la w – ho w ev er ‘pr imiti v e’ – was ne v er only ‘a random collection’ of nor ms but perhaps a system (fa w ed, but impr o v able and ultimately lo v able) in its o wn ter ms. 152 II . INTE RN A T IO NAL L A W A S A PROC ESS : US PER SPEC TI V ES US legal thought took another path. Instead of focusing on inter national la w’ s systematicity , this tradition for eg r ounded the processes of inter national la w-making, enfor cement, and non-compliance . Inspired b y legal r ealist thought, 153 Unitedstateseans do wnpla y ed the impor tance of legal concepts, studying instead ho w actor s used inter national legal r emedies to enforce r ights. 154 The best example of this mo v ement can be found in tw o 1968 student casebooks: Inter national Legal Process b y Abram Cha y es, Thomas Ehrlich, and Andr eas Lo w enfeld, 155 and T ransnational Legal Prob lems b y Detlev V agts and Henr y Steiner . 156 These tw o books sho w the decisi v e infuence of a realist concer n for pr ocess o v er substance that w ould be character istic of this tur n. In cer tain cir cles, this appr oach w ould still place cer tain ‘human values’ or ‘leg itimacy’ at the for efr ont, especially in the so-called New Ha v en School 157 and in the later Manhattan School. 158 In an y case , US engagement with the empir ical methods of the social sciences – especially to measur e compliance – did mark an impor tant difer ence with Eur opean traditions. 159 This concer n for pr ocess has been infuential, especially when it comes to enforcement. Asurge of inter v entions ha v e called for its rene w al: fr om ‘New Inter national Legal Pr ocess’ 160 to a ‘ne w New Ha v en School’ 161 or a ‘New Realist Appr oach’. 162 Agood 152 ILC , Conclusions of the w ork of the Study Gr oup on the Fragmentation of Inter national La w (2006) UN Doc A/61/10, para 251. 153 For an o v er view , see J ustin Desautels-Stein, The Jur isprudence of Style: AStructuralist History of Amer ican Pragmatism and Liber al Legal Thought (CUP 2018); J ohn Henr y Schlegel, American Legal Realism and Empir ical Social Science (Univ er sity of Nor th Car olina Press 2011); AL Escor ihuela, ‘Alf Ross: T o war ds a Realist Cr itique and Reconstr uction of Inter national Law’ (2003) 14 EJIL 703. 154 Dinah Shelton, Remedies in Inter national Human Rights Law (2nd edn, OUP 2006). 155 Abram Cha y es, Thomas Ehrlich, and Andreas Lo w enfeld, Inter national Legal Process: Mater ials for an Introductor y Course (Little , Bro wn 1968). 156 Detlev V agts and Henr y Steiner , T ransnational Legal Problems; Materials and T ext (F oundation Press 1968). 157 Michael Reisman, Siegfr ied Wiessner , and Andre w Willard, ‘The Ne w Ha v en School: ABr ief Introduction’ (2007) 32 YJIL 575; Bianchi, Inter national Law Theor ies (n 126) 91–109. 158 Samuel Mo yn, ‘The Inter national La w That Is Amer ica: Refections on the Last Chapter of the Gentle Civilizer of Nations’ (2013) 27 T empInt’l& CompLJ 399, 403–405. 159 T om Ginsburg, Daniel Abebe , and Adam Chilton, ‘The Social Science Appr oach to Inter national La w’ (2021) 22 Chicago JIL 1. See also Ry an Goodman and Derek Jinks, Socializing States: Promoting Human Rights Through Inter national Law (OUP 2013); Steininger and P aige, § 4.2, in this textbook. 160 Mar y Ellen O’Connell, ‘New Inter national Legal Process’ (1999) 93 AJIL 334. 161 Har old Hongju K oh, ‘Is There a ‘Ne w’ New Ha v en School of Inter national Law?’ (2007) 106 YJIL 2599. 162 Gregory Shafer , ‘The New Legal Realist Appr oach to Inter national La w’ (2015) 28 LJIL 189. 52 DANIEL RICARDO QUIROGA-VILLAMARÍN example is the tide of inter est in ‘T ransnational La w’ 163 – a ter m fr st coined by J essup in 1956 to theor ise the inter stices of public/pr i v ate and domestic/inter national that has since tak en ‘man y liv es’. 164 This focus on ‘pr oblems and pr ocess’ – to paraphrase the title of Rosalyn Higg ins’ f amous monog raph fr om 1994 165 – has no w been widely accepted. In contemporar y scholar ship , the impr int of this US foreg r ounding of ‘pr ocess’ shines br ightly in Global Administrativ e La w , 166 inquir ies into ‘infor mal’ la w-making, 167 and Inter national La w and Economics. 168 D . C ONCL USION F or better or w or se , inter national legal thought is also haunted by dichotomies. 169 Most legal theor ies g r ound their appr oach in an intr insic diference betw een categor ies lik e public/pr i v ate , nor mativity/morality , domestic/inter national, and la w-making/la w-breaking – often with ter r ible consequences, as feminist legal cr itique has con vincingly argued. 170 Sadly , this chapter is also organised ar ound a ser ies of binar ies including US/Eur opean and system/pr ocess. Ido not ofer them as fx ed categor ies b ut rather as tentativ e guideposts that might or ientate a newcomer to the v ast literature on enfor cement in inter national la w . At the same time , w e cannot forget that other w ays of seeing inter national la w might be excluded fr om this framing – and that will be de v eloped fur ther in this v olume , in relation to feminist and queer , postcolonial and decolonial, and Marxist v oices. 171 The real challenge ahead for 21st-centur y inter national legal thought is to fnally exor cise the ghosts of ages past – including the Austinian challenge’ s discolour ed wraith. Instead of focusing on the binar y disobedience/compliance , these other v oices ha v e highlighted the ‘w orld-making’ function of inter national la w , 172 for our discipline is not an exter nal patina which is applied une v enly to the real, b ut rather a frame that 163 Philip J essup , T ransnational Law (Y ale Univ er sity Press 1956). 164 P eer Zumbansen (ed), The Man y Lives of T ransnational Law: Critical Engagements with Jessup’ s Bold Proposal (CUP 2020). 165 Rosalyn Higg ins, Problems and Process: International Law and How W e Use It (OUP 1994). 166 See Benedict Kingsbur y , Nico Kr isch, and Richar d Stew ar t, ‘The Emergence of Global Administrativ e Law’ (2005) 68 LCP 15. 167 J oost P auw elyn, Ramses W essel, and Jan W outer s, ‘When Str uctures Become Shackles: Stagnation and Dynamics in Inter national Lawmaking’ (2014) 25 EJIL 733. See also Kunz, Lima, and Castelar Campos, § 6.4, in this textbook. 168 J ack Goldsmith and Er ic P osner , The Limits of Inter national Law (OUP 2007). See also Steininger and Paige , § 4.2, in this textbook. 169 J ean d’Aspremont, After Meaning: The Sov ereignty of For ms in Inter national Law (Edwar d Elgar 2021) 8–9. 170 Hilar y Charlesw or th, Chr istine Chinkin, and Shelley Wr ight, ‘Feminist Appr oaches to Inter national La w’ (1991) 85 AJIL 613, 625–634. See also Kahl and P aige, § 3.3, in this textbook. 171 See González Hauck, § 3.2; Kahl and P aige , § 3.3; and Bagchi, § 3.4, in this textbook. 172 Negar Mansour i, ‘Inter national Organizations and W orld Making Practices: Some Notes on Method’ (2022) 19 IOLR 528, among others. 53 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS allo ws us to open the windo w and see a ‘w orld of nation states’ – wher e questions of compliance can be meaningfully posed and ans w ered. 173 But it is ne v er too late to star t questioning our w a ys of seeing inter national (dis)order . 174 BOX 2.3.2 Further Readings Further Readings · A Bianchi, International Law Theories: An Inquiry Into Differ ent W ays of Thinking (OUP 2016) · R Higgins, Problems and Pr ocess: International Law and How We Use It (OUP 2001) · R Goodman and D Jinks, Socializing States: Promoting Human Rights Thr ough International Law (OUP 2013) · D Shelton, Remedies in International Human Rights Law (2nd edn, OUP 2006) · A Thompson, ‘Coercive Enfor cement of International Law’ in Jeffr ey Dunoff and Mark Pollack (eds), Inter disciplinary Perspectives on International Law and International Relations (CUP 2012) 502 § § § 173 Da vid K ennedy , ‘One, T w o , Three , Many Legal Or der s: Legal Pluralism and the Cosmopolitan Dream’ (2006) 31 NYU Revie w of La w& Social Change 641, 650. 174 Negar Mansour i and Daniel Ricardo Quir oga-Villamar ín (eds), W ays of Seeing International Organisations: New Perspectives for International Institutional Law (CUP for thcoming 2024). 54 MIRIAM BAK MCKENNA § 2 . 4 SE LF - D ETER MINA T I O N MIR I A M B A K M CK ENN A BOX 2.4.1 Requir ed Knowledge and Learning Objectives Requir ed knowledge : History of International Law Learning objectives : Understanding the history , philosophy , and practical implications of self-determination in international law . A . INTRO DUC TION Self-deter mination is among the most politicised pr inciples of the post-WWII inter national legal system. This section pr o vides a br ief o v er vie w of the histor y , conceptual under pinnings, and di v er se meanings ascr ibed to self-deter mination in the inter national legal system, along with the tensions and contr o v er sies that ha v e accompanied its cir culation as a legal idea. Incor porated as a pr inciple in the UN Char ter , and as a r ight in the ICCPR and ICESCR, self-deter mination has been elev ated to the status of erga omnes (Latin: ‘among all’), 175 or e v en jus cogens (peremptory nor ms of inter national la w) 176 and has been r ecognised b y the ICJ as constituting one of inter national la w’ s ‘essential pr inciples’. 177 Y et, ther e exists little consensus on its precise defnition or scope as a legal r ule or pr inciple . While its linguistic sour ces can be traced to Ger man Enlightenment fgur es and the inter national socialist mo v ement, as a conceptual idea it holds deep r esonance acr oss cultur es. 178 Self-deter mination w as popular ised in the inter-w ar per iod b y fgures such as W oodr o w Wilson and Vladimir Lenin as a collecti vist notion link ed to ideolog ies of 175 See J udge W eeramantr y , Dissenting Opinion, Case Concer ning East Timor (Por tugal v . Austr alia) [1995] ICJ Rep 142, 172–3; J udge Higg ins, Separate Opinion, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a W all in the Occupied P alestinian T er ritor y (Advisor y Opinion) [2004] ICJ Rep [379]; Judge K ooijmans, Separate Opinion, Ibid [404]; J udge Al Khasawneh, Separate Opinion, Ibid [13]; J udge Elaraby , Separate Opinion, Ibid [3.4]; Antonio Cassese , Self-Deter mination of Peoples: ALegal Reappraisal (CUP 1995) at 3, 1–34, 15–23, 17–78; Benedict Kingsbury , ‘Restr uctur ing Self-Deter mination: ARelational Appr oach’ in P Aikio and M Scheinin (eds), Operationalizing the Right of Indigenous Peoples to Self-determination (Åbo Akademi Univ er sity 2000) 19, 22. 176 In suppor t see Judge Ammoun, Separate Opinion, Barcelona T raction, Second Phase (Mer its) [1970] ICJ Rep 304; Casssese Ibid 140; Ian Br o wnlie, Principles of Public International Law (4th edn, Clarendon Pr ess 1990) at 513. On erga omnes and jus cogens r ules, see Eggett, Intr oduction to § 6, in this textbook. 177 Case Concer ning East Timor (Por tugal v Austr alia) (J udgment) [1995] ICJ Rep 4, 102 [29]. 178 Er ic D W eitz, ‘Self-Deter mination: How a Ger man Enlightenment Idea Became the Slogan of National Liberation and a Human Right’ (2015) 120 The Amer ican Histor ical Revie w 462–496. 55 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS national unifcation and liberation. In the post-w ar per iod, anticolonial think er s and acti vists mobilised self-deter mination as the legal basis for the emancipation of peoples fr om colonial r ule . Ev en though the applicability and practical implications of self- deter mination outside of the colonial context has been subject to continuing debate , self-deter mination remains the catchcr y of mo v ements ar ound the globe demanding g reater autonom y in shaping their o wn future . B. C ONCEP TU AL AND LE GAL TENSIO N In its br oadest legal sense , self-deter mination denotes the r ight of all peoples ‘to fr eely deter mine their political status and freely pursue their economic , social and cultural de v elopment’ (ICCPR ar ticle 1(1)). 179 Due to , or perhaps in spite of , its relationship to fr eedom, there lies a parado xical tension at its cor e: ‘self-deter mination both legitimates and c hallenges so v ereign author ity’. 180 The concept of so v er eignty is perhaps the most widely ar ticulated for m of self- deter mination in inter national la w , pr o viding a sphere fr ee fr om exter nal threat and interfer ence in which peoples ma y freely deter mine the w a ys in which they wish to go v er n themselv es. The leg itimacy of States is largely dependent upon their embodiment of self-deter mination, as they pr o vide a setting in which g r oups and indi viduals g iv e expression to their v alues, culture , and sense of themselv es. 181 H owe ve r, self-deter mination simultaneously pr o vides a nor mativ e platfor m for people to alter ho w they ar e go v er ned, thereb y pitting the v alidity of cur rent political ar rangements against the v alidity of possible alter nativ es. 182 The destabilising potential of self-deter mination has been balanced b y the demand that an y ex ercise of self-deter mination respect ter r itor ial integ r ity and the r etention of pr esent inter national and inter nal boundar ies. The r ight of colonial peoples to fr eely choose their political status is therefor e restrained b y the application of the pr inciple of uti possidetis (Latin: ‘as [y ou] possess under la w’), which r equires the r etention of existing colonial boundar ies 183 despite the f act that these w ere dra wn largely ‘with little consideration for f actor s of geog raph y , ethnicity , economic con v enience or r easonable means of communication’. 184 Uti possidetis has also 179 See also UNGA Res 1514 (1960) GA OR 15th Session Supp 16; UNGA Res 2625 (1970) GA OR 25th Session Supp 28; the Helsinki Final Act , 14 ILM (1975); Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action , 32 ILM (1993). 180 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, ‘National Self-Deter mination T oda y: Prob lems of Legal Theor y and Practice’ (1994) 43 ICLQ 241, 245. 181 Andre w Hur rell, ‘The Making and Unmaking of Boundar ies in Inter national Law’ in ABuchanan and M Moore (eds), States , Nations and Bor ders: The Ethics of Making Boundar ies (CUP 2003) 283. 182 P atr ick Macklem, ‘Distr ibuting So v ereignty: Indian Nations and Equality of P eoples’ (1992–1993) 45 Stanfor d La w Revie w 1311, 1346–1347. 183 Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso v Mali) (J udgment) [1986] ICJ Rep 554. 184 T er r itor ial Dispute (Lib yan Ar ab Jamahiriya v Chad) (Separate Opinion of J udge Ajibola) [1994] ICJ Rep 6 [8]. 56 MIRIAM BAK MCKENNA been applied outside of the colonial context, for example dur ing the breakup of Y ugoslavia. 185 The inter national community has been r eluctant to allo w self- deter mination to g r ound or endor se claims of separation and secession. The r esult, as Kar en Knop points out, is that ‘some states in inter national law r epresent the ex er cise of self-deter mination b y a people, others do not. Some peoples ha v e their o wn State , other s do not’. 186 C . DEF INING P E OP LE Self-deter mination is str uctured ar ound the notion of the ‘people’ as the leg itimate bear er of the r ight. As Sir Iv or J ennings archly noted, self-deter mination at fr st glance ofer s a r easonable pr oposition: let the people decide their o wn f ate . The pr oblem is that ‘the people cannot decide until someone decides who ar e the people’. 187 The main difculty is that ther e is rarely a perfect o v erlap betw een those who fnd themselv es ter r itor ially bounded and those who identify themselv es member s of the ‘self ’. In the context of moder n statehood, this is the ‘J anus face of the moder n nation’. 188 The tension betw een the conception of the self-deter mining State entity and other competing claims to ‘selfhood’ has been the pr imar y source of confict in the practical application of self-deter mination. The tw o dominant inter pretations to the ter m ‘peoples’ emerg ing fr om self- deter mination discour se largely cor respond to that of ethnos (i.e . an imag inar y community of descent or afliation such as the nation) and demos (i.e . a politically defned community). The latter holds that a ‘people’ entitled to self-deter mination is the whole of a population within the generally accepted boundar ies of an independent State or a ter r itor y of a classical colonial type . The difculty , as J ames Anay a asser ts, is in the underlying vie w that only such units of human agg r egation – the whole of the people of a State or colonial ter r itor y – ar e benefciar ies of self-deter mination. 189 ‘This appr oach’, Ana y a notes, ‘renders the nor m inapplicable to the v ast number of contemporar y claims of sub-state g r oups that repr esent many of the w orld’ s most pr essing pr oblems in the post-colonial age’. 190 185 Allain P ellet, ‘Note sur la Commission d’arbitrage de la Conférence eur opéenne pour la paix en Y ougoslavie’ (1991) 37 Ann fr drint 329 at 337; Allain P ellet, ‘L ’Acti vité de la Commission d’arbitrage de la Conférence eur opéenne pour la paix en Y ougosla vie’ (1992) 38 Ann fr drint 220; Allain P ellet, ‘L ’Activité de la Commission d’arbitrage de la Conférence internationale pour l’ancienne Y ougosla vie’ (1993) 39 Ann fr drint 286. 186 Karen Knop , ‘Statehood: T er r itor y , P eople , Go v er nment’ in J ames Crawfor d and Mar tti K osk enniemi (eds), The Cambr idge Companion to Inter national Law (CUP 2012) 107. 187 Sir Iv or Jennings, The Approach to Self-Government (CUP 1956) 55–56. 188 J ürgen Haber mas, ‘A Genealo g ical Analysis of the Co gnitiv e Content of Morality’ in The Inclusion of the Other: Studies in Political Theory (MIT Press 1998). 189 J ames Ana ya, ‘Self-Deter mination as a Collectiv e Right Under Contemporar y Inter national La w’ in P ekka Aikio and Mar tin Scheinin (eds), Operationalizing the Right of Indigenous Peoples to Self-Determination (Åbo Akademi Univ er sity 2000) 10. 190 Ibid. 57 OVERARCHING QUESTIONS D . F ORMS OF S EL F- DET ERMINA TION I. GENER AL NORM Ha ving been included in the Atlantic Char ter , the joint declaration of allied post-w ar aims, and its demands for the r estoration of so v ereignty and self-go v er nment, self-deter mination w as in v ok ed as one of the founding pr inciples of the UN Char ter in ar ticles 1 and 55, link ed to dev eloping ‘fr iendly relations among nations’ and pr omoting the ‘equal r ights ... of peoples’. 191 While not implying a legal r ight per se , the r eference to self-deter mination in the UN Char ter is widely under stood as bolster ing the ter r itor ial and so v ereign sanctity of the State against for eign incur sions, as w ell as guaranteeing a people’ s ‘choice of a political, economic , social and cultural system, and the for mulation of for eign policy’, as afr med by the ICJ in its Nicar agua decision. 192 In its 2004 W all opinion, concer ning the constr uction b y Israel of a w all in occupied P alestinian ter r itor y , the ICJ afr med that self-deter mination had acquired the status of a legal r ight under inter national la w , placing States under an obligation to ‘r efrain fr om any for cible action which depr i v es peoples ... of their r ight to self-deter mination’, as w ell as ‘to pr omote the r ealization of [self-deter mination] and to r espect it’. 193 II. C OLONIAL SELF-DETE RMINA TION With man y colonial po w er s r eluctant to relinquish their colonial holdings, r eferences to self-deter mination ar e conspicuously absent fr om the UN Char ter chapter s r elating to both the non-self-go v er ning ter r itor ies and the tr usteeships. In subsequent decades, ho w e v er , anti-colonialists successfully transfor med self- deter mination into a legal and nor mativ e platfor m for decolonisation. Dra wing a dir ect line betw een colonialism and the violation of not only human r ights and human dignity , b ut the br oader aims of the inter national system contained in the UN Char ter , anti-colonialists laid the foundations for a legal challenge to empir e . F ollo wing its inclusion in the fnal statement of the Bandung Conference of Afr o- Asian Countr ies in 1955, self-deter mination w as successfully incor porated into the landmark Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countr ies and P eoples (Resolution 1514 (XV)) in 1960 b y the General Assembly . 194 Calling for an immediate end to all for ms of colonial r ule , the r esolution g ranted colonial peoples a legal r ight to independence or to adopt any other status the y fr eely chose . The ICJ later afr med the colonial r ight to self-deter mination in its Namibia , 195 191 Antonio Cassese , Self-Deter mination of Peoples: ALegal Appraisal (CUP 1995) 37. 192 Case Concer ning Militar y and P aramilitary Activities in and against Nicar agua (Nicaragua v . United States of Amer ica) (Mer its) [1986] ICJ Rep 14. 193 Legal Consequences of the Construction of a W all in the Occupied P alestinian T err itor y (Advisor y Opinion) [2004] ICJ Rep 136 [88]. 194 UNGA Res 1514 (1960) GA OR 15th Session Supp 16. 195 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Afr ica in Namibia (South W est Afr ica) Notwithstanding Secur ity Council Resolution 276 (1970) (Advisory Opinion) [1971] ICJ Rep 16. 64 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK AND VERENA KAHL methodolo gy and method. 2 This intr oductor y section, fr st, intr oduces this distinction and ther eby tr ies to illustrate what ‘approaches’ to inter national la w ar e . Second, it r efects on the traditional appr oach to inter national la w and on its relationship with positi vism. Third, it br iefy intr oduces commonalities among and pluralities within cr itical appr oaches to inter national la w . B. WHA T IS AN APP RO A CH ? METHODOL OGY AND MET HOD The difer ent appr oaches presented in this chapter r epresent difer ent methodolo g ies, that is, difer ent sets of ontolog ical and epistemological premises, which shape an y intellectual enter pr ise . Premises ar e the star ting point of an argument. They ar e the statements that ar e tak en for g ranted as the point of depar ture . Ontolog ical premises, simply put, ar e premises on what there is in the w orld, that is, on whether ther e is an objecti v e tr uth and/or fx ed reality ‘out ther e’ and on which elements in the w orld deter mine such tr uths and realities. Epistemolo g ical pr emises are pr emises on what w e can kno w and on ho w w e can acquire and estab lish kno wledge . No intellectual enter pr ise can be car r ied out consistently and r igor ously without, at the outset, gaining clar ity about ontolog ical and epistemolo g ical pr emises. The ter ms ‘method’ and ‘methodolo gy’ are often used inter changeably . 3 Ho w ev er , a useful distinction betw een the tw o consists in under standing methodology as a set of ontolo g ical and epistemolo g ical premises and ther efore the point of depar tur e , as explained abo v e , and method as the r oadmap guiding the indi vidual steps to be taken fr om this point of depar ture . ‘Method’, then, refers to the concrete application of the conceptual apparatus of a specifc appr oach. 4 C . TR ADITIONA L INT ERNA TIONAL L A W AND LEGAL POSI TIVISM Despite influential f igur es like Ian Br o wnlie ha ving argued that theor y is but fo g that obscur es the more inter esting legal questions, 5 no inquir y into inter national la w is possible without theor y . It is necessar y to at least be a w are of the set of pr emises fr om which one is star ting. The standar d wa y of engag ing with inter national la w in the traditional appr oach, which Br o wnlie epitomises, consists in la ying out ‘what the la w is’ on a par ticular question b y der i ving the rele v ant 2 Cf . Rossana Deplano and Nicholas Tsagour ias, ‘Intr oduction’ in idem (eds), Researc h Methods in Inter national Law: AHandbook (Edw ard Elgar 2021) 1–5. 3 Sundh ya P ahuja, ‘Methodology: Wr iting About How W e Do Research’ in Rossana Deplano and Nicholas Tsagour ias (eds), Research Methods in Inter national Law: AHandbook (Edwar d Elgar 2021) 61. 4 Andrea Bianchi, International Law Theor ies: An Inquir y into Diferent W ays of Thinking (OUP 2017) viii. 5 Ian Br o wnlie, ‘Inter national La w at the Fiftieth Anniv er sar y of the United Nations – General Course on Public Inter national Law (1995) 255 RdC 9, 30. 65 APPROACHES r ules fr om the sources of inter national la w (mainly treaties, custom, and general pr inciples, ar ticle 38(1) ICJ Statute 6 ) and by inter preting and applying these r ules in accordance with existing author itativ e inter pretations and applications. This appr oach can be labelled ‘doctr inal’, ‘traditional’, 7 ‘or thodo x’, 8 or simply ‘mainstr eam’. 9 Making a claim to kno wledge about ‘what the la w is’, ho w ev er , necessar ily in v olv es adopting a position on what ‘la w’ is and on ho w w e can kno w it, which means depar ting fr om a specif ic set of ontolog ical and epistemolo g ical pr emises. Therefor e , it is impossible to state what the la w is without, implicitly , adopting a specif ic theor etical approach in doing so . Aposition that claims to discar d theor y altogether will often just adopt an inconsistent theor etical position as the star ting point of its argument. 