Measurements of generated energy/electrical quantities from locomotion activities using piezoelectric wearable sensors for body motion energy harvesting

sensors Article Measurements of Generated Energy/Electrical Quantities from Locomotion Activities Using Piezoelectric Wearable Sensors for Body Motion Energy Harvesting Antonino Proto 1,*, Marek Penhaker 2, Daniele Bibbo 1, David Vala 2, Silvia Conforto 1 and Maurizio Schmid 1 1Department of Engineering, University of Roma Tre, Via Vito Volterra, 62, Rome 00146, Italy; [email protected] (D.B.); [email protected] (S.C.); [email protected] (M.S.) 2Department of Cybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 17 Listopadu 15, Ostrava-Poruba 70833, Czech Republic; mar[email protected] (M.P.); [email protected] (D.V.) *Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-6-5733-7057; Fax: +39-6-5733-7026 Academic Editors: Steffen Leonhardt and Daniel Teichmann Received: 8 March 2016; Accepted: 6 April 2016; Published: 12 April 2016 Abstract: In this paper, two different piezoelectric transducers—a ceramic piezoelectric, lead zirconate titanate (PZT), and a polymeric piezoelectric, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)—were compared in terms of energy that could be harvested during locomotion activities. The transducers were placed into a tight suit in proximity of the main body joints. Initial testing was performed by placing the transducers on the neck, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee and ankle; then, five locomotion activities—walking, walking up and down stairs, jogging and running—were chosen for the tests. The values of the power output measured during the five activities were in the range 6 µ W–74 µ W using both transducers for each joint. Keywords: piezoelectric transducers; body motion energy harvesting; elastic fabric 1. Introduction Body motion energy harvesting (BMEH) means recovering energy from body movement. BMEH has been the object of study by researchers from around the world for the past twenty years. Starner [ 1 ], who is considered one of the first researchers who studied energy harvesting from human motion, explored the possibility of recovering the energy produced by body movements, during everyday activities. He pointed out that human beings produce the highest amount of energy during walking. Thus, Shenck and Paradiso [ 2 ] developed an energy harvesting system, mounted on the shoes, that enables one to power a wide range of body-worn devices. Then, Gonzalez et al. [ 3 ] and Niu et al. [ 4 ] analyzed the feasibility of using the energy harvested from the human body to power wearable sensors, which include the functions of data processing and wireless communication [5,6]. Following the same logic, Rome et al. [ 7 ] developed a suspended-load backpack that converts mechanical energy of the vertical movement of the carried load into electrical energy. In addition, Donelan et al. [ 8 ] developed a biomechanical energy harvester mounted on the knee that provides power generation at the end of the swing phase, thus assisting deceleration of the knee joint during walking and jogging. Mitcheson et al. [ 9 ] reviewed the principles in a motion-driven miniature energy harvester to introduce the basis for a wearable and comfortable body-worn energy harvesting system. Vullers et al. [ 10 ] published a review dealing with the techniques of micropower energy harvesting Sensors 2016,16, 524; doi:10.3390/s16040524 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors Sensors 2016,16, 524 2 of 15 in order to confirm the theory, earlier discussed by Huang et al. [ 11 ] and Hanson et al. [ 12 ], about the wireless body sensor network (WBSN), according to which reliable energy harvesting has now become a reality for human conditions monitoring. Nowadays, BMEH systems are becoming fundamental for sports [ 13 ], medical [ 14 ] and military [ 15 ] applications. The research trend is to develop smart clothes with incorporated BMEH systems. Stoppa and Chiolerio [ 16 ] presented a paper on recent progress in the field of smart textiles, and Misra et al. [ 17 ] presented a paper on flexible technologies that enable ultra-long battery lifetime and user comfort. Despite a large body of literature focusing on the development and testing of BMEH systems, to the authors’ knowledge there is a notable lack of studies targeting the optimization of harvester kinds, and their placement, to be used in everyday life activities. To fill this gap, in this work, piezoelectric transducers placed in a tight suit were tested and compared to find out the best location where the BMEH system can be placed, to maximize energy production in everyday life. To this end, individual body movements of single body joints were tested, and then five different locomotion activities were chosen to test the sensors in real-life conditions. The positions of the BMEH systems were chosen taking into account the wearability of the transducers and the user comfort during exercises, with the perspective of incorporating them into smart clothing. 