10 This is often the case with the doctr inal, traditional, or or thodo x appr oach. Another label which is often attached to this appr oach is ‘positi vist’. 11 P ositivism, generally , is a label attached to the set of ontolo g ical and epistemological premises accor ding to which there is a single , objecti v e tr uth ‘out there’ and that it is possible for human beings to kno w this tr uth reliab ly . Legal positi vism, as a philosophical position, 12 adopts these premises onl y for the established (i.e . ‘positiv e’) la w , not for moral and other considerations, which ar e considered to be separate fr om la w . Consequently , at least in ‘har d cases’, that is, when the la w emplo ys v ague ter ms lik e ‘pr opor tionality’ or when the la w has to be applied to cir cumstances not clearly reflected in the la w , la w is no longer a matter of co gnition but of (usually a cour t’ s) decision. Philosophical legal positi vists therefor e ag r ee that, at least in these ‘hard cases’, ther e is no single r ight answ er to legal questions. Ho w ev er , practitioner s who claim to be only inter ested in positiv e la w and doctr inal scholar s whose commitment to legal positi vism mainly consists in adopting the per spectiv e of practitioner s and pr o viding guidance by systematising existing legal mater ials often operate under the assumption that ans w er s about ‘what the la w is’ ha v e a single cor rect ans w er and that this ans w er can be found. 13 ‘P ositivism’ in the sense of the traditional doctr inal appr oach is therefor e often incompatible with philosophical legal positi vism. 6 Statute of the Inter national Court of Justice (adopted 26 J une1945, entered into for ce 18 Apr il1946) 33 UNTS 993. 7 Bianchi (n 4) 21. 8 J örg Kammerhofer, ‘International Legal P ositivism’ in Flor ian Hofmann and Anne Orford (eds), The Oxfor d Handbook of the Theory of Inter national Law (OUP 2016) 413. 9 Sr iniv as Bur ra, ‘T eaching Cr itical Inter national Law: Refections fr om the P er ipher y’ ( TW AILR Refections , 12 March2023) <https://tw ailr .com/teaching-cr itical-inter national-la w-refections-fr om-the-per ipher y/> accessed 22 J une2023. 10 Sué González Hauck, ‘The Outside Keeps Cr eeping In: On the Impossibility of Engag ing in Purely Doctr inal Scholarship’ ( V ölker rec htsblog , 23 F ebr uar y2021) <https://v oelker rechtsb log.org/de/the-outside-k eeps- creeping-in-on-the-impossibility-of-engaging-in-purely-doctr inal-scholar ship/> accessed 22 J une2023. 11 Br uno Simma and Andreas L P aulus, ‘The Responsibility of Individuals for Human Rights Ab uses in Inter nal Conficts: AP ositivist Vie w’ (1999) 93 AJIL 302. 12 See Etkin and Green, § 3.1, in this textbook. 13 Danae Azar ia, ‘ “Codifcation by Inter pretation”: The Inter national La w Commission as an Inter preter of Inter national Law’ (2020) 31 EJIL 171–200, at 176. 66 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK AND VERENA KAHL D . C R IT IC AL IN TERNA TI ONAL L A W Cr itical appr oaches to inter national la w emerged fr om the Cr itical Legal Studies (CLS) mo v ement in the United States, which w as hea vily infuenced b y both postmoder n philosoph y and Legal Realism. Fr om postmoder n and (post)str ucturalist philosoph y , Cr itical Legal Studies and cr itical appr oaches to inter national la w der i v e the pr emises that ther e is no objectiv e and single tr uth ‘out there’ and that kno wledge creation is not about neutral and objecti v e cognition of a pr e-existing tr uth but rather about the ‘conditions of possibility’ for expressing cer tain claims and for ha ving these claims r ecognised and count as kno wledge . A central methodolo g ical tool deplo y ed b y cr itical legal scholar s is deconstr uction, a mode of thought de v eloped b y J acques Der r ida. 14 Deconstr uction in this sense can be under stood as a ne v er-ending pr ocess of questioning existing and accepted str uctur es of dominance , which ar e percei v ed as objecti v e , neutral, or natural. 15 As a result, it r ev eals the existence of other competing for ms of inter pretation, alter nativ e vie ws, which ha v e been ignored, o v er shado w ed, or suppr essed, thereb y opening the door to ne w possibilities and str uctur es. 16 The concept of deconstr uction ther efore r ejects the idea of an absolute tr uth or natural refer ent, 17 but rather sear ches for ‘the tensions, the contradictions, the heter o geneity’. 18 In its ability to sho w pluralities and diferent options, deconstr uction creates space for (ongoing) transfor mation and reconstr uction. With this in mind, ‘[it] is only thr ough this element of endless analysis, cr iticism and deconstr uction that w e can pr ev ent existing str uctures of dominance fr om reasserting themselv es’. 19 The main character istic that cr itical appr oaches ha v e der i v ed fr om the pr oject of deconstr ucting inter national la w consists in the claim that inter national la w is radically indeter minate . 20 Radical indeter minacy , in this sense , means that any course of action can be defended or r ejected in ter ms of inter national la w , 21 and that the 14 For Der r ida’ s idea of deconstr uction see , inter alia, Jacques Der r ida, Of Grammatology (Ga yatr i Chakra v or ty Spiv ak, trans., Johns Hopkins Uni v er sity Press 2016); J acques Der r ida, Deconstruction in a Nutshell: AConversation with J acques Der r ida (John D Caputo ed, F ordham Uni v er sity Press 2020). F or an analysis of deconstr uction regar ding la w and justice see Jacques Der r ida, ‘F orce of La w: The “Mystical Foundation of Author ity”’ in Dr ucilla Cor nell and other s (eds), Deconstruction and the Possibility of Justice (Routledge 1992) 3–677. 15 See Cather ine T ur ner , ‘Jacques Der r ida: Deconstr uction’ ( Critical Legal Thinking , 27 May2016) <https:// cr iticallegalthinking.com/2016/05/27/jacques-der r ida-deconstr uction/> accessed 26 August2023. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Der r ida, Deconstruction in a Nutshell (n 14) 9. 19 T ur ner (n 15). 20 For a mor e detailed introduction to K osk enniemi’ s argument on radical indeter minacy , see J ean-François Thibault, ‘Mar tti K oskenniemi: Indeter minacy’ ( Cr itical Legal Thinking , 8 December2017) <https:// cr iticallegalthinking.com/2017/12/08/martti-kosk enniemi-indeter minacy/> accessed 23 J une2023. 21 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument. Reissue with a New Epilogue (CUP 2006) 591. 67 APPROACHES question of which position pr ev ails is not a question of sound legal argument or cor r ect legal method but of politics. 22 This cr itique of the distinction betw een law and politics is what cr itical appr oaches to inter national la w share with Legal Realism. Mar tti K osk enniemi, who , together with Da vid K ennedy , 23 has been the main fgure in ar ticulating, defending, and popular ising this position, argues in his f amous w ork From Apolog y to Utopia that ‘inter national law is singularly useless as a means for justifying or cr iticizing inter national beha viour’. 24 The reason for inter national la w’ s radical indeter minacy , in K osk enniemi’ s account, is its fundamentally and ir r esolv ably contradictor y nature , which causes inter national legal arguments to oscillate betw een the poles of concr eteness and nor mati vity , apolo gy and utopia. 25 Concreteness means that the la w’ s content has to be v er ifed ‘not against some political pr inciple but b y refer ence to the concr ete behaviour , will and interest of the States’. 26 Simultaneously , the la w has to be nor mativ e in the sense that it has to be ‘opposable to State policy’. 27 The contradiction inher ent in the need for both nor mati vity and concr eteness leads to constant oscillations betw een these positions. T o seem coher ent, individual arguments ha v e to stress either nor mativity or concr eteness. In doing so , ho w e v er , the y become vulnerable to v alid cr iticism fr om the opposing per specti v e . ‘The choice of solution is dependent on an ultimately arbitrar y choice to stop the cr iticisms at one point instead of another’. 28 K osk enniemi highlights, ho w e v er , that e v en though it is possible to justify an y kind of practice in ter ms of inter national legal argument, in practice , it is not arbitrar y at all which actions ar e justifed and which ones ar e condemned. This is due to what K oskenniemi calls ‘str uctural bias’. 29 Ev en though they do not all adopt K osk enniemi’ s linguistic analysis of inter national la w and difer fr om K osk enniemi in many other aspects, one w a y of character ising the other cr itical appr oaches to inter national la w , which will be presented in the follo wing sub-chapter s, is that they ofer focused accounts on specifc ‘str uctural biases’ of inter national la w . F eminist and queer theor y appr oaches cr itique inter national la w’ s bias f a v our ing and centr ing cis men, while Thir d W orld Appr oaches focus on ho w inter national la w is str uctured in a w a y that f a v our s the Global Nor th, thereb y har ming the Global South. Marxist appr oaches ofer an entir ely diferent vie w on inter national la w’ s contradictor y nature and oppr essiv e str ucture . They do , ho w ev er , share the vie w that inter national la w pr oduces and f a v our s the status quo with all its exploitation and violence . Fur ther premises will be laid out in the r espectiv e sections. 22 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, ‘The P olitics of Inter national La w’ (1990) 1 EJIL 4–32. 23 See e.g. Da vid K ennedy , Inter national Legal Structures (Nomos 1987). 24 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument. Reissue with a New Epilogue (CUP 2006) 67. 25 Ibid 58. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid 67. 29 Ibid 605–606. 68 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK AND VERENA KAHL E. C ONCL US ION The appr oaches pr esented in this chapter ofer diferent w ays of thinking about inter national la w . An y w a y of engag ing with inter national la w presupposes doing so using a specifc lens or appr oach. This is tr ue ev en and especially for the traditional doctr inal appr oach, ev en though this appr oach is rar ely made explicit. The follo wing sections pr esent positivism, Thir d W orld Appr oaches to Inter national La w , feminist and queer theor y , and Marxist appr oaches to inter national la w in more detail. BOX 3.3 Further Readings Further Readings · A Bianchi, International Law Theories: An Inquiry Into Differ ent W ays of Thinking (OUP 2016) · A Orford and F Hof fmann (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law (OUP 2016) § § § 69 APPROACHES § 3 . 1 PO S I T I V I S M BA Ş A K ETK İ N AN D A L EX G R E E N BOX 3.1.1 Requir ed Knowledge and Learning Objectives Requir ed knowledge : History of International Law; Appr oaches Learning objectives : Understanding analytical and normative legal positivism and their dif fer ences fr om international legal positivism; identifying the major critiques of positivism. A . INTRO DUC TION One of the mor e infuential theor ies in contemporar y legal theor y , positivism is often tr eated as a catch-all ter m within inter national legal scholar ship . In order to identify its difer ent uses, this section will fr st discuss ‘analytical’ positivism as it appears in general legal theor y , and then ‘nor mativ e’ positivism, its most common v er sion in inter national la w . Then, w e will focus on the cr itique of positivism b y can v assing three r easons wh y one might adopt a non-positi vist appr oach. B . P OSITIVISM A S M ETHOD AN D IDEOLOGY Legal positi vism is a theor y about la w deter mination. La w deter mination concer ns what it means for the content of the la w to be ‘fx ed’ or ‘made what it is’ (e .g. the thr eat or use of force within inter national relations is unla wful because ar t. 2.4 of the UN Char ter forbids both). Legal positivism asserts that ‘legal f acts’ (i.e . f acts about the existence and content of the la w as it cur rently exists) ar e deter mined b y ‘social f acts’ alone , and that all la w is posited/positiv e. Social facts, in this sense , are v alue-neutral descr iptions of social beha viour , such as the f act that people tak e their hats of when enter ing a church. W ithin the framew ork of positivism, the social f acts r elev ant to the existence and content of la w ar e those reco gnised as being rele v ant b y the ofcials of a legal system (the ‘social thesis’). Legal positi vism fr st emerged as a reaction to ‘natural la w’ theor ies in the 18th centur y . Its r oots within Anglophone legal scholar ship are in the w orks of J erem y Bentham(1748–1832), 30 who sought to both cr iticise and discr edit natural la w theor ies. ‘Analytical legal positivism’ (the vie w that positivism is the cor r ect theor y of la w on log ical or conceptual g r ounds) is and has been one of the mor e 30 Jer emy Bentham, Of Laws in Gener al (Unpublished Man uscr ipt, HLA Har t ed) (Athlone Press 1970); J erem y Bentham, An Introduction to the Pr inciples of Morals and Legislation (frst published 1789, JH Bur ns and HLA Har t eds) (OUP 1996). 70 BA Ş AK ETK İ N AND ALEX GREEN infuential moder n legal theor ies as f ar as inter national la w is concer ned, to the extent that some scholar s will often misuse ‘positi vism’ to descr ibe all ‘mainstream’ doctr inal appr oaches to inter national la w . 31 I. A NAL Y TICA L POSITIVISM As their main point of con v ergence , all legal positivists agree upon the ‘separability thesis’, which holds that la w and morality ar e not necessar ily link ed. Accor ding to positi vists, it is the separation of la w and morality that makes cr iticising the content of la w possible . Ho w ev er , to what deg r ee law and morality ar e separated is a point of contention betw een inclusiv e (soft) and exclusi v e (hard) positi vists. Inclusiv e positivists allo w for moral elements to be included directly or indir ectly in the r ule of reco gnition: the ‘master r ule’ of an y legal order , which pr o vides that order with its cr iter ia for legal v alidity . Exclusi v e legal positi vists, on the other hand, reject an y moral elements enter ing the r ule of reco gnition. Both sides of the argument ag r ee that when the r ule of r ecognition does not g iv e a clear answ er to the question ‘What is the la w?’, cour ts must either cr eate new la w or else simply state the answ er to be undeter mined. 32 Within the anglospher e, analytical positi vism was frst popular ised by J ohn Austin 33 (1790–1859), who de v eloped the ‘command theor y’, the notion that la w consists of ‘or der s backed b y threats’. Her e , ‘orders’ r epresent the command of a so v er eign whose will is habitually obey ed and disobedience to whom is sanctioned b y a ‘thr eat’. HLA Har t(1907–1992), an inclusiv e legal positi vist and a pr ominent cr itic of Austin, ofer ed a comprehensi v e cr itique of the command theor y in his infuential book The Concept of Law . 34 Har t’ s arguments demonstrated three main issues with command theor y: it cannot account for customar y la w , 35 not all la ws command or pr ohibit specifc actions, 36 and it is impossible in virtually all jur isdictions to identify so v er eigns with unlimited law-making po w er s. 37 Har t pr oposed an alter nati v e account of la w , character ising it as ‘a union of pr imar y and secondar y r ules’. 38 Pr imar y r ules establish ob ligations and confer r ights to guide human conduct (e .g. it is forbidden to cr oss the str eet when the red light is on). In some comm unities descr ibed b y Har t as ‘pr imitiv e’, la w consists solely of these pr imar y r ules, but pr imar y r ules alone do not mak e a legal system, which also r equires secondar y r ules. Secondar y r ules are 31 Andrea Bianchi, Inter national Law Theor ies: An Inquiry into Diferent W a ys of Thinking (OUP 2016) 22–43. 32 Especially when f acing extra-legal notions such as ‘proportional’ or ‘reasonab le’. 33 John Austin, The Province of Jurisprudence Deter mined (Fir st Published 1832) (CUP 1995); J ohn Austin, Lectures on Jur isprudence , or the Philosoph y of Positive Law (First Published 1879) (R Campbell ed, 4th edn, Thoemmes Pr ess 2002). 34 HLA Har t, The Concept of Law (2nd edn, OUP 1994). See also HLA Har t, ‘P ositivism and the Separation of La w and Morals’ (1958) 71 Har v ard La w Revie w 593. 35 Ibid 44–49. 36 Ibid 27–44. 37 Ibid 66–71. 38 Ibid 79–99. 71 APPROACHES those that ser v e as organisational meta-r ules, or that go v er n pr imar y r ules. According to Har t, these secondar y r ules address thr ee main shor tcomings: (1) the uncer tainty ar ound which r ules are v alid in this system, (2) the static character of the r ules, and (3) the inefciency of the r ules. These pr oblems ar e solv ed b y , r espectiv ely , (1) the r ule of reco gnition, pr o viding the cr iter ia of legal v alidity and ans w er ing the question ‘What is the la w?’; (2) r ules of change , establishing the pr ocedur es for intr oducing ne w pr imar y r ules, modifying existing ones, and abolishing old ones, answ er ing the question ‘Ho w does the la w change?’; and (3) r ules of adjudication, deter mining who has the author ity to adjudicate and ho w the y must do so , ans w er ing the question ‘Ho w to implement the la w?’ All secondar y r ules can be classifed under one of these thr ee categor ies. Har t is often presented in opposition to his continental counter par t Hans Kelsen (1881–1973), an Austr ian jur ist, who is more infuential in ci vil la w systems. K elsen w as closer to Austin’ s look than Har t, as in his vie w la ws w ere nor ms addr essed to ofcials and not at subjects – that is, they ar e nor ms to be applied b y cour ts and other legal author ities in par ticular cir cumstances. 39 Another point of di v ergence betw een Har t and K elsen is legal v alidity . F or Har t, legal v alidity depends ultimately upon social r ecognition b ut, for K elsen, legal v alidity w as an entir ely nor mati v e (‘ought’, not ‘is’) question. He argued that legal r ules are v alid only when the y are v alidated by ‘higher’ nor ms, follo wing pr escr ibed pr ocedure . This stepped constr uction ( Stufenbau ) culminates in the Grundnor m (English: basic nor m), as K elsen presented in Reine Rechtslehre (English: Pure Theor y of La w). 40 The Grundnor m is the presupposed legal pr oposition at the foundation of any legal system: a simple fction to uphold v alidity . 41 Another pr ominent fgur e in legal positivism is the Israeli legal philosopher J oseph Raz (1939–2022). In The A uthor ity of Law: Essa ys on Law and Mor ality , 42 Raz de v eloped both the social thesis and the sources thesis (the vie w that law is identifed only b y refer ence to its social sour ces), asser ting that la w’ s existence and content cannot r ely on moral f acts. As an exclusi v e positivist, Raz further explored the nor mativ e aspects of legal systems in his Pr actical Reasons and Nor ms 43 and made the case for legal r ules ofer ing a practical justifcation for obedience , while excluding other justifcations. Most r ecently , Scott Shapir o’ s book Legality ofer s an alter nati v e appr oach to legal positi vism. 44 Shapir o’ s ‘planning theor y’ of law contends that legal systems ar e compulsor y planning organisations, while his ‘moral aim thesis’ suggests that la w pr o vides content-independent nor mati v e guidance to b ypass moral disag r eements. 39 Hans Kelsen, Gener al Theor y of Law and State (A W edberg, trans., Harvar d Univ er sity Press 1945) 8–64. 40 Hans Kelsen, Pure Theory of Law (M Knight, trans., 2nd edn, Univ er sity of Califor nia Press 1967). 41 Ibid 193–221. 42 Joseph Raz, The A uthor ity of Law: Essays on Law and Mor ality (2nd edn, OUP 2009). 43 Joseph Raz, Pr actical Reasons and Nor ms (2nd edn, OUP 1999). 44 Scott Shapiro , Legality (Belknap Press 2011). 72 BA Ş AK ETK İ N AND ALEX GREEN II. INT ERNA TIONAL L EGAL POSITIVIS M AND NOR MA TIVE PO SITIVISM Nor mativ e positi vism, traditionally more pr e valent in inter national legal scholar ship than pur ely analytical positivism, defends the idea that positi vism is not only tr ue , but also v aluable . Nor mati v e positivism in this sense should not be confused with analytically nor mativ e appr oaches, such as K elsen’ s. Jer em y W aldr on argues that tr ue nor mativ e positi vism, which emphasises the v alue of reasoning about la w in par ticular w a ys, is more faithful to positivism’ s or ig ins, as Bentham’ s intention w as not to separate la w and morality conceptually but to coor dinate confict r esolution betw een la w and per sonal judgments about morality . 45 Lassa Oppenheim (1858–1919) also defended this point of vie w , suggesting that positivism w as the best suited concept to adv ance par ticular moral and political v alues, as demonstrated by his adv ocacy of ‘inter national society’. 46 Also adopted b y Pr osper W eil, this has been a par ticularly infuential appr oach in inter national la w . 47 Some obsolete v er sions of analytical positivism might seem incompatib le with inter national la w , such as Austin’ s command theor y , which might cast doubt upon its general v eracity , g iv en the lack of a so v ereign in the inter national arena. 48 Another potential issue sur r ounds K elsen’ s account of legal v alidity , which, thr ough its appeal to successi v ely higher lev els of nor mati v e v alidation, appear s to f av our ‘monism’ (the view that the difer ent branches of inter national law , and all domestic legal systems, constitute a unifed r eg ime). 49 Inter national la w is a highly fragmented domain with numer ous r eg ional and inter national regimes, and it is often difcult to establish hierar chically super ior nor ms in each situation. Ho w ev er , moder n legal positi vism has ev olv ed quite signifcantly and has de v eloped sophisticated answ er s to questions that ar ise within inter national la w . Inter national legal positi vism (i.e. positi vism as under stood and upheld by inter national la wy er s), much lik e its analytical counter par t explained abo v e , is f ar fr om being a monolith, and in some w a ys it div erges from legal positi vism. 50 Most notably , inter national legal positi vism is, par tially because of the w eight g i v en to State will in inter national la w , often confused with consensualism or v oluntar ism. 51 H owe ve r, 45 Jer emy W aldr on, ‘Nor mativ e (or Ethical) P ositivism’ in J Coleman (ed), Har t’ s Postscr ipt: Essa ys on the Postscr ipt to ‘The Concept of Law’ (OUP 2001). 46 Lassa Oppenheim, ‘The Science of Inter national La w: Its T ask and Method’ (1908) 2 AJIL 313; Benedict Kingsbury , ‘Legal P ositivism as Nor mativ e P olitics: Inter national Society , Balance of P o w er and Lassa Oppenheim’ s P ositiv e Inter national La w’ (2002) 13 EJIL 401. 47 Prosper W eil, ‘T o w ards Relati v e Nor mativity in International Law?’ (1983) 77 AJIL 413. 48 On enforcement, see Quir oga-Villamar ín, § 2.3, in this textbook. 49 On inter national la w and domestic law , see Kunz, § 5, in this textbook. 50 Başak Etkin, ‘Legal P ositivism’ in Chr istina Binder and other s (eds), Elgar Encyclopedia of Human Rights (Edwar d Elgar 2022) 412–417; J ean d’Aspremont, ‘Inter national Legal P ositivism’ in Mor timer Seller s and Stephan Kirste (eds), Encyc lopedia of the Philosophy of Law and Social Philosoph y (Spr inger 2017); J örg Kammerhofer , ‘Inter national Legal P ositivism’ in Anne Orford and Flor ian Hofmann (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of Inter national Law (OUP 2016) 407–426. 51 On consent, see González Hauck, § 2.2, in this textbook. 73 APPROACHES tr eaties are the only consent-based sour ce of inter national la w , assuming a str ict under standing of consent. Ther efore , the r ule of r ecognition of inter national law does not include consent, and the sour ces thesis applied to inter national law does not paint a consensualist pictur e . 52 While neo-v oluntar ists sur vi v e , many contemporar y inter national legal positi vists separate the objectiv e inter national legal order and the subjecti v e will of States. 53 Inter national la w’ s compatibility with positi vism is also called into question regar ding jus cogens (per emptor y nor ms of general inter national la w). These peremptor y nor ms ar e ‘accepted and reco gnized ... as a nor m fr om which no dero gation is per mitted’, accor ding to the 1969 Vienna Con v ention on the Law of T r eaties. This means that the idea of jus cogens does not necessar ily breach the separability thesis, e v en though one can identify its moral under tone once a ser ies of examples are g iv en: prohibitions of genocide , tor ture , and sla v er y . Some exclusiv e legal positi vists belie v e that ackno wledg ing the existence of jus cogens under mines the separability thesis, but this pr oblem can be solv ed b y sa ying that the moral belief or judgment shared b y States is a social f act, and that is what mak es a nor m jus cogens , not its inher ent moral v alue . 54 C . CRITIQUES OF P OSITIVISM Legal positi vism, as w e ha v e seen, is the vie w that the content of inter national legal nor ms is made what it is (i.e . deter mined or ‘fx ed’) b y social f acts alone. These social f acts typically relate to the ‘pedig r ee’ of those nor ms: their histor ical roots in particular social sour ces, such as treaty texts or expr essions of opinio jur is (shor t for opinio jur is sive necessitates ; in English: ‘an opinion of la w or necessity’). The in v er se view , held b y ‘non- positi vists’, is that inter national legal nor ms ar e necessar ily deter mined not onl y b y social f acts but also b y f acts about political morality , 55 which include moral v alues, genuine nor mativ e pr inciples, and practical r easons that go v er n ho w individuals should ‘li v e to gether’, organise themselv es, and beha v e in national and inter national society . Consider an uncontr o v er sial claim such as ‘the 1969 Vienna Con v ention on the La w of T reaties expr esses tr ue pr opositions of inter national la w’. For non-positi vists, this will only be tr ue insof ar as the la w-deter mining function of the Con v ention is morally v aluable in some w a y . This r eliance upon political morality is also entailed by the beliefs of nor mativ e positi vists, who argue that for moral reasons inter national legal nor ms must be identifed via social facts alone . T o continue with the example , a nor mativ e positi vist and a committed non-positivist might ag ree that the Vienna Con v ention helps to fx inter national la w because treaties ha v e a coordinating function, which benefts the stability and pr edictability of inter national relations. F or both scholar s, in other 52 On sources, see Eggett, Intr oduction to § 6, in this textbook. 53 Jörg Kammerhofer and J ean d’Aspr emont (eds), Inter national Legal Positivism in a Post-Moder n W orld (CUP 2014). 54 Asif Hameed, ‘Unrav elling the Myster y of Jus Co gens in Inter national La w’ (2014) 84 BYBIL 2. 55 Hasan Dindjer , ‘The New Legal Anti-P ositivism’ (2020) 26(3) Legal Theor y 181. 80 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK has been par tially replaced b y the ter m Global South . This latter ter m bear s less dir ect links to the Cold W ar bloc opposition and points instead at a cr itique of the kind of neoliberal globalisation that gained traction in the 1990s after the collapse of the So viet Union. II . TR A JEC TOR IE S OF T W AIL A S A M OVEMENT TW AIL as a r ubr ic for an academic mo v ement emerged in Har var d in 1996. 76 To ackno wledge the intellectual tradition within which scholar s who star ted calling themselv es TW AIL scholar s in the 1990s w ere w orking, Anton y Anghie and BS Chimni coined the ter ms ‘TW AIL I’ and ‘TW AIL II’. With the ter m TW AIL I, Anghie and Chimni r efer red to scholars like Georges Abi-Saab , F Garcia-Amador , RP Anand, Mohammed Bedjaoui, and T aslim O Elias, the fr st generation of inter national la w scholar s fr om newly independent States, who g rappled with the exclusions that a Eur ocentr ic and colonial inter national la w had pr oduced. 77 TW AIL II scholar s star ted building on the legacy of the afor ementioned scholar s while fur ther de v eloping the analytical tools necessar y to engage with inter national la w fr om a Thir d W orld per specti v e . This meant taking a cr itical stance to w ards some of the main tenets of TW AIL Ithought. TW AIL II scholar s shifted their attention and nor mativ e commitment fr om the post-colonial State to the people li ving in the Third W orld, which allo w ed for analyses that could tak e into account the violence within post-colonial States as w ell as conficts generated by class, caste , race , and gender . 78 Additionally , the shift fr om TW AIL Ito TW AIL II meant a shift in general attitudes regar ding the r ole of colonialism in inter national la w . While TW AIL Ischolar s had treated colonialism as an aber ration, which could be br ok en with and remedied b y using and slightly modifying the techniques of the existing inter national legal or der , TW AIL II scholar s tur ned to the histor y and theor y of inter national la w to sho w ho w colonialism has been a central and defning featur e of the for mation of inter national la w . 79 C . T W AIL EN GA GEMENTS WITH THE C OLONIAL LE GA CIES OF INT ERNA TIONAL L A W The main aspect that unites TW AIL scholar ship despite the heter o geneity of the mo v ement is the shar ed endeav our of g rappling with inter national la w’ s colonial legacies. 80 Se v eral infuential TW AIL author s, including Anton y Anghie , Sundhy a P ahuja, and, most r ecently , Ntina Tzouv ala ha v e examined the str ucture of inter national 76 Luis Eslav a, ‘TW AIL Coordinates’ ( Cr itical Legal Thinking , 2 Apr il2019) <https://cr iticallegalthinking. com/2019/04/02/tw ail-coordinates/> accessed 25 August2023. 77 Antony Anghie and BS Chimni, ‘Thir d W orld Approaches to Inter national La w and Individual Responsibility in Inter nal Conficts’ (2003) Chinese JIL 77, 79 et seq. 78 Ibid 82. 79 Ibid 84. 80 Usha Natarajan and other s, ‘Introduction: TW AIL – On Praxis and the Intellectual’ (2016) 37 Thir d W orld Quar terly 1946. 81 APPROACHES legal arguments thr ough histor y to sho w ho w colonial and racist thought animates inter national la w . Anghie argues that it is the dynamic of difer ence which generates the concepts and dichotomies that ar e fundamental to the for mation of inter national la w . 81 By d ynamic of diference , Anghie r efer s to the conceptual tools positi vist inter national la wy er s deplo y ed to , fr st, postulate a gap betw een the civilised Eur opean and the unci vilised non-Eur opean w orld and, second, to constr uct and emplo y techniques to br idge this gap (i.e . to civilise the unci vilised, to engage in the ci vilising mission). 82 The ci vilising mission, the idea that non-Eur opean peoples are sa vages, barbar ic , backwar d, and violent, and that Eur opean peoples thus must educate , con v er t, r edeem, dev elop , and pacify – in shor t, civilise – them has been used to justify contin ued inter v ention b y Eur opean countr ies and other countr ies of the Global Nor th (or the W est) in Thir d W orld countr ies. 83 P ahuja emphasises that inter national la w constr ucts its o wn subjects and objects. It does not mer ely rely on a n umber of foundational notions, such as the State , the inter national, or the la w . Nor does it mer ely apply to objects exter nal to it, lik e the econom y . Rather , thr ough defnitions that mak e categor ial cuts betw een what is inside and outside cer tain categor ies, inter national la w pr oduces these categor ies e v en though it is deemed to be founded on them. 84 As the pr oduction of inter national la w’ s foundational concepts has occur r ed through the colonial encounter and thr ough the par ticular contexts of sev eral imper ial and post-imper ial pr ojects, the shape these concepts gained is deter mined b y these v er y par ticular contexts. Simultaneously , ho w ev er , inter national la w posits the legal categor ies it pr oduces as univ er sally tr ue . It is the inter pla y betw een inter national la w’ s self-for mation in (post)colonial contexts and inter national la w’ s uni v er salising gestures that pr oduce what P ahuja calls inter national la w’ s cr itical instability . 85 ‘The instability is “cr itical” in both senses of the w ord, for it is sim ultaneously a threat to the r each and existence of inter national legality and an essential, generati v e dimension of it’. 86 P ahuja’ s w ork has focused on ho w the potential ofer ed by this cr itical instability , a potential of pointing out inter national la w’ s shor tcomings in ter ms of its o wn aspirations to w ards uni v er sal justice and thus using inter national la w in emancipator y w a ys, has been r epeatedly contained by a ruling rationality . A k e y dimension of that rationality is the position of dev elopment and economic g r o wth vis-à-vis inter national la w . The combination of the pr omise ofered b y inter national la w’ s cr itical instability and the subsumption b y the r uling rationality of efor ts to tak e up that pr omise explains inter national la w’ s dual quality , or its puzzling tendency to exhibit both imper ial and counter-imper ial dimensions. 87 81 Antony Anghie , Imper ialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (CUP 2005) 9. 82 Ibid 37, 56. 83 Anghie and Chimni (n 77) 85. 84 Sundhy a P ahuja, Decolonising Inter national Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Universality (CUP 2011) 26. 85 Ibid 25 et seq. 86 Ibid 25; Cf . P eter Fitzpatr ick and P atr icia T uitt, ‘Intr oduction’ in P eter Fitzpatr ick and P atr icia T uitt (eds), Cr itical Beings: Race , Nation and the Global Legal Subject (Ashgate Press 2003) xi–xx, xi. 87 Pahuja (n 84) 25. 82 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK Ntina Tzouv ala focuses on the standar d of civilisation as a set of argumentati v e patter ns, which oscillate betw een tw o modes of distinguishing betw een the W est and the r est. The fr st is what she calls the ‘lo g ic of biology’. It is based on biolo g ical racism and the insur mountable bar r iers it erects against colonised and for merly colonised peoples gaining equal r ights and obligations under inter national la w . The second, the ‘lo g ic of impr o v ement’ in Tzouv ala’ s ter minolo gy , r eplaces defnitiv e exclusion with conditional inclusion, ofer ing peoples of the Third W orld a pr ospect for gaining equal r ights and obligations. The condition for gaining such equal r ecognition, as Tzouv ala argues, has been capitalist transfor mation. 88 D . T W A IL METHOD OLOGIES TW AIL scholar s emplo y a v ar iety of methodolo g ies and engage in var ious inter- and intradisciplinar y con v er sations. Among this v ar iety of methodolo g ies, appr oaches infor med b y cr itical legal histor y stand out, as w ell as appr oaches emplo ying cr itical political econom y . Additionally , TW AIL is cr oss-fer tilised by appr oaches focusing on other systems of oppr ession that inter sect with the system on which TW AIL scholar ship mainly focuses (i.e . colonialism). Thus, TW AIL engagements with cr itical scholar ship on race and racism as w ell as TW AIL feminisms deser v e explicit attention. The focus on histor y is one of the main character istics of TW AIL scholar ship . ‘Histor y matter s’, as Luis Esla v a reafr ms as the fr st of fv e TW AIL coor dinates, which character ise the mo v ement. 89 The par ticular appreciation of histor y stems fr om TW AIL ’ s aim of transfor ming inter national la w . Under standing the past is a necessar y pr erequisite for transfor ming the present and the futur e . 90 TW AIL histor ies ha v e pointed out the Eur ocentr ic nature of existing histor ies of inter national la w . The y ha v e focused on the co-constitution of inter national la w and imper ialism as w ell as on histor ies of Third W orld resistance , of alter nativ e pr ojects and mo v ements. Besides histor y , the second methodolo g ical or ientation central to TW AIL is an engagement with political econom y , especially Marxism, which will be tr eated else where in this textbook in mor e detail. 91 In r ecent y ear s, TW AIL scholar ship has star ted to engage more dir ectly not only with colonialism but with racism as the structure that has serv ed to leg itimise and entr ench colonial domination, thus engag ing in an activ e dialo gue with cr itical scholar ship on race and racism. 92 Cr itical scholar ship on race and racism, which includes but is not 88 Ntina Tzouvala, Capitalism as Civilisation: AHistory of Inter national Law (CUP 2020) 1–7. 89 Eslav a (n 76). 90 BS Chimni, ‘The Past, Pr esent and Future of Inter national La w: ACr itical Third W orld Approach’ (2007) 8 Melbour ne Jour nal of Inter national Law 499, 500. 91 See Bagchi, § 3.4, in this textbook. 92 James T Gathii, ‘Wr iting Race and Identity in a Global Context: What CR T and TW AIL Can Lear n fr om Each Other’ (2021) 67 UCLA Law Re view 1610; E T enda yi Achiume and Aslı Ü Bâli, ‘Race& Empire in 83 APPROACHES limited to Cr itical Race Theor y , is mainly concer ned with the social constr uction of races and racial hierar chies and with ho w these hierarchies ha v e been used to justify exclusion, exploitation, and domination. Dra wing also on cr itical scholar ship on race and racism, TW AIL feminisms place additional emphasis not only on colonialism and racism but also on the patr iarch y as systems of oppression. 93 E. C ONCL US ION TW AIL scholar ship is character ised b y a dynamic and transfor mativ e per specti v e that challenges the Eur ocentr ic foundations of inter national la w . By centr ing the exper iences of those who ha v e bor ne the br unt of colonialism, TW AIL scholar s illuminate the endur ing impacts of histor ical injustices on the global legal landscape . The ev olution fr om TW AIL Ito TW AIL II signifes a shift in focus fr om post-colonial States to marg inalised populations, ackno wledg ing the complexities of class, caste , race , and gender within these contexts. Thr ough cr itical examinations of inter national la w’ s colonial legacies and its r eliance on exclusionar y concepts, TW AIL scholar s ha v e un v eiled the intr icate inter pla y betw een la w , domination, and resistance . Emplo ying histor ical analysis, political econom y , as w ell as feminist and cr itical race analysis, TW AIL pr o vides a multifaceted toolkit for under standing and r eshaping inter national la w to w ard g r eater justice . BOX 3.2.2 Further Readings Further Readings · JT Gathii, ‘The Promise of International Law: AThir d World View (Including a TW AIL Bibliography 1996–2019 as an Appendix)’ (2020) 114 Pr oceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting 165 · R Kapur , Gender , Alterity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl (Edwar d Elgar 2018) · U Natarajan and others, ‘Introduction: TW AIL – On Praxis and the Intellectual’ (2016) 37 Thir d W orld Quarterly 1946 · A Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (CUP 2005) § § § Inter national Law at the Intersection of TW AIL& CR T’ ( TW AILR: Refections , 30 July2021) <https://tw ailr . com/race-empire-in-international-law-at-the-intersection-of-twail-crt/> accessed 26 August2023. 93 Ratna Kapur , Gender , Alter ity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl (Edwar d Elgar 2018); J Oloka-Ony ango and Sylvia T amale, ‘ “The P ersonal Is P olitical”, or Why W omen’ s Rights Ar e Indeed Human Rights: An Afr ican P er spectiv e on Inter national Feminism’ (1995)17 HRQ 691; V asuki Nesiah, ‘T o war d a Feminist Inter nationality: ACr itique of US Feminist Legal Scholarship’ (1993) 16 Har v ard W omen’ s Law J our nal 189. 84 VERENA KAHL AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE § 3 . 3 FEM I N I S T A ND QUEER T HEORY V E R E N A K A H L AN D T A M S I N P H I L LI P A P AI G E BOX 3.3.1 Requir ed Knowledge and Learning Objectives Requir ed knowledge : Appr oaches; History of International Law Learning objectives : Understanding feminist and queer appr oaches and their particular r elevance for public international law . A . INTRO DUC TION This section intr oduces feminist and queer theor ies and their rele v ance for public inter national la w . It depar ts fr om the male and heter osexual standard and a gender- biased inter national legal or der as the common baseline for queer and feminist deconstr uction. By pointing out the commonalities of feminist and queer theor y , the contr ibution underscores the utility and necessity of a consolidated appr oach. Common ter ms and concepts are then connected to some of the manifestations and specifc examples of feminist and queer theor y in inter national la w . F eminist and queer appr oaches for m par t of a div er se feld of schools of thought, which obser v e , analyse , and cr iticise public inter national la w fr om a par ticular per spectiv e and, coming fr om this specifc theor etical foundation, seek to deconstr uct its object of analysis. In this r egard, feminist and queer theor y aims at the deconstr uction of a per ceiv ed neutral or natural inter national legal order that r ests on a dominating masculine and heter osexual standar d. 94 Difer ent appr oaches in feminist and queer theor y share a common baseline: inter national la w has been predominantly de v eloped and shaped b y (white, cis, heter osexual) men and has been built on the assumption that men and masculinity ar e the (societal) nor m. 95 While this nor m and public inter national la w ha v e been percei v ed as neutral, the y neglect categor ies de viating fr om this standard and exclude them as ‘the other’. 96 P eople who de viate fr om the nor m r elating to sex, gender , or sexuality ha v e their per spectiv es and inter ests constantly ignor ed. 97 Public inter national la w , lik e domestic la w , exhibits a clear gender bias. 98 This gender bias, ele v ating the masculine to the nor m, functions lik e a ‘v eiled r epresentation and pr ojection of a masculine which 94 Hilar y Charles w or th and Chr istine Chinkin, The Boundaries of Inter national Law – AFeminist Anal ysis (Manchester Univ er sity Press 2000) 60. 95 Ibid ix, 2. 96 Ibid x. 97 Ibid 2–4, 60. 98 Ibid ix. 85 APPROACHES tak es itself as the unquestioned nor m, the ideal repr esentati v e without any idea of the violence that this r epresentational positioning does to its others’. 99 B. C OMMON TERMS AND C ONCE P TS I. SE X AN D GEN DER Sex and gender ar e tw o interconnected concepts crucial to feminist and queer theor y . Sex r efer s to biolog ical diferences betw een men and w omen constr ued as binar y categor ies related to bodies. 100 Gender descr ibes the cultural and social impr inting of distinctions made on the basis of sex. 101 Gender is seen as a fuid concept 102 and r ejects biolo g ical deter minism embodied in the concept of sex, 103 challeng ing the binar y under standing of sex and opening up a br oader range of identities bey ond w oman and man. 104 The complexity of gender identity ar ises fr om the ‘dynamic relationship betw een the body and identity which g i v es r ise to multiple possib le alignments, which can change o v er time , or ev en from moment to moment’. 105 Ho w ev er , the same complexity applies to the o v er simplifed categor y of sex, as biolo gy itself un v eils the existence of a v ar iety of sex es be y ond the socially constr ucted dualism. 106 The idea that sex is a natural and immutab le character istic has been increasingly challenged 107 for ha ving constr ucted, contingent and political dimensions. 108 Consequently , the distinction betw een sex and gender itself has been questioned. 109 Queer and feminist appr oaches ha v e attempted to denaturalise sex and gender , assuming that they ‘should both be under stood as the efects of perfor mativ e and r eiterativ e gender nor ms ... which mater ialise , naturalise , regulate , and discipline sex ed bodies and identifcations’. 110 99 Elisabeth Gr osz, V olatile Bodies: T ow ard a Corporeal Feminism (Indiana UP 1994) 188. 100 See e .g. Charlesw or th and Chinkin (n 94) 3–4; Dianne Otto , ‘Queer ing Gender [Identity] in Inter national La w’ (2015) 33 Nordic J our nal of Human Rights 299, 300–302. For a pr edominantly biolog ical understanding of sex, see Corbett v Corbett [1971] 2 All ER 33; Margaret Da vies, ‘T aking the Inside Out: Sex and Gender in the Legal Subject’ in Ngaire Nafne and Rosemar y J Ow ens (eds), Sexing the Subject of Law (LBC Infor mation Ser vice 1997) 25, 31; Alison Blunt and J ane Willis, Dissident Geogr aphies: An Introduction to Radical Ideas and Practice (P earson Education 2000) 92. 101 J oan W Scott, ‘Gender : AUseful Categor y for Histor ical Analysis’ (1986) 91 Amer ican Histor ical Revie w 1053, 1053 et seq.; Da vies (n 100) 25, 31; Blunt and Willis (n 100) 92. 102 Gina Heathcote , Feminist Dialogues on Inter national Law: Success , T ensions , Futures (OUP 2019) 3. See also Blunt and Willis (n 100) 93. 103 Otto (n 100) 299, 300; Scott (n 101) 1053, 1054. 104 Ibid 299, 300 f . 105 Ibid 299, 300. 106 Claire Ains w or th, ‘Sex Redefned: The Idea of 2 Sex es Is Ov erly Simplistic’ ( Scientifc Amer ican , 22 October2018) <www .scientifcamer ican.com/ar ticle/sex-r edefned-the-idea-of-2-sex es-is-o v erly- simplistic1/> accessed 25 August2023. 107 See Da vies (n 100) 25, 30 f. 108 Cf . Ibid 25, 30 f, ar ticularly 32. See also Charlesw or th and Chinkin (n 94) 4; J ane Flax, ‘P ostmoder nism and Gender Relations in Feminist Theory’ (1987) 12 Signs 621, 635 et seq. 109 Cf . Blunt and Willis (n 100) 93 f. 110 Otto (n 100) 299, 300 et seq; cf . Judith Butler , Gender T rouble: Feminism and the Subv ersion of Identity (Routledge 1990) 25. 86 VERENA KAHL AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE Despite the aim of inclusi vity and div er sity bey ond traditional under standings of masculinity and femininity , 111 gender has often been used as a synon ym for ‘w omen’, 112 including in public inter national la w . Gender-based analyses ha v e pr imar ily focused on w omen, neglecting gender discr imination exper ienced b y indi viduals with div er se gender identities. 113 Attempts to deconstr uct the categor y of w omen in inter national la w hav e not sufciently challenged the r ig idity and fxation of gender meanings at the inter national le v el. 114 For instance , the Con v ention on the Elimination of all for ms of Discr imination Against W omen (CED A W), in its ar ticles 1 and 5 in par ticular , f ails to distinguish betw een sex and gender , reinfor cing a dualistic per specti v e of men/w omen. 115 This per petuates the male standar d as the nor m, upholding a gender binar y and hierar ch y ev en within a pr oject aimed at endor sing the full humanity of w omen. 116 Such inter national pr otection mechanisms measur ing w omen’ s exper iences against the male standar d har m w omen w orldwide, par ticularly in the Global South, 117 and reinfor ce gender and cultural essentialism b y defning w omen as ‘victim subject’. 118 Inter national la w’ s predominant and persisting r ecognition of and holding on to dominant binar y and o v er simplifed categor ies ther efore ignor es the many signs of gender and bodily di v er sity present acr oss centur ies, continents, and cultures. 119 II . FEMI NIS T A ND QUEE R THEORY 1 . Fem i n i s m a n d Fem i n i st The or y Despite contr o v er sies and disag r eement within feminist thought, the common aim is to analyse , challenge , and change gendered po w er relations in all spher es of life to achie v e human liber ty for all gender s. 120 Black, re v olutionar y feminists, such as bell hooks, 121 111 Charlesw or th and Chinkin (n 94) 3. 112 Cf . Scott (n 101) 1053, 1056. 113 Cf . Otto (n 100) 299, 300. 114 Cf . Brenda Cossman, ‘Gender P erfor mance , Sexual Subjects and Inter national La w’ (2002) 15 Canadian J our nal of La w and Jur ispr udence 281, 284. 115 See , inter alia, Dar ren Rosenblum, ‘Unsex CED A W , or What’ s Wr ong with W omen’ s Rights’ (2011) 20(2) Columbia J our nal of Gender and La w 98; Otto (n 100) 299, 302. See, b y contrast, possible adv antages of silence in for m of non-defnition of ter ms like ‘gender’ as descr ibed in J uliana Santos de Car valho , ‘The P o w ers of Silence: Making Sense of the Non-Defnition of Gender in Inter national Cr iminal La w’ (2022) 35 LJIL 963–985. 116 Cf . Otto (n 100) 299, 302. 117 Cf . Ibid. 118 Ratna Kapur , ‘The T ragedy of Victimisation Rhetor ic: Resur recting the “Nati v e” Subject in Inter national/ P ostcolonial Feminist Legal P olitics’ (2002) 15 Har v ard Human Rights J our nal 1. 119 Cf . Aoife M O’Connor and other s, ‘T ranscending the Gender Binar y under Inter national Law: Adv ancing Health-Related Human Rights for T rans* P opulations’ (2022) 50(3) The J our nal of La w , Medicine& Ethics 409. 120 Blunt and Willis (n 100) 90; Flax (n 108) 621, 622; Charles w or th and Chinkin (n 94) 61; Mir iam Schneir , The Vintage Book of Histor ical Feminism (Vintage 1996) xi. 121 bell hooks, Ain’ t Ia W oman: Blac k W omen and Feminism (South End Press 1981); bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (South End Press 1984); bell hooks, Feminism Is for Ev er ybod y: P assionate Politics (Pluto Press 2000). 87 APPROACHES Barbara Smith, 122 P atr icia Hill Collins, 123 and Kimberlé Crensha w , 124 ha v e contr ib uted to a mor e inclusiv e (r e)defnition of feminism and feminist theor y b y emphasising inter sectionality and di v er sity in exper iences of discr imination. Indigenous feminism 125 highlights decolonisation, indigenous so v er eignty , and indigenous w omen’ s r ights within indigenous life and culture . 126 T o embrace the div er sity of feminist v oices, Sandra Harding asks feminists to g i v e up ‘the goal of telling “one tr ue stor y” ’, b ut instead to embrace ‘the per manent par tiality of feminist inquir y’, thereb y seeking ‘a political and epistemolo g ical solidar ity in our oppositions to the fction of the naturalized, essentialized, uniquely “human” and to the distor tions, per v er sions, exploitations, and subjugations per petrated on behalf of this fction’. 127 2 . Fem i n i st Ap p roa c he s to I n t er na t i o na l La w F eminist appr oaches to inter national la w use feminist theor y ‘to sho w ho w the str uctures, pr ocesses, and methodolog ies of inter national la w marg inalize w omen b y f ailing to tak e account of their liv es or exper iences’. 128 These appr oaches lift the v eil of an inter national legal or der percei v ed as neutral and objecti v e and re v eal its underlying male standar d constr ucted as the ‘nor m’ and the ‘nor mal’, which r esults in a po w er imbalance and hierar ch y betw een men and w omen and mater ialises in the silence of inter national la w regar ding w omen’ s exper iences and interests. 129 The y demonstrate that inter national la w is a ‘thor oughly gendered system’. 130 Accor ding to Charles w or th and Chinkin, feminist analyses of inter national la w fulfl tw o main tasks. Fir st, they deconstr uct the v alues underlying the inter national legal system, challeng ing their 122 Barbara Smith, ‘Racism in W omen’ s Studies’ (1979) 5(1) Frontiers: AJ our nal of W omen’ s Studies 48–49. 123 Margaret L Andersen and P atr icia Hill Collins, Race , Class and Gender: An Anthology (10th edn, W ads w or th Cengage Lear ning 2020). 124 Kimberlé Crensha w , ‘Demarg inalizing the Inter section of Race and Sex: ABlack Feminist Cr itique of Antidiscr imination Doctr ine, F eminist Theor y and Antiracist P olitics’ (1989) Univ er sity of Chicago Legal Forum 139–167. 125 Jo yce AGreen, Making Space for Indigenous Feminism (F er nw ood Publication 2007); Cheryl Suzack and others, Indigenous W omen and Feminism: Politics , Activism, Culture (UBC Press 2010); Aileen Mor eton- Robinson, T alkin’ Up to the White W oman: Indigenous W omen and Feminism (Univ ersity of Queensland Press 2002); Rosalv a Aída Her nández Castillo , ‘The Emergence of Indigenous Feminism in Latin Amer ica’ (2010) 35(3) Signs 539–545; Heidi Sinev aara-Niskanen, ‘Crossings of Indigenousness, F eminism, and Gender’ (2010) 18(3) NORA – Nordic J our nal of Feminist and Gender Resear ch 217–221; Rebecca Tsosie , ‘Indigenous W omen and Inter national Human Rights Law: The Challenges of Colonialism, Cultural Sur viv al, and Self-Deter mination’ (2010) 15(1) UCLA J our nal of Inter national La w and For eign Afair s 187–237. 126 Celeste Liddle , ‘Intersectionality and Indigenous Feminism: An Abor ig inal W oman’ s P er spectiv e’ ( The Postcolonialist , 25 J une2014) <http://postcolonialist.com/civil-discourse/inter sectionality-indigenous- feminism-abor ig inal-w omans-per spectiv e/> accessed 25 August2023. 127 Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Cor nell Univ er sity Press 1986) 193. 128 Chr istine Chinkin, ‘Feminism, Appr oach to Inter national La w’ ( Max Planc k Encyc lopedia of Inter national Law , October2010) <https://opil.oupla w .com/view/10.1093/la w:epil/9780199231690/la w- 9780199231690-e701> accessed 25 August2023. 129 Charlesw or th and Chinkin (n 94) 60. 130 Hilar y Charlesw or th, Chr istine Chinkin, and Shelley Wr ight, ‘Feminist Appr oaches to Inter national La w’ (1991) 85 AJIL 613, 615. 88 VERENA KAHL AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE claim to rationality and objecti vity . 131 Second, feminist appr oaches seek to reconstruct inter national la w b y redefning its cor e concepts ‘in a w a y that they do not support or r einforce the domination of w omen b y men’. 132 Impor tantly , v oices in feminist appr oaches to inter national la w ha v e di v er sifed, with many leading icons stemming fr om the Global South. 133 3. Q u ee r ne ss a n d Q u ee r Theo r y Queer ness has a complex histor y as a ter m used to pejorati v ely label those who de viate fr om societal nor ms and expectations of heter osexuality . 134 The ter m has been r eclaimed by the Q UIL TBA G+ community (Queer , Unsure , Inter sex, Lesbian, T rans*, Bisexual, Asexual/Ar omantic/Agender , Ga y , plus other s outside these categor ies and heter onor mativ e classifcation) as both a generalised shor thand for the community at large and an indi vidualised identity for those within the community who do not feel comfor table with the constraints of mor e specifc identity descr iptor s. 135 In this w ay , queer acts as a generalised or collecti v e (descr iptiv e) noun but also an indi vidualised (identity) noun. Queer also operates as a v erb , in that ‘queer ing’ denotes the act of questioning and inter r ogating underlying (heter onor mativ e) assumptions that under pin the subject of enquir y and the nor mati v e appr oach to the thing that is being queer ed. 136 T echnically , queer can also be used as an adjecti v e; ho w e v er , as the adjecti v e use of queer is ir re v er sibly tied to the pejorati v e use , it has r ightly f allen out of common v er nacular . 4 . Q ue e r App roa c he s t o I nt e rn at io n a l Law Queer appr oaches to inter national la w seek to include exper iences and identities outside the cis/het standar d, par ticularly illustrated in the g ranting of equal r ights and pr ohibition of discr imination on the basis of sexuality and sexual identity . 137 In addition, Dianne Otto under stands ‘queer ing of inter national la w’ mor e br oadly than traditional appr oaches of nor m inclusion. 138 In this sense , queer theor y fundamentally 131 Cf . Charlesw or th and Chinkin (n 94) 60. 132 Ibid 61. 133 Ratna Kapur , Gender , Alter ity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl (Edw ard Elgar 2018); Adr ien Wing, ‘Global Cr itical Race F eminism P ost 9–11: Afghanistan’ (2002) 10 W ashington Uni versity J our nal of La w and P olicy (2002) 19; J Oloka-Ony ango and Sylvia T amale, ‘ “The P er sonal Is P olitical”, or Why W omen’ s Rights Are Indeed Human Rights: An Afr ican P er spectiv e on Inter national Feminism’ (1995) 17(4) HRQ 691; Rosalv a Aída Her nández Castillo , ‘The Emergence of Indigenous Feminism in Latin Amer ica’ (2010) 35(3) Signs 539. 134 Annamar ie J agose, Queer Theory: An Introduction (Melbour ne Univ ersity 2013) 9. 135 Ibid; W a yne Morgan, ‘Queer Law: Identity , Culture , Div er sity , La w’ (1995) 5 Australasian Gay and Lesbian La w Jour nal 1, 5; Gabr ielle Simm, ‘Queer ing CED A W? Sexual Or ientation, Gender Identity and Expression and Sex Character istics (SOGIESC) in Inter national Human Rights Law’ (2020) 29 Gr ifth La w Revie w 374, 376. 136 Simm (n 135). 137 Dianne Otto , ‘ “T aking a Break” from “Nor mal”: Thinking Queer in the Context of Inter national La w’ (2007) 101 Pr oceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting 119, 119 et seq. 138 Ibid 120. 89 APPROACHES challenges and cr iticises the reg ime of what is consider ed as ‘nor mal’ with regar d to human sexuality . 139 In the w or ds of Otto , queer theor y to inter national la w is ‘ “taking a br eak” fr om the politics of heter o-nor mati v e injur y , and imag ines human sexuality as much mor e div er se and shifting’. 140 Quite similar to the deconstr uctionist appr oach of feminism, queer theor y mak es ‘visible the [heter o]sexual or der ing that is tak en for g ranted as an under pinning of the “nor mal” system of inter national la w’ and discloses heter osexuality as the ‘basic model for all dominant systems of societal r elations’. 141 When heter osexuality is seen as the pr efer r ed, natural, nor mal for m of sexuality , it not only shapes ho w society consider s ‘ “nor mal” inter per sonal and f amilial r elationships’, but it also for ms the (presumed) basis for our per ception of community in general and ther eby dictates our understanding of ‘all for ms of “nor mal” community , including that encompassed b y the “nor mal” nation-state , inter national la w’ s pr imar y subject’. 142 In essence , queer appr oaches to inter national la w un v eil ho w inter national la w ‘pr o vides a conduit for the micr omanagement and “disciplining” of ev er yda y li v es, including sexual pleasur e , despite its many r ules pur por ting to lea v e these matter s in the domestic realm of jur isdiction’. 143 5. Fri c t io n s a n d I nt e rse c t i on s of Fe m i n i st a n d Q u ee r Theo r y to I n t er na t i o na l Law Ther e is much to be said for a joint pr esentation of feminist and queer appr oaches to inter national la w . Especially consider ing the open, fuid concept of gender and the need to br eak do wn and o v ercome the heter onor mativ e binar y of both sex and gender , a cr itical analysis of inter national la w fr om a one-sided feminist or queer per specti v e w ould r emain patch y and incomplete . Still, constr uctiv e dialo gues betw een feminist and queer theor y ha v e been the exception. According to Gina Heathcote , this is due to the f act that ‘mainstream feminist appr oaches to inter national la w are y et to incor porate queer and trans scholarship into feminist accounts’ 144 and ha v e mostly ignored the dialo gue commenced b y queer appr oaches. 145 Instead, feminist appr oaches ha v e – intentionally or unintentionally , for pragmatic or other r easons 146 – largely built on the heter onor mativity and cisgender ism inherent in the structures the y seek to cr iticise , resulting in the ‘in visibility of individuals who do not neatly ft into the nor malized gender binar y’ and r epr oducing the ‘fear of under mining heter onor mativ e social str uctur es’. 147 In contrast, mo ving bey ond dualism and asymmetr y w ould allo w ‘to tell a stor y 139 Ibid. 140 Ibid. 141 Ibid. 142 Ibid. 143 Ibid. 144 Heathcote (n 102) 21. 145 Cf . Ibid. 146 Otto (n 100) 299, 306. 147 T amsin Phillipa Paige , ‘The Maintenance of Inter national P eace and Secur ity Heter onor mativity’ in Dianne Otto (ed), Queer ing Inter national Law: Possibilities , Alliances , Complicities , Risks (Routledge 2018) 91, 107. 96 VERENA KAHL AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE · D Otto, Queering International Law: Possibilities, Alliances, Complicities, Risks (Routledge 2018) · S Harris Rimmer and K Ogg, Research Handbook on Feminist Engagement with International Law (Edwar d Elgar 2019) Further Resour ces · Catherine Amirfar and Kal Raustiala, ‘Episode 39: Feminist Theories of International Law , 30Y ears On’ ( ASIL International Law Behind the Headlines ) <www .asil.or g/r esour ces/podcast/ep39> accessed 25 August2023 · Ba ş ak Etkin and Kostia Gorobets, ‘Episode 18: T amsin Paige on Sociology of International Law , Queerness, and Pastry’ ( Bor derline Jurisprudence , 3 Mar ch2023) <https://open.spotify .com/show/7rlKzpmKoFmmOoXmL9GIkq> accessed 25 August2023 · Kimberlé Crenshaw , ‘The Urgency of Intersectionality’ ( T ed T alk , 14 November2016) <www .ted.com/talks/kimberle_cr enshaw_the_ur gency_of_ intersectionality/transcript> accessed 25 August2023 · Sina Rahmani, ‘Ratna Kapur on “Gender and Human Rights: Success, Failure or New Imperialism?” (2016)’ ( The East Is a Podcast , 16 February2021) <https://eastisapodcast.libsyn.com/ratna-kapur -gender -and-human-rights- success-failur e-or -new-imperialism-2016> accessed 25 August2023 · ILGA Europe, ‘T rans Inclusion in the Women’ s Movement’ ( The Fr ontline , 31 Mar ch2023) <www .ilga-eur ope.or g/podcast/the-fr ontline-trans-inclusion-in- the-womens-movement/> accessed 25 August2023 § § § 97 APPROACHES § 3 . 4 M A R X I S M K ANAD BAGC H I BOX 3.4.1 Requir ed Knowledge and Learning Objectives Requir ed knowledge : Thir d W orld Appr oaches to International Law Learning objectives : Understanding how Marxist literatur e can illuminate the theory and practise of international law , its r elationship to other appr oaches, the dif fer ent academic contributions on the subject, and the possible dir ection of futur e scholarship in this ar ea. A . INTRO DUC TION Marxism is a br oad chur ch: ‘splits, disag reements, and den unciations’ 186 within it are r outinely common. No w onder that many of its tenets ha v e been misinter preted b y both Marxists and non-Marxist scholar s, associating Marxist thought with r eductionism, economic deter minism, 187 and a cer tain complicity in author itar ian r ule . Ir onically , Marx himself had v ehemently decr ied being called a Marxist. 188 T o wr ite about a Marxist legal appr oach is equally difcult, g iv en that Marx and Engels did not ha v e much to sa y about the la w , let alone inter national la w . Y et, generations of Marxist scholar s ha v e dra wn fr om Marx’ s insights into society and h i s t o r y to explain a n umber of pr opositions about la w and, more r ecently , about inter national la w . Marxists ha v e challenged inter national la w’ s fundamental claims about pr omoting peace , pr osper ity , equality , or pr og ress. Ev en while maintaining this cr itique , Marxist legal theor y has pointed to w a ys in which la w can and should be instr umentalised to w ards pr og r essiv e ends mindful of its limits for emancipation. In what follo ws, Irefect upon f v e distinct per spectiv es that Marxist scholar s ha v e brought to the disciplinary under standings of the histor y and pr esent of inter national law . Additionally , Ialso highlight some of the v oids within Marxist legal theor y and ho w recent scholarship has made impor tant str ides to fll those v oids. B. MAR XISM AS AP P RO A CH AN D CRI TIQ UE The use of ‘appr oach’ rather than ‘method’ is a conscious choice . Marxist theor y rar ely confor ms to the idea of a singular method of appr oaching la w . The Marxist tradition 186 Rober t Kno x, ‘Marxist Approaches to Inter national La w’ in Anne Orford, Flor ian Hofmann, and Mar tin Clark (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law (OUP 2016) 307. 187 Economic deter minism is the idea that all social and political phenomenon are fully deter mined by economic relationships. 188 See Karl Marx and J ules Guesde , ‘The Pro g ramme of the Parti Ouvr ier’ (1880) <www .marxists.org/ar chiv e/ marx/w orks/1880/05/par ti-ouvr ier .htm#n5> accessed 25 August2023. 98 KANAD BAGCHI is a theor y about the totality of social for ms and r elationships among individuals, rather than a specifc set of pr opositions about the la w . T o in v ok e a Marxist lens is to view the w orld and society as an endless set of inter-relationships, wher e one phenomenon is al w ays connected to the other . This means that ideas, institutions, and human agency need to be under stood as par t of an integ rated whole that is both dynamic and also beholden to histor y and past str uctur es. 189 Ho w w e think about the la w will depend on ho w w e think about the deter mining elements of social relationships mor e br oadly . Mor eo v er , Marxism continues to e v olv e , ev en as it r eg ister s cr itique , ne w w a ys of thinking, and a continuing to push against its o wn traditions. Confning Marxist theor y to a pre-deter mined set of pr opositions or institutional boundar ies is not only misguided but also deeply depoliticising. ‘Appr oaches’ in this sense k eeps that space open to be constantly r evisited and challenged. A Marxist cr itique is a str uctural cr itique , not aimed at individual instances of exploitation alone , but at a r efection on the mater ial str uctures of society at a systemic le v el, which mak e such exploitation par t of the ordinar y and mundane . It is also an inter nal cr itique of the system, which exposes the inner contradictions of its operating lo g ic . La w , then, is to be vie w ed as a social practice with its o wn inter nal for mal log ic containing a set of argumentati v e str uctures that g i v e stability to dominant interests and po w er . It pr obes us to think about law and inter national la w not as a fragmented, insular , and detached body of r ules, b ut as par t of a larger social and economic infrastr ucture , within which it is embedded and tak es its for m. Finally , Marxism is not simply a set of theor etical escapades, but a call for radical political action to c hange existing str uctures of political econom y . 190 It is inher ently an emancipator y praxis, the aim of which is to ‘cr eate space for inter preti v e r ules and strateg ies that contr ibute to the w elf ar e of the subalter n classes’. 191 Marxism therefor e , does not dra w an o v er tly str ict boundar y betw een theor y and practice , ackno wledg ing that one is necessar ily dependent on the other . C . FIVE MA R XI ST P ER SP ECTIVES ON INT ERNA TIONAL L A W Despite their long and infuential pedig ree , Marxist appr oaches to inter national law , largely r emained in the marg ins of the discipline , ev en within cr itical cir cles. Y et, in the last decades, Marxist scholar ship in inter national la w has witnessed a re viv al. Many of our contemporar y cr ises, whether that be the W ar on T er r or , r ising inequality , fnancial cr isis, climate change , racial injustice , violence against w omen and indigenous communities, or the r ise of author itar ian populism, ha v e br ought to the fore capitalism’ s w or se consequences. Alongside that, many of the contemporar y social mo v ements, including the f ar mer s’ pr otests in India, the Black Liv es Matter mo v ement, or the 189 Andrea Bianchi, International Law Theor ies: An Inquir y into Diferent W a ys of Thinking (OUP 2016) 84. 190 Karl Marx, Theses on Feuerbac h (1845). 191 BS Chimni ‘An Outline of a Marxist Cour se on Public Inter national La w’ (2004) 17 LJIL 1, 4. 99 APPROACHES P alestinian str uggle against imper ialist violence , ha v e been mobilised using Marxist language . Incr easingly , the visible inter-connectedness of local e v ents with the global str uctures of political econom y ha v e called into question the r ole of inter national la w in the (r e)pr oduction of w orldwide dispossession and alienation. Marxist concepts such as class, ideolo gy , economic base , and commodifcation car r y tr emendous explanator y potential in la ying bar e the systemic forces at w ork, which naturalise the histor ical legacies of this unequal and violent or der of things. I. INT ERNA TIONAL LA W A S A MA TERIA L P HENOMENON Marxist theor y asser ts that all social r elations need to be under stood in their histor ical- mater ial context. This means that la w , lik e other social for ms of regulation, is r ooted in ‘the mater ial conditions of life’, which are the so-called base , the ‘real foundation, on which ar ises a legal and political super str ucture’. 192 Legal r elations refect larger economic pr ocesses within society . Ho w ev er , the relationship betw een la w and the economic str ucture is neither static nor unidir ectional. T o the contrar y , the relationship of the base/super str ucture is highly contingent, co-constituti v e and ev en contradictor y – a point that is r outinely forgotten. The task of Marxist legal scholar ship is to ask ho w this r elationship pla ys out in concrete situations. Unlik e liberal accounts of the discipline , a histor ical-mater ial perspectiv e locates the r ise of inter national la w within the consolidation of global capitalism. In this, the stor y of capital, although it beg ins in Eur ope , tra v els to the rest of the w orld through colonial expansion and imper ial violence . 193 Pr imitive accum ulation , the resolutely violent and coer civ e enter pr ise of ‘div or cing the pr oducer fr om the means of pr oduction’, 194 becomes the chief means of encounter betw een capitalist Eur ope and the non- capitalist w orld. For Marx, colonial expansion and the ‘extir pation, ensla v ement and entombment’ of the nativ e population w as not only indispensable for capitalist accumulation, b ut w as a natural consequence of it. 195 Inter national la w , including its r ules concer ning trade and commerce , the doctr ine of so v er eignty , and the legal standar d of civilisation become central to this pr oject of w orldwide domination and subjugation. Thus, fr om a Marxist per spectiv e, imper ialism and colonial expansion is a mater ial phenomenon at the hear t of which lies the need for capital to constantly expand ‘o v er the whole surf ace of the globe’. 196 This requir es for cibly dispossessing nati v e populations and transfor ming non-capitalist societies into the image of capitalist moder nity . As Rosa Lux emburg argued, ‘Capitalism m ust alw a ys and ev er ywher e fght a battle of annihilation 192 Karl Marx, ‘Preface to a Contr ibution to the Cr itique of P olitical Econom y’ (1859). 193 See González Hauck, § 1, in this textbook. 194 Karl Marx, Capital: ACr itique of Political Economy , v ol 1, ‘Chapter T w enty-Six: The Secret of Pr imitiv e Accumulation’ (1867). 195 Karl Marx, Capital: ACr itique of Political Economy , v ol 1, ‘Chapter Thir ty-One: Genesis of the Industr ial Capitalist’ (1867). 196 Karl Marx and Fr iedr ich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist P ar ty (1848). 100 KANAD BAGCHI against e v er y non-capitalist for m that it encounter s’. 197 Imper ialism in a Marxist sense , then, is ‘the political expr ession of the accumulation of capital’ 198 which w orks to eface all traditional for ms of economic and cultural organisation and tur n them into social spaces that w ould be safe and pr oductiv e for capital. 199 Similarly , the distinction betw een civilised and unci vilised and cor responding denial of so v ereignty to the latter fr om the realm of 19th-centur y Eur opean inter national la w w as not only about racial supremacy or domination, but w as centrally r ooted in the log ic of capitalism. Equal so v er eignty for the colonies could only come thr ough W ester n capital, the cr eation of a centralised bur eaucracy , and thr ough moder n for ms of political organisation. 200 Realisation of statehood under inter national la w became synonymous with violent capitalist transfor mation. Vie wing inter national law thr ough a mater ialist lens points to the per sistence of the ci vilising mission, ev en as the language of racial difer ence has diminished. It allo ws us to witness moder n inter national la w as a continuation of past practices of ‘exclusion and conditional inclusion’ of the non-W ester n w orld. 201 The post–W orld W ar II inter national legal order , pur por tedly based on inter national r ule of la w and self-deter mination, did not fundamentally alter the imper ial nature of inter national la w , b ut mark ed the shift to neo-colonialism, tying the Third W orld to the economic dependence of for mer colonial po w er s and the institutions that they contr olled. 202 Inter national la w and inter national institutions, thr ough str uctural adjustment and conditionality , mark et liberalisation, pr omotion of r ule of la w , and pr otection of for eign in v estment, disciplined and r emodelled the Global South.The IMF and the W orld Bank, among other s, pr omote monetar y stability , free capital mobility , disciplined fnance , and a shr inking of the public sector , under the pr etext of the seemingly neutral concept of good go v er nance . Da vid Har v ey calls this ‘accum ulation b y dispossession’ to r efer to the accelerated w ays in which capital inhabits e v er y non-capitalist space , lea ving in its w ak e mass po v er ty , social stratifcation, forced mig ration, and land dispossession. 203 Accumulation b y dispossession is pr imiti v e accumulation in the neo- liberal age aided b y the pr iv atisation and commodifcation of natural resour ces. Moder n inter national in v estment la w , especially BITs, 204 entr ench the po w er of foreign capital, while the WT O pr escr ibes har monised r ules, subjects State autonom y to inter national adjudication, and legalises the inter national pr otection of pr oper ty r ights. 205 197 Rosa Lux emburg, The Accumulation of Capital , ‘Chapter27: The Struggle Against Natural Econom y’ (1913) <https://www .marxists.org/archi v e/lux emburg/1913/accum ulation-capital/> accessed 12 December2023. 198 Ibid. 199 Rober t Kno x, ‘A Cr itical Examination of the Concept of Imper ialism in Marxist and Third W orld Appr oaches to Inter national La w’ (PhD thesis, London School of Economics and P olitical Science 2014); Rober t Kno x, ‘Imper ialism, Hypocr isy and the P olitics of Inter national La w’ (2022) 3 TW AIL Re view 25. 200 Ntina Tzouv ala, Capitalism as Civilisation: AHistory of Inter national Law (CUP 2020). 201 Ibid. 202 Kw ame Nkr umah, Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imper ialism (Thomas Nelson& Sons 1965) x; BS Chimni, Inter national Law and W orld Order: ACr itique of Contemporary Approaches (CUP 2017) 496. 203 Da vid Har v ey , The New Imper ialism , ‘Chapter4: Accumulation b y Dispossession’ (OUP 2003). 204 See Hankings-Ev ans, § 23.1, in this textbook 205 Kate Miles, The Or igins of Inter national Investment Law: Empire , Environment and the Safeguar ding of Capital (CUP 2013). 101 APPROACHES The lo g ic of Marx’ s pr imiti v e accumulation as a gate w a y to both imper ial expansion and capitalist transfor mation is also wr it large in the continuing for ms of settler- colonial practices acr oss the w orld, where dispossession and expr opr iation of indigenous land and ter r itor y is legally and constitutionally sanctioned. It allo ws us to conceptualise the r elationship betw een inter national la w , capitalism, and imper ialism as a per manent pr ocess and not one that ought to be confned simply to the pre-histor y of the discipline . Inter national la w as a mater ial phenomenon contests many of the idealistic por tra y als of the discipline , which trace its contour s to m ythical accounts of benign trade betw een pr i v ate individuals, ideas about denouncing w ar , human r ights, or peace . 206 Instead, Marxist accounts of the feld ha v e spent considerable efor ts in g r ounding these ideas about inter national la w within a histor ically specifc and mater ially infuenced conception of ev olution, wher e it is indistinguishable fr om violence and expr opr iation. As Antony Anghie argued, inter national la w is imper ialism all the w a y do wn and much lik e the bir th of capital in Marx’ s analysis, inter national la w also comes into the w orld dr ipped in ‘b lood and dir t’. 207 II . INTE RN A T IO NAL L A W A S A CL A SS PROJEC T Class is the organising pr inciple of society in the Marxist tradition. Marx f amously r emark ed that ‘[t]he histor y of all hither to existing society is the histor y of class str uggles’, betw een those who o wn the means of pr oduction and those whose only means of subsistence is their labour po w er . 208 All aspects of social relationships, including those that mak e up the economic base , constantly ev olv e thr ough these str uggles, which are often expr essed thr ough the la w . 209 La w is the means thr ough which class confict is mediated, and, mor e fundamentally , it is in the pr ocess of engag ing with the la w that class consciousness takes its concr ete for m. The la w refects and consolidates the inter ests of dominant classes but also shapes the for m and content of the str uggle . The outcomes are ther efor e nev er predeter mined. Classes extend be y ond domestic borders. With the consolidation of the neo-colonial pr oject in the 1970s and the accelerating tr end to w ards h yper-globalisation, class for mations too acquired a difer ent dimension. Capital accumulation no w relied on a ‘globalized r eg ime of exploitation and w aged labour’. 210 Marxist scholar s, especially Rasulo v and Chimni, 211 pointed to the emergence and consolidation of a transnational capitalist class (TCC) – a disper sed, y et infuential 206 See González Hauck, § 1, in this textbook. 207 Karl Marx and Fr iedr ich Engels, ‘Manifesto of the Communist P ar ty’: Chapter I – Bourgeois and Proletar ians (1848). 208 Ibid. 209 Bill Bo wr ing, ‘Marxist Inter national La w Methodology?’ in Rossana Deplano and Nicholas Tsagour ias (eds), Research Methods in Inter national Law (Edwar d Elgar 2021). 210 Akbar Rasulo v , ‘The Nameless Rapture of the Struggle’: T o war ds a Marxist Class-Theoretic Appr oach to Inter national Law’ (2008) 19 FinnishYBIL 243, 268. 211 BS Chimni, ‘Pr olegomena to a Class Appr oach to Inter national La w’ (2010) 21(1) EJIL 57. 102 KANAD BAGCHI fraction of capitalist classes fr om adv anced capitalist countr ies and the Third W orld. TCC w orks closely with inter national institutions to create a ‘functional unifed global economic space’ where r estr ictions to capital mo v ement can be fattened. 212 On the fip side , a transnational oppr essed class (TOC) compr ising social g r oups that ar e disenfranchised fr om the means of production came to be gradually consolidated, building coalitions with difer ent oppressed g r oups using both legal and political means to push against the TCC . In this constellation, inter national la w becomes a site of class str uggle betw een the TCC and T OC , pr omoting class consciousness and pr o viding its constitutiv e str uctur e . This is most visible in the struggle for en vir onment, bio-div er sity , dev elopment-related displacement, and the lik e , where inter ests of capital compete with the r ights of labour , indigenous communities, and agr icultural w ork er s. These antagonisms pla y out thr ough o v er tly capitalist institutions such as the WT O , the W orld Bank, and the IMF , but also thr ough institutions such as the Inter national Labour Organization, which one might otherwise think w orks to cor rect the po w er imbalance betw een capital and labour . 213 The ‘emerg ing bourgeois imper ial inter national law’ uses the rhetor ic of uni v er sal human r ights and r ule of la w while entr enching the mater ial and ideational pr imacy of capitalist classes. 214 A class appr oach to inter national la w helps na vigate the black bo x of the State and inter national institutions b y identifying the dominant g r oups which beneft fr om the system of inter national la w . 215 It also helps for eg r ound a mor e g ranular stor y of r esistance by T OC to capitalist accumulation and dir ects our focus to new actors in the global ar ena. Fr om social mo v ements to ci vil society organisations espousing the cause of T OC , inter national la w is made and re-made in difer ent ter rains. III . IN TERN A TIO NA L L A W , ID EOLOGY , AND T HE CR ITIQUE O F UN IVER SALIT Y La w then becomes, sustains, and stabilises par ticular interests as uni v er sal ones. In the Marxist tradition, this is la w acting as an ideolo g ical for m, which domesticates r esistance and class confict by depoliticising legal r elationships and rationalising conceptual categor ies. 216 Ideology , in the w ords of Susan Marks, pla ys a ‘k ey r ole in leg itimating exploitation’ pr ecisely b y repr esenting capitalist social r elations as natural and per manent. 217 Relationships of domination and exploitation are delineated as 212 BS Chimni, ‘Inter national Institutions T oda y: An Imper ial Global State in the Making’ (2004) 15(1) EJIL1 9. 213 Mai T aha, ‘Reading “Class” in Inter national La w: The Labor Question in Interwar Egypt’ (2016) 25(2) Social& Legal Studies 567. 214 Chimni (n 191). 215 An impor tant w ork here is b y Claire Cutler in analysing the r ise of transnational fnance class. Claire Cutler , Pr iv ate Power and Global Authority: T ransnational Merchant Law in the Global Political Economy (CUP 2003). 216 Karl Marx, ‘Preface to a Contr ibution to the Cr itique of P olitical Econom y’ (1859). 217 Susan Marks (ed), Inter national Law on the Left: Re-examining Marxist Legacies (CUP 2008) 292; See also the w ork of Claire Cutler , who uses the concept of ‘hegemony’ dra wn fr om Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci 103 APPROACHES per taining to the individual spher e rather than as systemic outcomes. In other w ords, a focus on ideolo gy exposes the abstracting character of the la w , which fattens diferences of po w er , ev en while pr ojecting exchange as transpir ing betw een free and equal par ticipants. It is not difcult to see ho w ideology cr itique pr o vides a useful lens to the w ork of inter national la w , especially in the context of deeply political conficts. Fr om humanitar ian inter v ention to economic conditionalities and the W ar on T er r or , capitalist States and inter national institutions ha v e r outinely in v ok ed inter national la w to justify a par ticular idea of liberation and freedom. 218 Sundh y a P ahuja has sho wn that notions of dev elopment, when pr escr ibed in uni v er salistic ter ms, car r y with them the prescr iption for par ticular kinds of economic and political ar rangements, which mir r or s the W ester n b ureaucratic-State apparatus essential for capital accumulation. 219 Inter national la w , b y focusing on domestic r oots of po v er ty and confict in the Thir d W orld, detracts attention fr om the systemic patter ns of capitalist exploitation and violence at the hear t of core-per ipher y relationships. The g r o wing infrastr ucture of inter national adjudication and the increase in specialised for ums of dispute resolution add another la y er of depoliticisation to social conficts concer ning land, en vir onment, and pr oper ty . Ev en the concept of democracy pr omoted b y inter national la w sidesteps cr ucial questions of entr enched social hierar ch y and inter-g r oup domination, while pr i vileg ing a nar r o w set of indicator s and benchmarks to assess par ticipation. 220 T o point to the ideological character of inter national la w pr obes us to think about the f act that social ar rangements need not be the w a y they ar e . If existing social r elations seem inevitab le or natural, it is but the r esult of repeated ideas and rhetor ical pr ocesses that leg itimise and or der such str uctur es. But one should also be mindful of the f act that ev en though histor ical r elations are contingent, the y ar e not alw a ys open to change. Quoting Susan Marks once again, ‘just as things do not ha v e to be as they ar e , so too histor y is not simply a matter of chance and will’, meaning that human agency , while paramount for r esistance and change , al w ays operates within the ‘lo g ics of a system’. 221 In other w or ds, as much as one ought to be sceptical of histor ical necessity , meaningful transfor mation can only transpir e thr ough a clear-headed under standing of the f alse contingency and limits of indi vidual action. to argue that la w helps in projecting pr iv ate interests as societal ones. Clair e Cutler , ‘Gramsci, La w , and the Culture of Global Capitalism’ (2005) 8(4) Cr itical Review of International Social and P olitical Philosophy 527–542. 218 See for instance , Hilar y Charlesw or th, ‘Feminist Refections on the Responsibility to Pr otect’ (2010) 2(3) GR2P 232–249. 219 Sundh y a Pahuja, Decolonising International Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Univ ersality (CUP 2011). 220 Susan Marks, The Riddle of All Constitutions: International Law , Democracy , and the Cr itique of Ideology (OUP 2003). 221 Susan Marks, ‘False Contingency’ (2009) 62(1) Cur rent Legal Pr oblems 1–21, 10. 104 KANAD BAGCHI IV . INTE RNA TIONAL L A W AS C OMMODIT Y F ORM F or Marx, capital mak es commodities out of ev er ything, b ut, most cr ucially , capital expands b y commodifying labour po w er . The pr ocess entails abstracting the individual fr om the pr oduct of its o wn labour for sur plus v alue and alienating labour fr om the v er y means of pr oduction. With the spr ead of capitalism, commodifcation extends to e v er y aspect of life , mediated, of cour se , thr ough legal relationships. Capitalist r elations, then, ar e mark ed by an endless collection of commodities connected thr ough an endless set of legal r elations. 222 Commodifcation and the abstracting/indi vidualising character of the la w was central to the w ork of So viet jur ist Evgeny P ashukanis. Dra wing fr om Marx’ s insight that commodities ar e but the elementar y for m of w ealth, 223 P ashukanis argued that, in a capitalist society , r elations betw een individuals based on pr oper ty r ights are homolo gous to abstract commodities, which ar e traded. J ust as for commodities to be exchanged, each par ty much r ecognise the other as an equal o wner of property in an abstract sense , so too does the la w tr eat those par ties as equal bear er s of r ights. 224 La w treats indi viduals as abstract, neutral entities, detached fr om the mater ial conditions in which they exist. This mak es it seem lik e exchange is betw een tw o equals, while the la w in visibilises and ‘per mits real inequality’. P ashukanis illustrated that so v ereign entities in their r elationship to one another pr ecisely operate as o wner s of pr oper ty (r ead: ter r itor y) with each possessing equal r ights and obligations. This for mal equality in status eludes, ho w e v er , the r eality ‘that they ar e unequal in their signifcance and their po w er’. 225 It is in this context that P ashukanis character ised inter national la w as ‘the legal for m of the str uggle of the capitalist states among themselv es for domination o v er the rest of the w orld’. 226 The cr ucial question that ar ises is ho w are disputes then r esolv ed betw een tw o for mally equal so v er eigns? What is the nature of the legal for m that mak es cer tain claims tr ump other s? This is wher e China Miéville 227 extended P ashukanis’ commodity theor y to argue that the legal for m inherent in inter national la w is that of coercion. Exchange implies o wner ship and o wner ship is pr imar ily about the r ight, mostly ex ercised thr ough la w , to exclude others. 228 In a deeply unequal w orld, what this means is that po w erful states ar e able to shape the or der and content of legal nor ms thr ough economic and militar y force . Because ‘coercion is at the hear t of the commodity for m’ 229 and 222 China Miéville , ‘The Commodity-For m Theor y of Inter national La w’ in Susan Marks (ed), Inter national Law on the Left: Re-examining Marxist Legacies (CUP 2008) 107. 223 Karl Marx , Capital V ol I: ‘P ar t I: Commodities and Money – Chapter One: Commodities’ (1867). 224 Evgeny P ashukanis, The General Theory of Law and Marxism , ‘Chapter IV : Commodity and the Subject’ (1924). 225 Evgeny P ashukanis, Inter national Law (1925). 226 Ibid. 227 China Miéville , Between Equal Rights: AMarxist Theory of Inter national Law (Br ill 2005). 228 T aken fr om Mar ina V elicko vic’ s extremely lucid w a y of expanding Pashukanis. See Mar ina V elick o vic , ‘A Marxist Account of the Individual in International Law’ (Draft presented for the confer ence on ‘Individual in Inter national Law , Heidelberg 2021). On fle with the author . 229 Miéville (n 227) 126. 105 APPROACHES inter national la w mediates commodity exchange , violence is central to it: ‘betw een equal r ights, force decides’. T o suggest, then, that inter national la w fur ther s a r ules-based or der and is counter poised to po w er and br ute force is misleading. Instead, as Mié ville poignantly put it, ‘[t]he chaotic and bloody w orld around us is the rule of la w’. 230 The commodity for m theor y pr o vides a singularly per suasiv e histor ical account of wh y and ho w la w dev eloped the w a y it did and what mak es legal relations the perfect infrastr ucture for capitalism’ s expansion. Clair e Cutler has applied the commodity for m theor y to illustrate the nature of the WT O and GA TS in the commodifcation of public commons, 231 while Gr ietje Baar s refects on the natur e of la w as a ‘congealing’ devise for capitalist r elations. Their w ork also centres the r ole of cor poration as a tool for imper ialist expansion. 232 V . INTERNA TIONAL L A W AS EMANCIP A TION F or Marx, legal str uggles and the pur suit of human r ights although conditioned b y capitalist r elations did not mean that they ought to be r epudiated. Indeed, Marx expended considerable attention to the la w as a means of w orking class str uggle in his elaborate descr iption on the length of the w orking da y , which w as w on on a legal ter rain. 233 La w w as impor tant in pr o viding the oppressed classes with the means to push back against capitalist expansion. Similarly , in his w ork ‘On the J ewish Question’, which is often cited to br ing home the point that Marx w as disillusioned with the potential of equal r ights, Marx had only adv anced a limited cr itique of for mal legal equality . F or him, political emancipation thr ough la w and legal r ights w as deeply indi vidualising and alienating and thus cannot be an end in itself , but only a means to w ards engender ing larger social changes be y ond what the la w could pr o vide . La w and the legal for m, therefor e , in the Marxist tradition exhibit a dual character , which, e v en while constraining the possibility of deep str uctural transfor mation, pr o vides an impor tant, albeit limited, for m of social emancipation thr ough concrete legal str uggles. These legal str uggles, then, must go hand in hand with mor e demanding political inter v entions. It is not a choice betw een Refor m or Rev olution but about ho w these tw o paths can ha v e alw ays coexisted. Understanding the r ole of la w in the r epr oduction of capitalist relations and also as a means to r esist some of its w or st excesses alludes to its r elativ e autonom y . Both Chimni and Marks thus hold on to the possibility of inter national la w acting as a shield against po w erful states. Chimni argues for a 230 Ibid 319. 231 Claire Cutler , ‘T o war d a Radical P olitical Econom y Cr itique of T ransnational Economic La w’ in Susan Marks (ed), Inter national Law on the Left: Re-examining Marxist Legacies (CUP 2008). 232 Gr ietje Baar s, The Cor poration, Law , and Capitalism: ARadical Perspective on the Role of Law in the Global Political Econom y (Haymark et Books 2020); see also González Hauck, § 7.7, in this textbook. 233 For a good descr iption, see Igor Shoikhedbrod, Revisiting Marx’ s Cr itique of Liberalism: Rethinking Justice , Legality and Rights (P alg rav e 2019). 112 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK scholar ship do not al wa ys call for an explicit engagement with method. This can mak e legal scholar s uncomfor table when ask ed to ar ticulate their methods explicitly . 3 Ho w e v er , the only w a y to ensure that what y ou ar e pr oducing is scholar ship and not just a random collection of thoughts and opinions is to be clear and transpar ent about the questions y ou are asking, the mater ial y ou are examining, and the pr ocess y ou ar e emplo ying to ensure a systematic examination of said mater ial. This intr oductor y section r efects on diferent uses of the ter m ‘method’, ofer s an entr y-lev el account of what it means to choose y our resear ch question, data, and method in the nar r o w er sense , and pr o vides a glimpse into diferences betw een doctr inal, cr itical, and inter disciplinar y methods. The follo wing sections, then, pro vide fur ther insights into case analysis and inter disciplinar y methods. B. WHA T IS METHOD ? The ter m ‘method’ can be under stood in a br oader sense to encompass the entir e r esearch pr ocess or in a nar ro w er sense to refer specifcally to the systematic examination of the mater ial. 4 The fr st tw o steps of the resear ch pr ocess, defning the resear ch question and gather ing rele v ant mater ial (or ‘data’), are often r efer r ed to as the r esearch design. Unease among legal scholar s when it comes to methods is not only caused b y the f act that la wy er s often are not explicitly trained in methods, b ut also because descr iptions of methods – including this one – cr eate the (often f alse) impr ession that the resear ch pr ocess is neatly organised into sequential steps. Pr esenting the emplo y ed method as if it follo w ed clear steps fr om the beg inning is impor tant, because it allo ws other resear cher s to appr eciate and ev aluate the resear ch. Ho w ev er , if y ou feel lik e y ou are constantly jumping betw een choosing which theor ists to r ely on, which data to gather and ho w , chang ing y our resear ch question as y ou go along, y ou ar e not alone . It is perfectly nor mal to switch betw een difer ent steps and re-adjust the r esear ch question ev en dur ing the analysis phase . The k ey factor is to ha v e a fexible and transpar ent system in place that can be adjusted as needed, rather than conducting r esearch in a random or haphazar d manner , as that w ould under mine its integ r ity and v alidity . Fur ther more , distinguishing betw een ter ms lik e method, methodology , approac h , and theor y is not al w ays straightforw ard. Not only do people use these ter ms in v ar ious w a ys, but e v en when attempting to adhere to a specifc distinction, ther e is often o v erlap and inter pla y among them. In the context pr oposed here , methodology r efer s to a set of epistemolo g ical and ontological assumptions, while theor y or appr oach stems fr om these assumptions and pr o vides a theoretical frame w ork. Method, on the other hand, descr ibes the practical application of the theor y – a r oadmap for addr essing a specifc 3 Elia v Lieblich, ‘ “Y ou K eep on Using That W or d” – On Methods in (Inter national) Legal Scholar ship (P ar t I)’ ( Opinio Jur is , 21 March2022) <http://opiniojur is.org/2022/03/21/symposium-on-early-career-inter national- la w-academia-y ou-keep-on-using-that-w ord-on-methods-in-inter national-legal-scholar ship-par t-i/> accessed 26 August2023. 4 Cf . Sundh ya P ahuja, ‘Methodology: Wr iting About Ho w W e Do Research’ in Rossana Deplano and Nicholas Tsagour ias (eds), Research Methods in Inter national Law: AHandbook (Edwar d Elgar 2021) 63–64. METHODS 113 r esearch question using the chosen theor etical framew ork. Ho w e v er , it is impor tant to note that theor y and method infuence each other . They ar e interconnected elements that shape and infor m the resear ch pr ocess. 5 By ackno wledg ing the non-linear natur e of resear ch and the o v erlapping nature of ter ms lik e method, methodology , appr oach, and theor y , scholars can adopt a more fexible and adapti v e mindset. This allo ws r esearchers to embrace the iterativ e natur e of the r esearch pr ocess – at least in qualitativ e r esearch, wher e adjustments and refnements ar e made based on emerg ing insights and fndings. The goal is to establish a systematic and transpar ent pr ocess that ensures the r igour and cr edibility of the resear ch while r emaining open to modifcations and adaptations as necessar y . C . RESEARCH DESIGN AND MET HO D I. IDENTIF Y ING A RESEARCH QUESTIO N T o embark on a resear ch project, it is essential to identify a r esearch question. 6 Ha ving a r esearch question difers fr om having a general ar ea of interest. Y ou ma y star t with a topic y ou are inter ested in, perhaps because y ou see something happening in the w orld and y ou w ant to under stand it in order to be ab le to change it, for example , violence at the Eur opean, US , or Australian borders. T o nar r o w do wn y our focus, y ou need to explore existing literatur e and identify the questions that other scholar s ha v e ask ed within this topic. While conducting literatur e searches on platfor ms lik e Goo gle or Google Scholar can be a star ting point, it is mor e advisable to use librar y catalo gues for a comprehensi v e and ethical approach. As y ou delv e into the literature , it is cr ucial to reco gnise that y ou will nev er r ead ev er ything that has been wr itten on a topic . T o discer n which bodies of literature to focus on, y ou should acti v ely choose the con v er sations y ou w ant to engage with and contr ibute to . This coincides with identifying and r efning y our resear ch question. Diferent con v er sations ma y encompass distinct sets of questions. F or instance , one set of questions may r ev olv e around deter mining the legality of the beha viour of the Greek coastguar d in pr ev enting people fr om r eaching European shor es. Another set of questions may explor e ho w inter national la w enables bor der violence , examine ho w people resist such violence , where the la w cr eates or lea v es space for such resistance , and ho w r esistance is, in tur n, usur ped b y dominant nar rati v es. By choosing which con v er sations to activ ely engage in, y ou can gauge when y ou ha v e read enough. It is acceptab le to ha v e a cur sor y o v er vie w of con v er sations y ou are not dir ectly engag ing with, b ut y ou should thor oughly immer se y our self in the con v er sations y ou wish to contr ibute to , ensur ing y ou ha v e something 5 Cf . Elia v Lieblich, ‘ “Y ou Keep on Using That W ord” – On Methods in (Inter national) Legal Scholarship (P ar t II)’ ( Opinio Jur is , 22 March2022) <http://opiniojur is.org/2022/03/22/symposium-on-early-career- inter national-law-academia-y ou-keep-on-using-that-w ord-on-methods-in-inter national-legal-scholar ship- par t-ii/> accessed 26 August2023. 6 For an excellent instruction on this, see P ahuja (n 4) 67 et seq. 114 SUé GONZáLEZ HAUCK ne w or insightful to add. Additionally , a point of saturation can be reached when y ou consistently encounter the same r eferences in ne w literature , indicating that y ou hav e co v er ed a signifcant por tion of the existing scholar ship . II . CHO OSIN G Y OUR DA T A Once y ou ha v e (pr o visionally) for mulated y our r esearch question, the next step is to gather the r elev ant mater ial that will aid in ans w er ing it. This in v olv es selecting the data, that is, gather ing the body of infor mation that y ou will later analyse to answ er y our resear ch question. Ev en though the ter m ‘data’ ev ok es numer ical infor mation, it can actually be an y kind of infor mation, including cour t cases, legal wr itings, archi v al mater ials, inter views, feld notes, or infor mation r etr ie v ed fr om pr e-existing databases. It is impor tant to note that the pr ocess of choosing y our data is inter twined with the iterati v e dev elopment of y our resear ch question and with the choice of method in the nar r o w er sense . III. METHO D In the nar r o w er sense , method refers to the systematic practices used to analyse the selected data in a transpar ent and str uctur ed manner . This stage in v olv es applying the chosen theor etical framew ork to the data to ans w er the resear ch question efecti v ely . Methodolo g ical choices ma y v ar y depending on the natur e of the resear ch pr oject, rang ing fr om quantitativ e methods for statistical analysis to qualitativ e approaches for textual or inter pr etiv e analysis. It is cr ucial to ar ticulate y our method clearly , ensur ing that y our resear ch pr ocess remains r igor ous and w ell founded. D . DOCTRINAL , CRIT IC AL , AND INTERDIS CIPL INARY METHODS IN INT ERNA TIONAL L A W Doctr inal scholar ship is the classical method emplo y ed in legal resear ch to identify and inter pr et legal nor ms b y analysing existing case la w and engag ing with the w orks of other doctr inal scholar s. This appr oach emphasises the examination of legal pr inciples and doctr ines to under stand ‘what the la w is’. Methodolog ical soundness, in this context, consists in emplo ying argumentativ e str uctures that can con vince the target audience of the claim’ s ‘legal cor rectness’. 7 W ithin doctr inal scholarship , case analysis stands out as one of the most impor tant methods. 8 By closely examining judicial decisions, legal r esearchers gain insights into the dev elopment, inter pr etation, and application of legal r ules. 7 Mar tti K oskenniemi, ‘Methodolo gy of Inter national La w’ ( Max Planc k Encyclopedia of Inter national Law , No v ember2007) <https://opil.oupla w .com/display/10.1093/la w:epil/9780199231690/la w- 9780199231690-e1440> accessed 26 August2023, para 1. 8 See Milas, § 4.1, in this textbook. METHODS 115 In contrast to doctr inal scholar ship , cr itical scholar ship focuses on questioning and cr itiquing the underlying assumptions of legal doctr ine and practice . It delv es into ho w the la w is embedded in, upholds, and operates within societal str uctur es, ho w it distr ibutes mater ial r esources, consolidates po w er dynamics, leg itimises violence , and per petuates domination. Inter disciplinar y methods can be utilised in both doctr inal and cr itical legal scholarship . 9 Integ rating insights fr om other disciplines, such as sociology , anthr opology , political science , or economics, can enr ich the under standing of legal phenomena. This inter disciplinar y appr oach allo ws legal scholar s to analyse the la w in a br oader societal context, unco v er hidden po w er dynamics, and explore alter nativ e per specti v es. E. C ONCL US ION Under standing and emplo ying the methods behind public inter national la w r esearch is cr ucial for pr oducing r igor ous and insightful scholar ship . Although the r esearch pr ocess ma y not adher e str ictly to a linear sequence of steps, ar ticulating y our resear ch question, consciously choosing y our data, and implementing a str uctur ed analysis are essential elements of methodolo g ical soundness. The follo wing sections on case analysis and inter disciplinar ity pr o vide more concr ete examples of the multitude of methods that can be emplo y ed for inter national legal resear ch. BOX 4.3 Further Readings Further Readings · S Pahuja, ‘Methodology: Writing About How W e Do Research’ in Rossana Deplano and Nicholas T sagourias (eds), Research Methods in International Law: AHandbook (Edwar d Elgar 2021) 60 · R Deplano and N T sagourias (eds), Resear ch Methods in International Law: AHandbook (Edwar d Elgar 2021) · E Lieblich, ‘How to Do Research in International Law? ABasic Guide for Beginners’, 62 Harvar d Journal of International Law (2021) 42 § § § 9 See Steininger and P aige, § 4.2, in this textbook. 116 MAX MILAS § 4 . 1 CA S E A N A L YS I S M A X MIL A S BOX 4.1.1 Requir ed Knowledge and Learning Objectives Requir ed knowledge : None Learning objectives : Evaluating the r elevance of cases in international law; r esear ching international cases; applying cases depending on r ole and objective. A . INTRO DUC TION Cases ar e not only a ‘subsidiar y means for the deter mination of r ules of la w’ in inter national la w (ar ticle 38(1)(d) ICJ Statute 10 ), but also an infuential means of communication in legal practice and r esearch. F or this reason, it is e v en more sur pr ising that all popular public inter national law textbooks include a section on the r elev ance of cases 11 but none on ho w to engage with judicial decisions. This section attempts to change that b y discussing the rele v ance of cases, pr esenting tools to r esearch cases, and intr oducing methods to use cases in inter national law . In doing so , this section aims to guide students thr ough exams, ter m paper s, and moot cour ts in which case la w analysis is k ey . B. REL EV ANC E OF CA SES IN INT ERNA TIONAL L A W Accor ding to the traditional reading, cases 12 ar e one of the four main sources to deter mine r ules of inter national law . 13 Both judges and scholar s of inter national la w deal extensi v ely with pr ior domestic and inter national decisions. Finding and analysing cases is ther efore one of the main tasks of inter national lawy er s. 10 Statute of the Inter national Cour t of J ustice (adopted 17 December1963, entered into force 31 August1965) 993 UNTS 33. 11 James Cra wford, Brownlie’ s Pr inciples of Public International Law (8th edn, OUP 2012) 37–41; Malcolm N Sha w , Inter national Law (8th edn, CUP 2017) 81–83; Gleider IHer nández, Inter national Law (OUP 2019) 32–53, 305–316; J an Klabbers, Inter national Law (3rd edn, CUP 2021) 40–42, 155–181. 12 On judicial decisions as sources of inter national law , see Kunz, Lima, and Castelar Campos, § 6.4, in this textbook. 13 On sources of inter national law , see Eggett, Intr oduction to § 6, and the follo wing sections on specifc sources of inter national law in this textbook. METHODS 117 I. DE CISIONS OF INT ERNA TIONAL ADJUDICA TIVE BODIES On a str ict reading of article 38(1)(d) ICJ Statute , judicial decisions are only subsidiar y sources of inter national la w . 14 At fir st glance , the absence of a for mal concept of pr ecedent conf ir ms this r eser v ed impor tance . 15 This, ho w e v er , belies the r ealities of inter national law . Cour ts base their decisions on pre vious cases to build a coher ent system, 16 scholar s use cases to adjust their appr oaches to the r ealities of inter national law , and commissions use cases when codifying la w . 17 This applies not only to judicial decisions but also to decisions of quasi-judicial bodies. 18 Inter national la w in v olv es difer ent types of applicants and pr ocedures. 19 In most pr oceedings befor e inter national cour ts lik e the ICJ and the Inter national T r ib unal for the La w of the Sea (ITLOS), 20 tw o States 21 are in dispute . Pr i v ate par ties can fle complaints against States befor e inter national human r ights cour ts 22 and in v estment pr otection tr ibunals. 23 Additionally , pr osecutor s can fle cases against individuals befor e inter national cr iminal cour ts. 24 Finally , inter national organisations 25 and States can seek advisor y opinions fr om inter national tr ib unals. Cases consist of up to four par ts. Preliminar y objections addr ess the cour t’ s jur isdiction, the plaintif’ s ability to br ing the case to tr ial (standing), and other admissibility r equirements. Under mer its, cour ts present their r easoning and the result of the case . Under r eparations, most cour ts specify the consequences of their judgment (e .g. r ev er sal of measur es, pa yment of reparations). Under inter pr etation, cour ts ma y , at the r equest of the applicant, clar ify ho w a judgment is to be inter pr eted and whether the respondent has fulflled their obligations. 14 Ar ticle 38(1)(d) pro vides that ‘The Cour t ... shall apply: subject to the pro visions of Ar ticle 59, judicial decisions ..., as subsidiar y means for the deter mination of r ules of la w’; see also Cameroon v Niger ia : Equator ial Guinea inter v ening) [Preliminary Objections] 275 (ICJ) [28]. 15 Ar ticle 59 of the ICJ Statute, article 46(1) ECHR, ar ticles 68(1) A CHR, ar ticle 33(2) Statute of the Inter national T r ibunal for the La w of the Sea. 16 The ICJ often argues with w ell-established case la w . See United States Diplomatic and Consular Staf in T ehran (United States v Iran) [1980] ICJ Rep 3 [33]. 17 The ILC heavily r elied on the ICJ’ s decision in Gabčíkovo-Nag ymaros Project (Hungar y v Slov akia) [1997] ICJ Rep 7 to codify the state of necessity in its Draft Ar ticles on Responsibility of States for Inter nationally Wrongful Acts; see ILC , ‘ARSIW A Commentar ies’ (2001) ar ticle 25, paras 11, 15, 16, 20. 18 The ICJ ev en considered the Human Rights Committees’ inter pretation of the ICCP in its Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v Democr atic Republic of the Kongo) (Pr eliminar y Objections) [2007] ICJ Rep 582 [66]. 19 On dispute settlement in inter national la w , see Choudhar y , § 12, in this textbook. 20 On the law of the sea in general, see Dela Cruz and Paige , § 15, in this textbook. 21 On States, see Green, § 7.1, in this textbook. 22 On inter national human r ights cour ts, see Milas, § 21.1, in this textbook. 23 On inter national in v estment law , see Hankings-Ev ans, § 23.1, in this textbook. 24 On inter national cr iminal la w , see Ciampi, § 22, in this textbook. 25 On inter national organisations, see Barano wska, Engstr öm, and P aige, § 7.3, in this textbook. 118 MAX MILAS II . DO MES TI C C A SES IN I NTER NA TI ON AL L A W Ev en though domestic cour t decisions ar e also co v ered b y ar ticle 38(1)(d) ICJ Statute , 26 inter national cour ts rarely cite them. While inter national decisions are usually cited to ensur e a supposed unifor mity of the inter national legal or der , the use of domestic decisions often ser v es to pr o v e customar y inter national la w 27 and to secur e States’ acceptance . By discussing domestic decisions, cour ts signal to States that their legal traditions ar e being tak en ser iously . 28 Studies on citation practices of inter national cour ts and textbooks sho w a bias to w ards cases fr om Australia, Canada, China, France , Israel, South Afr ica, the United Kingdom, and the United States, wher eas cases fr om jur isdictions outside the Global Nor th ar e scar cely cited. 29 Admittedly , ther e are plausib le r easons for this: in some cases, only decisions from cer tain jur isdictions will exist, decisions in English are easy to understand for most inter national la wy er s, many databases contain only judgments fr om these jur isdictions, and the style of reasoning of these courts is similar to the style of r easoning taught in inter national law departments ar ound the w orld. 30 H owe ve r, this pr ev alence of English-language decisions in citations is not inevitab le , but the r esult of histor ical inequalities within the inter national system. Ov er the past 400y ear s, Eur opean States hav e imposed their legal systems on countr ies on e v er y continent. T oda y , English is the w orking language in inter national institutions, and English-language publications ar e expected by inter national la w scholar s in man y r eg ions of the w orld. 31 Consider ing these colonial r oots of the bias in f a v our of English-language decisions, a thor ough r esearch on domestic decisions should not only tr y to use decisions of a cer tain g r oup of States but instead should str iv e for r epresentati v eness. 32 26 Mads Andenas and Johann Ruben Leiss, ‘The Systemic Rele v ance of “J udicial Decisions” in Ar ticle 38 of the ICJ Statute’ (2017) 77 HJIL 907, 951–952, 958, 966. 27 Jur isdictional Immunities of the State ( Ger man y v Ital y : Greece inter v ening) [2012] ICJ Rep 99 [64, 68, 71–75, 76, 78, 83, 85, 90, 96, 118]; see also Inter national Law Commission, ‘Identifcation of Customary Inter national La w’ (2016) UNGA A/CN .4/691. 28 Ar rest W ar rant of 11 April2000 ( Democratic Repub lic of the Congo v Belgium ) [2002] ICJ Rep 3 [56–58]. 29 Kater ina Linos, ‘Ho w to Select and Dev elop Inter national La w Case Studies: Lessons fr om Comparativ e Law and Comparativ e P olitics’ (2015) 109 AJIL 475, 476; Er ik V oeten, ‘Bor ro wing and Nonbor r o wing Among Inter national Cour ts’ (2010) 39 J our nal of Legal Studies 547, 558–568; Anthea Rober ts, Is Inter national Law Inter national? (V ol 1, OUP 2017) 167–172. 30 Linos (n 29) 476. 31 Odile Ammann, ‘Language Bias in Inter national Legal Scholar ship: Symptoms, Explanations, Implications and Remedies’ (2022) 33 European J our nal of Inter national La w 821; J ustina Ur iburu, ‘Betw een Elitist Con v er sations and Local Cluster s: Ho w Should W e Address English-Centr ism in Inter national Law?’ ( Opinio Jur is , 2 No v ember2020) <http://opiniojur is.org/2020/11/02/betw een- elitist-con v er sations-and-local-cluster s-ho w-should-w e-address-english-centr ism-in-inter national-la w/> accessed 26 J uly2023. 32 Andenas and Leiss (n 26) 965. METHODS 119 BOX 4.1.2 Advanced: Case Selection Including all countries of the world in the r esear ch of domestic court decisions is neither feasible in terms of time nor valuable in terms of insights. Instead, students may strive for theor etically informed sampling. This r equir es a thr ee- step appr oach: first, students define their object of inter est as pr ecisely as possible (e.g. State practice r egar ding pr osecuting institutionalised mass atr ocities). Second, students sear ch for States that faced similar pr oblems in their history . Third, students gr oup the relevant States by ‘legal families’, geographic r egion, economic and political systems, and their position within international power structur es. Last, students select a r epr esentative State fr om each possible combination for their analysis. The r easons for selection should be pr esented transpar ently . 33 33 Linos (n 29) 479–480. 33 Linos (n 29) 479–480. C . RE SEARCHING C A SES IN INT ERNA TIONAL L A W Generally , case la w analyses ha v e tw o differ ent star ting points. In the fir st type of question, students ar e ask ed to respond to a general question of inter national la w . Students can only ans w er this question con vincingly if they also engage with inter national and domestic cases. BOX 4.1.3 Example: General Question of International Law Ar e entry r estrictions against for eigners permissible under international law if they serve to combat the COVID-19 pandemic? In the second type of question, students must ans w er a case-specific question. Although this question seems to r efer only to one case , students can only answ er this question per suasi v ely if they also consider comparab le cases. BOX 4.1.4 Example: Case-Specific Question Why did the ICJ r eject State r esponsibility of Serbia and Montenegr o for acts in Sr ebr enica in the Bosnian Genocide Case? 120 MAX MILAS Thus, for both types of questions, students must fnd the applicab le case la w for per suasi v e reasoning. F or this, students can r esor t to librar ies and online databases. I. FINDING CASES IN LIBR ARIES The most ob vious but also the most challeng ing sources for r esear ching case la w are la w r epor ts. Their main adv antage is that they r efect the case law compr ehensiv ely and authentically . The major disadv antage , ho w e v er , is that law r epor ts ar e often only a v ailable in pr int. The follo wing list pr o vides an o v er view of the most common la w r epor ts in inter national la w: • Co v er ing almost all felds of case la w in inter national law: • Inter national La w Repor ts (CUP) • Oxford Reports on Inter national La w • Co v er ing inter national case la w from 1929 to 1945: Ann ual Digest of Public Inter national La w Cases • Decisions of the Inter national Cour t of J ustice: UN Summar ies of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Or der s of the Inter national Cour t of J ustice • Inter national arbitral and judicial a w ards: United Nations Repor ts of Inter national Arbitral A war ds • Decisions of UN judicial bodies: United Nations J ur idical Y earbook • La w of the sea: ITLOS Annual Repor ts • Cases in the Eur opean human r ights system: Tim Eicke (ed.), European Human Rights Reports . Man y inter national law jour nals also contain sections summar ising and assessing cases. Ho w e v er , the y contain only a sample of cur rent decisions, and the y fo cu s us u al ly o n analysing individual aspects of cases. F or this reason, jour nals ar e r ecommended sources of inspiration for case la w analysis only after students ha v e alr eady found the rele v ant cases. II. FINDING CASES IN ONLINE D A T ABA SES No w ada ys, online databases exist for almost all inter national cour ts. Most of these databases enable machine-r eadable r esearch and parsing of case la w . This allo ws students to f ilter case la w by ter ms, topics, r ules, and y ear s to f ind the most r elev ant cases as quickly as possible . F or this reason, online databases should usually be the star ting point for case la w resear ch. T o a v oid mistak es in quoting and citing, students ma y use the cour t’ s o wn databases for citations and footnotes. F or initial resear ch, third-party databases are better suited. These databases often contain mor e precise options for filter ing. The follo wing table pr o vides an o v er view of online databases for inter national cour ts, tr ibunals, commissions, and committees: METHODS 121 Compr ehensive Economic databases Inter national courts Human rights bodies law bodies W orldCourts Permanent Court of International Justice: Series Afor Judgments until 1930, Series B for Advisory Opinions until 1930, and Series A/B for Judgments, Or ders and Advisory Opinions fr om 1931 W orld Legal International Court Information of Justice: List of All Institute Cases database JusMundi International criminal courts: ICC Legal T ools Database Max Planck International T ribunal Encyclopedias for the Law of the Sea: of International ITLOS Document Law Sear ch University of Minnesota, Human Rights Library for almost all international human rights adjudicative bodies UN human rights system: • UN T reaty Body Database • OHCHR Jurisprudence Database for United Nations T reaty Bodies • UN Human Rights Bodies Database ECtHR’ s HUDOC database for the Eur opean human rights system Inter -American human rights system: • IACmHR’ s Reports on Cases • Judgments of the IACtHR database • Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review’ s Inter -American Court of Human Rights Pr oject database • IUSLA T Database on the Inter -American human rights system • SUMMA Database on the Inter -American human rights system International Commer cial Law: Case Law on UNCITRAL T exts database International Centr e for Settlement of Investment Disputes: ICSID database International trade dispute settlement bodies: WTO Dispute Documents database Intellectual Pr operty Law: WIPO Lex 128 SIL VIA STEININGER AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE § 4. 2 INTE RD I SC IPL INAR I T Y S I L VIA S T E I N I N G E R AN D T A M S I N P H I L LI P A P AI G E BOX 4.2.1 Requir ed Knowledge and Learning Objectives Requir ed knowledge : None Learning objectives : This section intr oduces law students to the basics of inter disciplinarity in public international law . Students will learn about the main strands of inter disciplinary scholarship and the most pr ominent methodological tools available. They will be able to fully grasp the benefts and challenges of adopting an inter disciplinary perspective on international law and r eceive helpful practical guidance in cr eating their own inter disciplinary legal r esear ch pr ojects. A . BA SIC S FOR INT ERDISCIP LINAR IT Y IN P UBLI C INTE RNA TIO NAL L A W The call for ‘inter disciplinar ity’ has become a staple in inter national legal resear ch. It ‘can be seen e v er ywher e , rang ing fr om funding calls, resear ch agendas, g rant applications, confer ence themes and inter net blo gs to rhetor ical manoeuvr es’. 54 Y et, the mor e interdisciplinar ity gained in popular ity , the fuzzier its meaning became . T o mo v e betw een disciplines comes with benefts and challenges. In this section, w e w ant to sk etch the basics for what inter disciplinar ity means, wh y it is useful, and ho w to star t an inter disciplinar y resear ch pr oject. I. WHA T IS INTERDISCIP LINARIT Y ? Inter disciplinar ity denotes r esearch pr ojects aiming at synthesising and har monising kno wledge and methods fr om multiple disciplines into a coher ent whole . 55 It contrasts with intradisciplinar ity , which descr ibes w orking within the boundar ies of one single discipline . Inter disciplinar ity r equires that the assumptions betw een tw o or more disciplines do not contradict each other . It necessitates a str ong, substantial, and methodolo g ical under standing of those disciplines. Most inter national legal scholar ship tak es the for m of transdisciplinar y or multidisciplinar y r esearch, the latter descr ibing per sons fr om diferent disciplines w orking together on a common pr oject, each drawing 54 Nikolas M Rajk o vic, ‘Inter disciplinar ity’ in Jean d’Aspr emont and Sahib Singh (eds), Concepts for Inter national Law (Edw ard Elgar 2019) 490. 55 See also Moti Nissani, ‘Fr uits, Salads, and Smoothies: AW orking Defnition of Interdisciplinar ity’ (1995) 29 J our nal of Educational Thought 121. METHODS 129 on their o wn disciplinar y kno wledge and exper tise . T ransdisciplinar ity attempts to cr eate a unitar y common framew ork among tw o or more disciplines, to fnd common r esearch questions, har monise defnitions, and identify explanations that str etch o v er the scope of just one disciplinar y hor izon. Cr itics argue that the emergence of x-disciplinar ity (inter-, intra-, trans-, and multi- disciplinar ity) 56 dilutes disciplinar y boundar ies, threatens the idea of a specialised pr ofession, and challenges legal autonom y . 57 In f act, disciplines are not academic silos but o v erlap and interact with each other . Inter national la w suits itself to inter disciplinar y appr oaches, as many r esear ch questions necessitate at least a contextual under standing. Ne v er theless, ‘interdisciplinar ity is a politically charged acti vity in itself ’. 58 Interdisciplinar y appr oaches might repr oduce , disguise , or ev en str engthen existing po w er relations. Adopting an inter disciplinar y r esearch agenda and methodolo g ical toolbo x fur ther r equires, for instance , access to methodolog ical training or r esources such as specifc pr og rams, which might exacerbate str uctural inequalities in academia. Inter disciplinar ity can thus r uptur e disciplinar y gatek eeping and democratise the cr eation of new kno wledge on fundamental questions of inter national la w , b ut also create additional bar r ier s and adopt a mark etised lo g ic . 59 II. WHY DO INTERDISCIP LINARY RES E ARCH ? Doctr inal scholar ship adopts an inter nal viewpoint, taking the perspectiv e of an insider to la w , a la w student, a professor , or practitioner , who w as trained and socialised into the legal community . Such insider s par ticipate in legal discour se , ar e preoccupied with legal arguments, and ar e decision or iented. In contrast, inter disciplinar y scholar ship pr omotes an exter nal view of la w . It usually tak es the per specti v e of the outsider , who obser v es the pr ocesses, str uctures, and nor ms of inter national la w in action. Interdisciplinary resear ch allo ws to ask questions that go be y ond the inter nal log ic of la w . It does not limit itself to ho w the la w is, but also wh y the la w has been applied in a cer tain w ay , and ho w it should be in the futur e . Interdisciplinar y appr oaches can illuminate pre viously o v erlook ed underlying patter ns and str uctures, thus benefting cr itical engagement with inter national la w and pr o viding suppor t for impr o v ement via inter pretation or further dev elopment of the la w . 60 56 Outi Korhonen, ‘Fr om Interdisciplinary to x-Disciplinar y Methodology of Inter national Law’ in Rossana Deplano and Nicholas Tsagour ias (eds), Researc h Methods in Inter national Law (Edwar d Elgar 2021) 345. 57 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, ‘Letter to the Editors of the Symposium’ (1999) 93 AJIL 351. 58 Jan Klab ber s, ‘The Relativ e Autonomy of Inter national La w or the Forgotten P olitics of Interdisciplinar ity’ (2004) 1 J our nal of Inter national Law and Inter national Relations 35. 59 Outi K orhonen, ‘Within and Bey ond Interdisciplinar ity in Inter national La w and Human Rights’ (2017) 28 EJIL 625. 60 Sanne T aekema and Bart van Klink, ‘On the Bor der : Limits and P ossibilities of Interdisciplinary Research’ in Bar t v an Klink and Sanne T aek ema (eds), Law and Method. Interdisciplinary Researc h into Law (Mohr Siebeck 2011) 7. 130 SIL VIA STEININGER AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE III. HO W TO DO INTERDISCIP LINARY RES E ARCH Ther e are countless options to analyse inter national law fr om an interdisciplinary per specti v e and w e will g iv e y ou more insights in the follo wing section. Ho w e v er , in general, one can distinguish betw een fv e steps. T o beg in, f amiliar ise y our self with the respecti v e appr oaches, their underlying epistemolo g ical considerations, fundamental concepts, and classic infuential author s. It is helpful to map existing inter disciplinar y engagement with inter national la w . This is impor tant not only to assess the state of the discipline and the topics that are being discussed, but also to identify the r espectiv e community , which under pins the respecti v e r esearch pr oject. One can thereb y lear n ho w to appr oach the same topic from difer ent angles, ho w to transpose fundamental concepts to the study of inter national la w , and ho w to get socialised into the respecti v e academic and wr iting style . Second, in contrast to doctr inal resear ch, inter disciplinar y r esear ch embraces a mor e transparent and open str uctur e . In general, the scholar will fr st identify the r esearch question(s) and possib le h ypotheses and counterh ypotheses befor e analysing the data. That does not mean that the a v ailability and access to source mater ial cannot guide the respecti v e resear ch design, but it means that the data does not pr edeter mine the r esearch questions. This is difer ent to doctr inal resear ch, in which the identifcation of str uctures and the categor isation of cases is a major r esearch aim in itself . Thir d, it is impor tant to justify the r esearch design transpar ently . Inter disciplinar y scholar ship often includes an explicit methodolo gy section, justifying, among other things, wh y this par ticular appr oach is useful for the study of inter national la w , ho w this infuences the r esearch question(s), which f actor s guide the identifcation of h ypotheses, what w ere the cr iter ia r equired for the selection of r esearch units, which methodolo g ies ar e going to be applied, ho w the data is being gathered, and what the limitations of this par ticular method are . At this stage , y ou can also identify ho w the pr oject relates to existing r esearch or conficting appr oaches and clearly limit the resear ch agenda. F our th, collect the necessar y data using comparativ e r esearch designs, ar chiv al w ork, or other qualitati v e and quantitativ e approaches, which will be highlighted in section C . This step might tak e signifcant time and r equire additional r esources. It is also hea vily r eliant on f actor s outside of the contr ol of the r especti v e resear cher , such as access to sour ces, for instance archi v es and inter vie w par tner s. Finally , e v aluate the data with respect to the afor ementioned r esearch question. This often includes g iving a systematic o v er vie w and highlighting par ticularly inter esting or unexpected f actor s. Hypotheses can be confr med or refuted. Mor eo v er , it is possible to consider some possib le explanations for par ticular outcomes, reafr m the limitations of the r esults, or identify options to expand on the resear ch in future pr ojects. METHODS 131 B. T YPES OF INTERDIS CIPL INARY SC HOL ARSHIP IN INTE R NA TIONAL L A W I. INT ERNA TIONAL LA W AND HISTOR Y Combining inter national la w and histor y is a v er y popular for m of inter disciplinar ity . Pr ime examples of this type of scholar ship can be found in the w ork of Ar nulf Beck er Lor ca, 61 J ames Crawfor d, 62 Mar tti K osk enniemi, 63 and Anne Orford. 64 Scholars engag ing histor ical enquir ies of inter national law often aim to disrupt accepted nar rativ es that established alleged ‘legal truths’. 65 The histor io g raphical tur n in inter national la w has also signifcantly emphasised r esearching the histor y of inter national la w in non- W ester n reg ions and per ipher ies. This includes not only a r enew ed emphasis on questions of imper ialism 66 and colonialism, 67 but also on r eg ional and inter-civilisational per specti v es. 68 II. INTE RNA TIONAL L A W AND S OCIOLOGY The pr imar y goal of legal sociolo gy is ‘to pr o vide insight into an under standing of the la w thr ough an empir ical study of its practice’. 69 It fnds inspiration in the w orks of Pier r e Bourdieu, Émile Durkheim, and Max W eber . In the last tw o decades, resear ch on sociolo g ical per spectiv es in inter national la w has par ticularly focused on the practice of inter national la wy er s as a legal profession, 70 the e v olution, pr oliferation, and author ity of inter national cour ts, 71 the practices of inter national adjudicator s, 72 as w ell as the 61 Ar nulf Beck er Lorca, Mestiz o Inter national Law: AGlobal Intellectual Histor y 1842–1933 (CUP 2015). 62 James Cra wford, The Creation of States in International Law (2nd edn, OUP 2006). 63 Mar tti Kosk enniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and F all of Inter national Law 1870–1960 (CUP 2001). 64 Anne Orford, Inter national Law and the Politics of History (CUP 2021). 65 For r ecent examples, see Cr istian V an Eijk, ‘Unstealing the Sky: Third W orld Equity in the Orbital Commons’ (2022) 47 Air and Space La w 25; Mark Chadwick, Piracy and the Origins of Universal Jur isdiction: On Stranger Tides? (Br ill/Nijhof 2019); T amsin P aige, ‘Piracy and Uni v er sal Jur isdiction’ (2013) 12 Macquar ie Law J our nal 131. 66 Antony Anghie , Imper ialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (CUP 2005). 67 Ntina Tzouvala, Capitalism as Civilisation: AHistory of Inter national Law (CUP 2020). 68 Juan P ablo Scarf, The Hid den Histor y of Inter national Law in the Amer icas: Empire and Legal Networks (OUP 2017); J ames Thuo Gathii, ‘Afr ica’ in Bardo Fassbender and Anne P eters (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Inter national Law (OUP 2015) 943; Laur i Mälksoo , Russian Approac hes to Inter national Law (OUP 2015); Onuma Y asuaki, ‘When W as the Law of Inter national Society Bor n – An Inquir y of the Histor y of Inter national Law fr om an Interci vilizational P er spectiv e’ (2000) J our nal of the Histor y of Inter national La w 1. 69 T amsin Phillipa P aige, Petulant and Contr ary: Approac hes by the Permanent Five Members of the UN Secur ity Council to the Concept of ‘threat to the Peace’ under Ar tic le 39 of the UN Char ter (Br ill/Nijhof 2019) 33. 70 Jean d’Aspr emont and other s (eds), Inter national Law as a Profession (CUP 2017). 71 Mikael Rask Madsen, ‘From Cold W ar Instr ument to Supreme Eur opean Cour t: The Eur opean Cour t of Human Rights at the Cr ossroads of Inter national and National La w and P olitics: The Eur opean Cour t of Human Rights’ (2007) 32 Law& Social Inquiry 137. 72 Salvator e Caser ta and Mikael Rask Madsen, ‘The Situated and Bounded Rationality of Inter national Cour ts: AStr ucturalist Appr oach to Inter national Adjudicativ e Practices’ (2022) 35 LJIL 931. 132 SIL VIA STEININGER AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE emergence and str ucture of legal felds, for instance in inter national economic la w 73 and inter national cr iminal la w . 74 III. INTE RNA TIONAL L A W AND POL ITICAL SCIENC E P olitical science per specti v es on inter national la w focus on the ‘dev elopment, operation, spr ead, and impact of inter national legal nor ms, ag reements, and institutions’. 75 The y expand the study of inter national la w to in v estigate the r ole of political organisation, go v er nment, and str uctures upon which inter national la w relies. The most pr ominent political science appr oach to inter national la w is inter national relations. 76 W ith the pr oliferation of inter national cooperation, the end of realist Cold W ar politics, and the r ise of the US-back ed liberal inter nationalist w orld or der , a v ocal community of IL-IR scholar s emerged in the 1990s. 77 Pr ominent IL-IR resear ch strands focus on compliance with inter national la w , 78 questions of legality and leg itimacy , 79 the emergence of nor ms 80 and their contestation, 81 and the pr oliferation of inter national cour ts. 82 IV . INTERNA TIONAL L A W AND LIT ER A TURE The general goal of Inter national La w and Literature is to use literatur e to adv ance under standings of inter national la w either thr ough academic scholar ship or thr ough w orks of fction. Classic examples of using w orks of fction to discuss concepts of inter national la w and justice are the w ork of China Miéville 83 and The Reader by Ber nhar d Schlink. 84 When engag ing in academic appr oaches to Inter national La w and Literatur e , author s tend to do one of thr ee things with the literature aspect of this scholar ship: (1) use w orks of fction to explain and mak e accessible concepts of 73 Moshe Hir sch, ‘The Sociology of Inter national Economic La w: Sociological Analysis of the Regulation of Reg ional Ag reements in the W orld T rading System’ (2008) 19 EJIL 277. 74 Mikkel J arle Chr istensen, ‘The Professional Mark et of Inter national Cr iminal Justice: Di visions of Labour and P atter ns of Elite Repr oduction’ (2021) 19 J our nal of Inter national Cr iminal Justice 783. 75 Emilie M Hafner-Bur ton, David G Victor and Y onatan Lupu, ‘P olitical Science Research on International Law: The State of the Field’ (2012) 106 AJIL 47. 76 Basak Cali (ed), Inter national Law for Inter national Relations (OUP 2009), Jefr ey L Dunof and Mark AP ollack, ‘Inter national Law and Inter national Relations. Intr oducing an Interdisciplinar y Dialogue’ in J efre y L Dunof and Mark AP ollack (eds), Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Law and Inter national Relations . The State of the Art (CUP 2013). 77 Kenneth W Ab bott, ‘Modem Inter national Relations Theor y: APr ospectus for Inter national La wy ers’ (1989) 14 Y ale J our nal of Inter national Law 335; Robert O K eohane , ‘Inter national Relations and Inter national Law: T w o Optics’ (1997) 38 HILJ 487; Anne-Mar ie Slaughter , Andre w S T ulumello and Stepan W ood, ‘Inter national La w and Inter national Relations Theor y: ANe w Generation of Interdisciplinar y Scholar ship’ (1998) 92 AJIL 367. 78 Beth ASimmons, ‘Compliance with Inter national Ag reements’ (1998) 1 Annual Re view of P olitical Science 75. 79 Jutta Brunnee and Stephen J T oope , Legitimacy and Legality in Inter national Law . An Interactional Account (CUP 2013). 80 Mar tha Finnemore and Kathr yn Sikkink, ‘Inter national Nor m Dynamics and P olitical Change’ (1998) 52 IO 887. 81 Antje Wiener , Contestation and Constitution of Nor ms in Global Inter national Relations (CUP 2018). 82 Karen Alter , The New T er rain of Inter national Law: Courts , Politics , Rights (Pr inceton Univ er sity Pr ess 2014). 83 China Miéville , The City& the City (Macmillan 2009). 84 Ber nhard Schlink, The Reader (Vintage Inter national 1995). METHODS 133 inter national la w to non-exper ts or to illustrate a point of inter national la w to fello w legal scholar s, 85 (2) use w orks of literature as conceptual data to explor e societal r esponses to inter national law , 86 or (3) use literatur e as a tool of jur ispr udence in or der to de v elop legal theor y on par ticular issues. 87 V . INTERNA TIONAL L A W AND E CONOMICS The economic analysis of inter national la w emerged in the 2000s 88 but b uilds on the mor e established domestic La w and Economics literatur e star ting fr om the 1960 in US academia. 89 It applies economic theor y , in par ticular rational choice appr oaches, to pr oblems of inter national la w . The core assumption is the rational actor model. Economic analysis of inter national la w assumes that States are self-inter ested and decide among alter nati v es to maximise their gains. The economic appr oach to inter national l aw 90 has been focused on difer ent modes of treaty making, 91 the design of specifc clauses such as tr eaty exits, 92 inter national dispute settlement, 93 and the leg itimacy of customar y inter national la w . 94 A mor e recent b ut rapidly g r o wing strand of economic analysis of inter national la w is for med under the umbrella of La w and P olitical Econom y (LPE). 95 This resear ch 85 See for instance, K enneth Anderson, ‘Space Law Update – US W on’ t Build Death Star , Also Does Not Suppor t Blo wing Up Planets’ ( Opinio Juris , 12 Jan uar y2013) <http://opiniojur is.org/2013/01/12/space-law-update- us-w ont-build-death-star-does-not-support-blo wing-up-planets/> accessed 25 August2023; Australian Red Cr oss, ‘Game of Thrones: Violations of and Compliance with Inter national Humanitar ian Law’ (Australian Red Cr oss 2019); Stephen Bainbr idge , ‘W as the Alderaan Incident Consistent with Just W ar Theor y’ ( ProfessorBainbr idge .com , 6 J une2005) <www .professorbainbr idge .com/pr ofessorbainbr idgecom/2005/06/ w as-the-alderaan-incident-consistent-with-just-war-theory .html> accessed 25 August2023; Ke vin J on Heller , ‘The Pr oblem with “Cr ossing Lines” ’ ( Opinio Jur is , 25 J une2013) <http://opiniojur is.org/2013/06/24/the- pr oblem-with-cr ossing-lines/> accessed 25 August2023. 86 T amsin Phillipa P aige, ‘Zombies as an Allegory for T er r or ism: Under standing the Social Impact of P ost-9/11 Secur ity Theatr e and the Existential Threat of T er ror ism Thr ough the W ork of Mira Grant’ (2021) 33 La w and Literature 119. 87 Mark Bould and China Miéville (eds), Red Planets: Marxism and Science Fiction (Pluto Pr ess 2009). 88 Jefr ey L Dunof and J oel P T rachtman, ‘Economic Analysis of Inter national Law’ (1999) 24 Y ale J our nal of Inter national Law 1. 89 Herber t Ho venkamp , ‘Law and Economics in the United States: ABr ief Histor ical Sur v ey’ (1995) 19 Cambr idge J our nal of Economics 331; George L Pr iest, T he Rise of Law and Economics . An Intellectual Histor y (Routledge 2020). 90 Anne van Aak en, Chr istoph Engel, and T om Ginsburg, ‘Public Inter national La w and Economics. Symposium Intr oduction’ (2008) 1 Univ er sity of Illinois La w Review 1. 91 Kenneth W Ab bott and Duncan Snidal, ‘Hard and Soft La w in Inter national Go v er nance’ (2000) 54 IO 421. 92 Laurence R Heifer , ‘Exiting T reaties’ (2005) 91 Virg inia La w Revie w 1579. 93 Andre w T Guzman, ‘Inter national T r ibunals: ARational Choice Analysis’ (2008) 157 Univ er sity of P ennsylvania La w Review 171. 94 Jack L Goldsmith and Er ic AP osner , ‘A Theor y of Customar y Inter national La w’ (1999) 66 Univ er sity of Chicago La w Revie w 1113. 95 Alber ta Fabbr icotti (ed), The Political Econom y of Inter national Law: AEuropean Perspective (Edw ard Elgar 2016). Ho w ev er , see cr itically on whether this constitutes interdisciplinary resear ch, J ohn Haskell and Akbar Rasulo v , ‘Inter national Law and the T ur n to P olitical Economy’ (2018) 31 LJIL 243. 134 SIL VIA STEININGER AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE in v estigates ho w inter national la w cr eates w ealth and inequality 96 and upholds neoliberal hegemon y , 97 but also ho w it might ‘contr ibute to understanding and transfor ming centr e – per ipher y patter ns of dynamic inequality in global political economic life’. 98 VI. INTERNA TIONAL L A W AND PSY CHOLOG Y Inter national La w and Psychology w as de v eloped in the 2010s and pr imar ily adopts insights of beha viouralism and co gnitiv e psychology . Beha viouralism complements the economic appr oach b y demonstrating that individuals’ actions ar e often not deter mined b y the maximum utility of rational choice b ut are infuenced b y sev eral biases. 99 To under stand ho w those biases infuence the beha viour of individuals, beha viouralists often r ely on exper iments. Beha viouralist insights hav e been applied to treaty design, 100 tr eaty inter pr etation, 101 inter national trade disputes, 102 bilateral in v estment treaties, 103 legal theor y , 104 inter national humanitar ian la w , 105 and ho w to incentivise compliance via r ew ards. 106 VII. INTE RNA TIONAL L A W AND ANTHROPOL OGY Anthr opolo gy and inter national la w attempts to under stand the social and cultural contexts of inter national la w , often via ethno g raphical feldw ork. 107 Anthr opolog ical per specti v es can be applied to legal nor ms notwithstanding if they tak e the for m of har d or soft la w , wr itten text or oral order . 108 They focus on ho w individuals and communities as w ell as non-State actor s, cor porations, organisations, and so for th create and interact with inter national la w also along transnational lines 109 and in specifc local contexts. 110 Anthr opolo g ical per spectiv es ha v e been applied to under stand ho w human 96 Kathar ina Pistor , The Code of Capital: How the Law Creates W ealth and Inequality (Pr inceton Uni versity Press 2019). 97 Nina Tzouv ala, ‘Inter national La w and (the Cr itique of) P olitical Econom y’ (2022) 121 South Atlantic Quar terly 297. 98 Da vid Kennedy , ‘Law and the P olitical Econom y of the W orld’ (2013) 26 LJIL 7. 99 Anne van Aak en and T omer Broude , ‘The Psychology of Inter national Law: An Intr oduction’ (2019) 30 EJIL 1225. 100 J ean Galbraith, ‘T reaty Options: T o w ards a Beha vioral Under standing of T r eaty Design’ (2013) 53 Virg inia J our nal of Inter national Law 309. 101 Anne v an Aak en, ‘The Cogniti v e Psychology of Rules of Inter pretation in Inter national Law’ (2021) 115 AJIL Unbound 258. 102 T omer Br oude, ‘Beha vioral Inter national Law’ (2015) 163 Univ er sity of P ennsylv ania Law Re view 1099–1157. 103 Lauge N Sko vgaard and Emma Aisbett, ‘When the Claim Hits: Bilateral In v estment T reaties and Bounded Rational Lear ning’ (2013) 65 W orld P olitics 273. 104 Anne v an Aak en, ‘Exper imental Insights for Inter national Legal Theor y’ (2019) 30 EJIL 1237. 105 T omer Br oude and Inbar Levy , ‘Outcome Bias and Exper tise in In v estigations Under Inter national Humanitar ian La w’ (2019) 30 EJIL 1303. 106 Anne v an Aak en and Betül Simsek, ‘Rew arding in Inter national La w’ (2021) 115 AJIL 195. 107 Sally Engle Mer r y , ‘Anthr opology and Inter national Law’ (2006) 35 Annual Re view of Anthr opology 99. See also Gerhard Anders, ‘Anthr opology and Inter national La w’ Oxford Biblio g raphies (OUP 2021); Annelise Rise , ‘Introduction to the Symposium on The Anthr opology of Inter national Law’ (2021) 115 AJIL Unbound 268. 108 Miia Halme-T uomisaar i, ‘T o war d a Lasting Anthropolo gy of Inter national La w/Go v er nance’ (2016) 27 EJIL 235. 109 Sally Engle Mer r y , ‘Anthr opology , Law , and T ransnational Pr ocesses’ (1992) 21 Annual Re view of Anthr opology 357. 110 Ricarda Rösch, ‘Lear ning fr om Anthropolo gy . Realizing a Cr itical Race Appr oach to (Inter national) La w’ ( V oelker rechtsblog , 19 F ebr uar y2018) <doi:10.17176/20180219-174436> accessed 25 August2023. METHODS 135 r ights ha v e spr ead globally while also being clearly afected by local dynamics, 111 ho w social mo v ements engaged with str uggles o v er inter national la w , 112 interactions betw een indigenous la w and inter national la w , 113 the r ole of pr ofessionals such as la wy er s and judges, 114 and case studies of difer ent legal institutions and reg imes, for instance in inter national cr iminal justice . 115 VIII. INTE RNA TIONAL L A W AND LINGUISTICS Inter national La w and Linguistics aims to unco v er the meaning of legal pr o visions b y examining ho w it is being used or under stood by difer ent actor s. 116 This includes the study of difer ent languages 117 and translation issues. 118 Insights of the linguistic analysis of inter national la w are used to understand the drafting, inter pretation, and application of legal nor ms in treaties and jur ispr udence . 119 F or instance, discourse analysis and text linguistics examines the legal text and its sur r ounding context. Studies of histor ical linguistics and etymolo gy in v estigate ho w par ticular ter ms ha v e been histor ically de v eloped and inter preted. Cor pus linguistics and computational linguistics aim at handling large amounts of texts to under stand the use of cer tain w or ds or collocations. In inter national la w , linguistic insights ha v e been applied to the inter pretation of inter national legal nor ms, 120 the use of refer ences in the decisions of inter national cour ts and tr ibunals, 121 and citation practices in general. 122 Another impor tant strand 111 Sally Engle Mer r y , ‘T ransnational Human Rights and Local Acti vism: Mapping the Middle’ (2006) 108 Amer ican Anthr opologist 38; Karen Engle , ‘From Sk epticism to Embrace: Human Rights and the Amer ican Anthr opolog ical Association fr om 1947–1999’ (2001) 23 HRQ 536. 112 Boa v entura de Sousa Santos and César ARodr iguez-Gara vito (eds), Law and Globalization from Below: T owar ds a Cosmopolitan Legality (CUP 2005). 113 P aulo Ilich Bacca, ‘Indigenizing Inter national Law , Part 1: Lear ning to Lear n from Belo w’ (Blog of the AP A, 23 August2019) <https://blo g.apaonline .org/2019/08/23/indigenizing-inter national-law-part-1-lear ning-to- lear n-from-belo w/> accessed 25 August2023. 114 Yv es Dezalay and Bryant Garth (eds), Lawyers and the Construction of T ransnational Justice (Routledge 2012). 115 Richard Ashb y Wilson, Writing Histor y in Inter national Cr iminal T r ials (CUP 2012). 116 Ulf Linderf alk, ‘Introduction: Language and International Law’ (2017) 86 NJIL 119. 117 Clara Chapdelaine-Feliciati, ‘The Semiotic Puzzle: Authentic Languages& Inter national La w’ (2020) 5 Inter national Jour nal of Legal Discour se 317. 118 Markus Beham, ‘Lost in T ranslation. V ar ying Ger man-Language V er sions of Inter national T r eaties and Documents’ ( V oelker rec htsblog , 17 J une2019) <doi:10.17176/20190617-232607-0> accessed 25 August2023; J ean d’Aspremont, ‘Inter national La w , Univ er sality , and the Dream of Disrupting fr om the Centre’ (2018) 7 ESIL Refections 1; J acqueline Mo wbray , ‘The Future of Inter national La w: Shaped b y English’ ( V oelker rechtsblog , 18 J une2014) <https://v oelkerrechtsblo g.org/the-future-of-inter national-la w-shaped-by- english/> accessed 25 August2023. 119 Benedikt Pirk er and J ennifer Smolka, ‘Inter national La w and Linguistics: Pieces of an Interdisciplinar y Puzzle’ (2020) 11 J our nal of Inter national Dispute Settlement 501. 120 Ingo V enzk e, How Interpretation Makes Inter national Law . On Semantic Change and Normative T wists (OUP 2012). 121 See for instance , Antje Wiener and Philip Liste , ‘Lost without T ranslation? Cross-Refer encing and a New Global Community of Courts’ (2014) 21 Indiana J our nal of Global Legal Studies 263; Silvia Steininger , ‘What’ s Human Rights Got to Do with It? An Empir ical Analysis of Human Rights References in In vestment Arbitration’ (2018) 31 LJIL 33; W ayne Sandholtz, ‘Human Rights Courts and Global Constitutionalism: Coordination Thr ough Judicial Dialo gue’ (2021) 10 Global Constitutionalism 439. 122 W olfgang Alschner and Damien Charlotin, ‘The Gr o wing Complexity of the Inter national Cour t of Justice’ s Self-Citation Netw ork’ (2018) 29 EJIL 83. 136 SIL VIA STEININGER AND T AMSIN PHILLIP A P AIGE of r esearch cr itically r efects on the language(s) in which inter national la w claims uni v er sality 123 and challenges the Anglocentr ism of inter national law . 124 IX . IN TER NA TIO NA L L A W A ND OTHE R APPRO ACHES It is essential to point out that ther e is also a multitude of other types of inter disciplinar y appr oaches to inter national la w and legal resear ch. These ha v e been par ticularly popular in ne w felds of legal resear ch, for instance in the areas of climate r esearch, animal studies, or technolo gy and data science . In general, for interactions with philosophy , y ou can fnd inspiration in the chapter on positivism, while cr itical appr oaches explained in this book such as TW AIL, Marxism, and feminism and queer theor y , also suit themselv es to interdisciplinar y r esearch agendas. C . METHODS OF INTERDISC IPLINAR Y INT ERNA TIONAL L A W SCHOL ARSHIP While traditional legal scholar ship mainly adv ocates for the doctr inal method, the toolbo x of interdisciplinar y appr oaches ofer s a wider v ar iety of methods to study inter national la w . In the follo wing, w e propose the four main methodolo g ical ‘bask ets’: comparati v e method, archi val r esearch, qualitati v e method, and quantitati v e method. Those four methodolo g ical bask ets are not m utually exclusiv e but can be combined with each other and with classical doctr inal appr oaches. I. C OMP AR A TIVE METHOD Compar ison can be generally under stood as a method which aims at contrasting tw o or mor e resear ch units to identify parallels and diferences. Inter disciplinar y resear ch puts signifcant emphasis on justifying the design of a compar ison. After identifying the r esearch question, the r espectiv e scholar generally justifes the comparability of the r espectiv e r esearch units. 125 The r espectiv e r esearch units ar e called a case . The notion of case her e is br oader than its general use in inter national la w . 126 A ‘case’ in inter disciplinar y scholar ship can be a judgment, an institution, a cour t, or ev en a legal system as such. F or instance , comparativ e inter national la w has focused on under standing ho w and wh y national legal cultures difer in their engagement with inter national la w . 127 In par ticular , when there is only a small n umber of resear ch units, 123 Anthea Rober ts, Is Inter national Law Inter national Law (OUP 2017). 124 J ustina Ur iburu, ‘Betw een Elitist Con v er sations and Local Cluster s: Ho w Should W e Address English- Centr ism in Inter national Law?’ ( Opinio Jur is , 2 No v ember2020) <http://opiniojur is.org/2020/11/02/ betw een-elitist-con v er sations-and-local-cluster s-ho w-should-w e-address-english-centr ism-in-inter national- la w/> accessed 25 August2023. 125 See also , Ran Hir schl, ‘The Question of Case Selection in Comparati v e Constitutional La w’ (2005) 53 Amer ican J our nal of Comparati ve La w 125. 126 For discussion of case analysis, see Milas, § 4.1, in this textbook. 127 Anthea Rober ts and other s (eds), Comparativ e Inter national Law (OUP 2018). METHODS 137 inter disciplinar y scholar s aim to pr o vide a thick descr iption of the respecti v e institutions or legal r eg imes, highlighting similar ities and diferences, and, if possib le , ho w the r esearcher aims to account for potential di v ergences. In the social sciences, most compar isons adopt an inductiv e method, or ig inally de v eloped b y J ohn Stuar t Mill in his 1843 book A System of Logic , to illustrate their causal r esearch h ypotheses. This means that they account for an outcome (the dependent v ar iable) as w ell as possible explanator y f actor s (the independent v ar iab le[s]). This is also called the ‘most difer ent’ or ‘most similar’ cases design. In the for mer , the tw o or more cases ar e difer ent in ev er y r elev ant character istic except for the outcome and the explanator y f actor ; in the latter , ev er ything betw een the tw o cases is similar except for the explanation and the outcome . Charles Tilly fur ther distinguishes four types of comparati v e analysis, namely individualising, uni v er salising, v ar iation-fnding, and encompassing. 128 II. ARCHIV AL RESEARCH Gi v en the o v erlap of histor ical enquir y to other for ms of interdisciplinar y resear ch, r eferences to ar chiv al mater ial will often cr op up in var ious types of interdisciplinar y r esearch and e v en doctr inal r esearch. The pur pose of archi v al resear ch is a sear ch ‘for mater ials that might fesh out the stor ies and histor ies of moder n rhetor ic and composition w e w er e presenting’. 129 The biggest question r elated to archi v al r esear ch is the decision about what to include (and perhaps mor e impor tantly what to exclude) fr om a piece of r esearch. 130 Because this is an issue for all for ms of empir ical resear ch, this will be dealt with in mor e detail belo w; ho w ev er , a general guide is that for something to be excluded ther e needs to be a defensible basis for that decision – if something is r elev ant to the topic , credib le in ter ms of its or ig ins, as within an acceptable tolerance of v er ifability , it lik ely should be included in the w ork. III . QU A LIT A TIVE R ESE AR CH METH ODS Qualitati v e resear ch focuses on an (often her meneutical) inter pr etation of texts. These texts could range fr om ethno g raphic obser v ation, inter views, fr ee text ans w er s in sur v e ys, or , histor ical transcr ipts (e .g. ofcial meetings or speeches). 131 The respecti v e 128 Charles Tilly , Big Structures , Large Processes , Huge Compar isons (Russell Sage Foundation 1984). 129 Alexis E Ramsey and others, ‘Intr oduction’ in idem (eds), W orking in the Arc hives: Pr actical Researc h Methods for Rhetor ic and Composition (Souther n Illinois Univ ersity Press 2010) 1. 130 J ennifer Clar y-Lemon, ‘Archi val Resear ch Pr ocesses: ACase for Mater ial Methods’ (2014) 33 Rhetor ic Revie w 381, 385. 131 Carl F Auerbach and Louise B Silv er stein, Qualitative Data: An Introduction to Coding and Anal ysis (New Y ork Univ er sity Pr ess 2003) 3; For examples of the authors, see T amsin Phillipa Paige , ‘The Impact and Efectiv eness of UNCLOS on Counter-Piracy Operations’ (2017) 22 J our nal of Confict& Secur ity Law 97 (based on inter views); Silvia Steininger , ‘What’ s Human Rights Got to Do with It? An Empir ical Analysis of Human Rights References in In v estment Arbitration’ (2018) 31 LJIL 33 (based on refer ences in in v estment a war ds); T amsin Phillipa Paige , ‘Zombies as an Allegor y for T er ror ism: Under standing the Social Impact of 240 ALEX GREEN not only be used to ar ticulate claims of ter r itor ial title (‘so v er eignty over ter r itor y’) b ut also as a catch-all for the complete set of legal capacities and entitlements that States character istically possess. 148 Histor ic usage tended to link so v ereignty to the existence of an identifab le so v ereign. 149 In the w ords of Thomas Hob bes, such an entity ‘consisteth the Essence of the Common-w ealth’; which (to defne it,) is One Person, of whose Acts a gr eat Multitude, by mutuall Covenants one with another , have made themselves every one the Author , to the end he may use the str ength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence. 150 This histor ic insistence upon the r ight of so v ereigns to act ‘as [the y] shall think expedient’, 151 cr eated within both philosoph y and law ‘a tendency to associate with [so v er eignty] ... the idea of a per son abo v e the la w whose w ord is la w for his infer iors or subjects’. 152 An impor tant contemporar y implication of this is the common b ut mistak en belief that so v er eign statehood entails legally unlimited author ity . 153 This has caused some inter national la wy er s to pose as a ‘dilemma’ the question, ‘Can the existence of r ules binding upon States be r econciled with the v er y notion of so v er eignty?’ 154 Much lik e the old theolo g ical parado x of whether an omnipotent God can create a stone that He is incapable of lifting, 155 this line of enquiry asks, for example, whether ‘so v ereign States’ can ‘tr uly’ possess the capacity to bind themselv es via treaty . If w e say ‘y es’, then they can become legally bound, which under mines their ‘unlimited’ author ity , wher eas if w e sa y ‘no’, then that author ity is also under mined, since the y cannot then ha v e the author ity to bind themselv es. 156 The ans w er to this ‘dilemma’ lies in r ejecting the belief that so v ereignty implies unlimited author ity . Rather than being inconsistent with legal ob ligation, State author ity is itself an aspect of inter national la w and therefor e must possess legally defned limits. 157 This holds because the so v er eignty of any single State because it 148 Cra wford (n 41) 32. 149 J ohn Austin, The Province of Jur isprudence Deter mined (J ohn Mur ra y 1832) Lecture VI. On inter national law’ s founding m yths, see González Hauck, § 1, in this textbook. 150 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan or the Matter , For me , and Power of a Common-W ealth Ecc lesiastical and Civil (Andre w Cr ooke 1651), chapter XVII (‘The Defnition of a Common-w ealth’). 151 Cf . David Dyzenheus, ‘Hob bes and the Leg itimacy of Law’ (2001) 20(5) La w and Philosoph y 461. 152 HLA Har t, The Concept of Law (2nd edn, OUP 1994) 221. 153 On one inter pr etation, this notion g r ounded the r uling of the P er manent Cour t in The Lotus (supra n 111). 154 J an Klabbers, ‘Clinching the Concept of So v ereignty: W imbledon Redux’ (1999) 3 ARIEL 345, 348. 155 Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica , Book 1, Question 25, ar ticle 3. 156 Timoth y Endicott, ‘The Logic of Freedom and P o w er’ in Samantha Besson and J ohn T asioulas (eds), The Philosoph y of Inter national Law (OUP 2010) 246. 157 Ibid 246–252. On jur isdiction, see González Hauck and Milas, § 8, in this textbook. 241 SUBJECTS AND ACTORS is a State necessar ily implies the equal so v ereignty of all others. In a w orld wher e mor e than one State exists, freedom fr om obligation and wholly unlimited author ity thus becomes illo g ical. 158 ‘So v ereignty’ thus means no mor e nor less than the full set of legal capacities or dinar ily associated with statehood. T o put this another w a y , to be so v er eign for the pur poses of inter national la w means to ha v e the status of an established State . In concrete ter ms, this has tw o implications. Fir st, that the acquisition and maintenance of so v er eignty tur ns on the la w that go v er ns the cr eation, continuation, and extinction of States, e v en though this la w ma y then be supplemented b y other pr inciples such as human r ights. Second, ‘so v ereignty as status and capacity’ means that so v ereignty implies the entitlements can v assed belo w in addition to the ob ligations necessar y to secure those entitlements b y all States on a for mally equal basis. III . SOVEREIG N EQU ALIT Y IN AN UN EQU AL WORLD Although States possess for mal equality , 159 in almost all other r espects they ar e stagger ingly unequal. 160 For example , extensiv e scholarship exists on dispar ities of inter national po w er , 161 within which considerable attention is paid to the inequalities of global infuence cr eated by the existence of the so-called Gr eat P o w er s. 162 States ar e also unequal, to tak e another example, in ter ms of their size (both geog raphically and demo g raphically), their access to natural resour ces, and qualitativ ely , in ter ms of their democratic cr edentials and their compliance with inter national human r ights standar ds. 163 Moreo v er , some ha v e coastlines whilst some ar e landlock ed, whilst other s go v er n unique ecosystems, cultural sites, and indigenous communities. 164 In light of this, it is difcult to imag ine a g r oup of ‘equals’ with less equality than contemporar y States. For tunately for pr esent pur poses, to in v oke equality is, conceptually speaking, to prec lude total sameness. If tw o things are identical, in the 158 Henr y Shue, ‘Limiting So v ereignty’ in Jennifer W elsh (ed), Humanitar ian Inter vention and International Relations (OUP 2004) 16. 159 See , for example: Char ter of the United Nations (adopted 26 J une1945, San Francisco , entered into for ce 24 October1945) 1 UNTS XVI, ar ticle 2; Benedict Kingsbury , ‘So v ereignty and Inequality’ (1998) 9 EJIL 599, 600; Questions Relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor-Leste v . Austr alia) (Order of 3 Mar ch2014) [2014] ICJ Rep 147, paras 26–28; Jur isdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v . Ital y: Greece inter vening) (Mer its) [2012] ICJ Rep 99, para 57; and Ar rest W ar rant of 1 IApr il2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v . Belgium) (Mer its) [2002] ICJ Rep 3 [62]-[71]. 160 Philip J essup , ‘The Equality of States as Dogma and Reality’ (1945) 60(4) PSQ 527, 528. 161 See , for example: Michael By er s, Custom, Power and the Power of Rules: Inter national Relations and Customary Inter national Law (CUP 2009); J ames Crawfor d, Chance , Order , Change: The Course of Inter national Law , Gener al Course on Public International Law (Br ill 2014); J ack Goldsmith and Er ic P osner , The Limits of Inter national Law (OUP 2007). 162 Ger r y Simpson: ‘The Great P o w er s, So v ereign Equality and the Making of the United Nations Charter’ (2000) 21 Aust YBIL 133; Great Powers and Outlaw States: Unequal Sovereigns in the International Legal Order (CUP 2009); ‘Great P o wers and Outla w States Redux ’ (2012) 43 NYIL 83. 163 Sean Mur ph y , ‘Democratic Leg itimacy and the Recognition of States and Go v er nments’ (1999) 48 ICLQ 545, 556; Gregory Fo x and Bradley Roth, ‘Democracy and Inter national Law’ (2001) 27 Revie w of Inter national Studies 327, 337. 164 On indigenous peoples, see Visw anath, § 7.2, in this textbook. 242 ALEX GREEN sense that the y are completely indiscer nible , then the y are not equal b ut entirely the same . 165 The for mal equality of States should therefor e be under stood in ter ms of nor mative equality , which is to sa y an equality of status . T o paraphrase the philosopher Thomas Nagel, States ar e for mally equal in that the y hold the same place within the ‘nor mativ e comm unity’ of inter national la w . 166 The content of that status is contr o v er sial, being connected to the philosophical as w ell as the legal essence of States; 167 ho w e v er , its implications ar e reasonab ly clear and encompass the full incidents of so v er eignty (can v assed abo v e). 168 E . QUESTIO NS OF ENTITL EMENT : THE JURIDICAL C ONSE QUE NCES O F S TAT E H O O D I. A UTONOMY AND SEC UR IT Y ENTIT LEMENTS The entitlements that pr otect the autonom y and secur ity of States cor respond to their r ight to continue to exist as States, which is to sa y as ‘so v ereign’ member s of the inter national community . F or this r eason, sev eral of these entitlements cor r espond, in a mor e or less direct manner , to the existential conditions for the cr eation and continuation of Statehood, can vassed abo v e . 169 1 . T e rrito ria l Int egri ty As can v assed in the section ‘The Presumption in Fa v our of T er r itor ial Integ r ity’, the pr inciple of ter r itor ial integ r ity is a fundamental constituent of the United Nations Char ter system, refer enced in ar ticle 2(4) of that text and therefor e v er y often link ed to the pr ohibition on the threat and use of for ce within inter national r elations. These elements suppor t the pr oposition that States ar e legally protected fr om incur sions into their ter r itor y b y other States, both in existential ter ms and insof ar as such incur sions generate reco v erable loss. Mor eo v er , the operation of ter r itor ial integ r ity within the la w of State creation is to pr esent a nor mativ e hurdle that seceding entities must in some manner o v ercome . In this manner , established States ar e entitled not only to continue to exist within their extant ter r itor ial boundar ies but also to do so fr ee fr om militar y or paramilitar y interference fr om other States. 165 Ber trand Russell, An Inquir y into Meaning and T ruth (George Allen and Unwin 1972) 97–102. 166 Thomas Nagel, ‘P er sonal Rights and Public Space’ (1995) 24(2) Philosoph y& Public Afair s 83, 85. 167 Green (n 71). 168 Focusing upon the consequences of so v ereign equality , rather than upon the essence of statehood itself , is sufcient for present purposes but does r isk a cer tain ar tifciality . Without deeper philosophical r efection, this view ma y amount only to the tautologous pr oposition that ‘States are equal in vie w of their statehood’, which is admittedly rather unhelpful. 169 Green (n 71) chapter3. 243 SUBJECTS AND ACTORS 2 . Pol i t i ca l I n dep en de n ce The r ight to political independence , pr otected by the pr inciple of non-inter v ention, mir r or s the r ight to ter r itor ial integ r ity in that it not only concer ns an estab lished State’ s r ight to contin ue to exist but its r ight to fr eedom fr om for eign domination. It is also , to this extent, the cor ollar y of independence as an antecedent of statehood, r epresenting the r ight of States, once fully independent, to r emain so . Although States ar e entitled to be free fr om the domination of foreign go v er nments, they ar e not entitled to fr eedom fr om the political infuence of other States. T o tak e just one example , interfer ence in go v er nmental elections, be it co v er t or otherwise , constitutes a br each of the non-inter v ention pr inciple (and a violation of political independence), 170 whereas ex er ting pur ely diplomatic infuence upon domestic policy does not. In practice , applying the non-inter v ention pr inciple f aces g reatest practical difculties when deter mining the practise line betw een for eign domination and mere infuence . Although the thr eat or use of force , for example , repr esents a clear violation of that pr inciple , the Inter national Cour t of J ustice (ICJ) in the Nicar agua case explicitly r ecognised the possibility that ‘indir ect’ action suppor ting sub v er siv e acti vities within another State ma y violate that pr inciple as w ell. 171 This w as afr med in 2005, when the ICJ cited the pr inciple of non-inter v ention when passing judgment against the Republic of Uganda for supporting rebel for ces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The Cour t held that ‘the pr inciple of non-inter v ention pr ohibits a State “to inter v ene , directly or indir ectly , with or without ar med force , in suppor t of an inter nal opposition in another State” ’. 172 In each case , the r elev ant questions are frst whether the alleged inter v ention w as coer civ e or sub v er siv e in natur e – thereb y amounting to an attempt at foreign domination – and then whether an y a vailab le defences ar e a v ailable , such as the implied consent of the complainant State . Gi v en the commonplace confation of independence with so v er eignty , 173 it is necessar y to r emark upon sev eral other things that do not fr ustrate political independence . Fir st, the opposability of inter national obligations against a State in no w a y under mines its legal independence . 174 Second, member ship within inter national organisations, including those with institutions capable of issuing binding dir ectiv es upon their member s, in no w a y abr ogates the independence of States 170 Michael Schmitt and Liis Vihul (eds), T allin Manual 2.0 on the Inter national Law Applicable to Cyber Oper ations (CUP 2017) 312 Rule 66; Michael Schmitt, ‘For eign Cyber Interference in Elections: An Inter national La w Pr imer , Part I’ ( EJIL: T alk! , 16 October2020) <www .ejiltalk.org/foreign-cyber-interfer ence-in-elections- an-inter national-law-pr imer-par t-i/> accessed 28 Februar y2022. 171 Militar y and P aramilitary Activities in and against Nicar agua (Nicaragua v . United States of America) (Mer its) [1986] ICJ Rep 14. 172 Ar med Activities on the T er r itory of the Congo (Democratic Repub lic of the Congo v . Uganda) (Mer its) [2005] ICJ Rep 168. 173 Hossain (n 149). 174 Supra n 73 (at 131). 244 ALEX GREEN belong ing to such organisations. 175 Notwithstanding the rhetor ic sur rounding ‘Br exit’, it is tr ite inter national la w that member ship of the Eur opean Union in no wa y afected the political independence of the United Kingdom. 176 Thir d, domestic constitutional ar rangements, e v en those settled upon under direction fr om foreign po w er s, pose no necessar y threat to political independence unless the ar rangements in question establish unilateral claims of r ight or general author ity o v er the domestic or foreign afairs of the afected State . 177 As abo v e , the presence or absence of for eign domination, be it for mal or de f acto , is deter minativ e of independence and not the existence of bilateral or e v en multilateral commitments amongst jur idical equals. 3. Free do m to Ch oo se Pol it ic a l, So c ia l , Eco no m i c , a nd Cu l t u ra l Syste m s Contemporar y statehood does not requir e par ticular for ms of go v er nment and so does not depend, for example , upon the pr esence of democratic institutions, the pro vision of social secur ity , or the separation of chur ch and State . 178 The general applicability of this pr inciple is bor ne out, perhaps, b y the f act that UN member ship does not tur n upon, for example , the presence of democratic institutions within the applicant entity . 179 The only n uance to be noted here is that other branches of inter national la w , such as the inter national la w of human r ights, can and do regulate the manner in whic h go v er nance is under tak en. Freedom to choose a political system, to this extent, excludes the fr eedom to choose one that violates fundamental human r ights nor ms, at least to the extent that the State in question is par ty to the r elev ant inter national human r ights la w treaties. 180 4 . P e rm a n e nt Sovere ig n ty Ove r Na t u ra l R es ou rce s Established States ha v e exclusiv e r ights to exploit any natural r esour ces f alling within their ter r itor y , which includes an y onshore r esources and an y located within their ter r itor ial sea. 181 This general r ule , which arguably sits ‘do wnstr eam’ fr om both ter r itor ial integ r ity and the freedom States enjo y to establish their o wn economic systems, is most clearly expr essed within Pr inciple 21 of the 1972 Stockholm Declaration, 182 which r eferences a State’ s 175 Cra wford (n 41) 70–71. 176 Ibid. 177 Green (n 71) chapter3. 178 [1986] ICJ Rep 14 [263]. 179 Whilst the United Nations Char ter frequently uses the w ord ‘State’ in an idiosyncratic manner – and therefor e sometimes ma y not entail much for the status of the ‘State’ it refer ences – membership decisions pur suant to ar ticle 4(1) br oadly refect the notion that members must be States under inter national law , see Higg ins (n 20) 11–57. 180 On human r ights la w , see Ciampi, § 21, in this textbook. 181 Ricardo P ereira, ‘The Exploration and Exploitation of Energy Resour ces in Inter national La w’ in Karen E Makuch and Ricardo P er eira (eds), Environmental and Energy Law (Blackw ell 2012) 199. On the la w of the sea, see Dela Cr uz and P aige, § 15, in this textbook. 182 ‘Repor t of the United Nations Conference on the Human En vironment’ (Stockholm 5–16 J une1972) UN Doc A/CONF .48/Rev .1. 245 SUBJECTS AND ACTORS sover eign right to exploit their own r esour ces pursuant to their own envir onmental policies, and the r esponsibility to ensur e that activities within their jurisdiction or contr ol do not cause damage to the envir onment of other States or of ar eas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. This for mulation w as also adopted, in slightly modifed for m, within Pr inciple 2 of the 1992 Rio Declaration. 183 As argued b y Sundh y a P ahuja, ther e is some concer n that per manent so v ereignty o v er natural resour ces, which w as or ig inally de v eloped to safeguar d postcolonial States against foreign economic exploitation immediately follo wing decolonisation, has in f act led to the pr otection and elev ation of the foreign in v estor as a subject of inter national la w to the expense of domestic populations of those States. 184 II. ENTITLEMEN T S OF ST ANDING If the entitlements listed abo v e co v er the r ights of States to ex ercise the capacities or dinar ily associated with the ter m ‘so v er eignty’, then the entitlements no w at issue pr otect their position as equal member s of the inter national community . Such entitlements of standing might be concei v ed as r ights to par ticipate on cer tain ter ms within the inter national legal or der , 185 and include , amongst other things, pr inciples of so v er eign immunity , the la w of diplomatic and consular relations, and the imm unity of States fr om the compulsor y jur isdiction of inter national cour ts and tr ibunals. Since other chapter s in this v olume address these elements in g r eater detail than w ould be possible her e, the r emainder of this chapter will focus instead upon tw o fur ther entitlements of standing. 1 . L e ga l Perso n a l i ty Legal per sonality is the capacity to exist within (legally enfor ceable) jur idical relations: to hold cer tain r ights, duties, po w er s, liabilities, and so on. 186 The pr ecise relationship betw een statehood and legal per sonality has been subject to some contr o v er sy . Accor ding to Lassa Oppenheim, ‘[t]he equality before Inter national Law of all member- States of the Family of Nations is an in v ar iab le quality der i v ed fr om their inter national per sonality’. 187 This or der of der i v ation is highly misleading. Pr operly constr ued, legal per sonhood is a consequence of statehood and not its lo g ical antecedent. The f act that legal per sonality follo ws fr om statehood (and not the other w a y ar ound) is best demonstrated b y the direction of analysis adopted in the Repar ation 183 ‘Repor t of the United Nations Conference on En vironment and De v elopment’ (Rio de J aneiro 3–14 J une1992) UN Doc A/CONF .151/26 (V ol I). 184 Sundh y a Pahuja, Decolonising International Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Univ ersality (CUP 2011) 95–171. On inter national in v estment la w , see Hankings-Evans, § 23.1, in this textbook. 185 Ratner (n 53) 190–197. 186 See , for example: Neil MacCor mick, Institutions of Law: An Essa y in Legal Theor y (OUP 2007) 77–100. On legal personality in inter national law , see Engstr öm, § 7, in this textbook. 187 Lassa Oppenheim, Inter national Law: AT reatise (Her sch Lauter pacht ed, V ol I, 6th edn, Longman 1947) 238. [Document text truncated for crawler view.]