2. Relevance of the Problem BMEH is an energy harvesting subcategory that is a part of the broader category of energy harvesting from environmental vibrations. While environmental vibration energy harvesting has been extensively studied recently [9], BMEH is quite a new research field for scientists. The mechanical energy from environmental vibrations can be converted into electrical energy by electromagnetic, electrostatic, magnetostrictive and piezoelectric transducers: in the studied literature, the electromagnetic, electrostatic and piezoelectric transducers dominate. The work presented by Roundy [ 18 ] provides a general theory that can be used to compare these different transduction approaches. In conventional macro-scale engineering, environmental vibration transducers are mostly based on the electromagnetic technique, while in small-scale energy harvesting, electrostatic and piezoelectric transducers are more practical and better suited to microelectromechanical (MEMS) implementation [ 9 ]. The main difference between piezoelectric and electrostatic transducers is that the electrostatic transducer must be powered [ 19 ] to function, and therefore the piezoelectric transducers were chosen for our purpose. The most common types of materials for piezoelectric transduction are lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) [ 20 ]. Other piezoelectric materials are barium titanate (BaTiO 3 ) presented by Koka et al. [ 21 ] and Zhang et al. [ 22 ], micro-fiber composites (MFC) illustrated by Kranz et al. [ 23 ], and active fiber composites (AFC) discussed by Dürager [ 24 ]. In addition, lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT) presented by Halim et al. [ 25 ] and zinc oxide nanowires (ZnO-NWs) presented by Bai et al. [26] are materials with piezoelectric physical properties. When comparing the PZT and PVDF transducers [ 27 ], the former is better in terms of transduction coefficients, while the latter is less expensive and more flexible, and it can add pyroelectric properties. PZT transducers can be divided into two categories: hard PZT and soft PZT. Hard PZT are generally not suitable for BMEH because they are not flexible enough to accommodate body joint rotations. For this purpose, soft PZT and PVDF transducers were chosen for this work. The fundamental purpose in this paper is to quantify the energy amount that can be recovered from body movements: to this end, the wearable piezoelectric transducers were incorporated into different slots within a tight body suit; the measurements of output voltage were collected during the execution of different activities, which will be specified in the following paragraph. Sensors 2016,16, 524 3 of 15 3. Materials and Methods 3.1. Piezoelectric Transducers Chosen Piezoelectric transducers convert mechanical deformations into electrical energy, i.e., direct piezoelectric effect. Thanks to this property, the piezoelectric transducers can produce electrical energy from the movements of the body parts to which they adhere. The P-876.A12 sensor [ 28 ] and the LDT4-028k sensor [ 29 ] (Figure 1) were chosen to analyze the power output of a BMEH system, respectively based on soft PZT or on PVDF. Sensors 2016, 16, 524 3 of 15 3. Materials and Methods 3.1. Piezoelectric Transducers Chosen Piezoelectric transducers convert mechanical deformations into electrical energy, i.e., direct piezoelectric effect. Thanks to this property, the piezoelectric transducers can produce electrical energy from the movements of the body parts to which they adhere. The P-876.A12 sensor [28] and the LDT4-028k sensor [29] (Figure 1) were chosen to analyze the power output of a BMEH system, respectively based on soft PZT or on PVDF. Figure 1. The P-876.A12 sensor [28] and LDT4-028k sensor [29]. The features of both P-876.A12 and LDT4-028k are listed in Table 1. While examining the piezoelectric transducers behavior, under conditions to approximate an open-circuit voltage, the generated voltage value from piezoelectric transducers is: V= t εεd Y ∆l l (1) In applications of BMEH, it is assumed that the piezoelectric transducer is vertically suspended to a support and that a force, F, is acting on its end. This force creates a variation in the length l of the sensor, ∆l. The related applied stress on the transducer, X=Y∆ , is given by the force divided by the crosssectional area, csa=wt (where w is the width and t is the thickness), so that: Y ∆l l=F wt (2) In this way, it is possible to write the equation for the generated electrical energy, U, in terms of the applied force [30]: Ue=1 2ε0εrwl tV2=1 2ε0εr l wtd31 2F2 (3) Figure 1. The P-876.A12 sensor [28] and LDT4-028k sensor [29]. The features of both P-876.A12 and LDT4-028k are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Properties of the P-876.A12 and LDT4-028k transducers. Properties P-876.A12 LDT4-028k Density, ρ(g/cm3)7.8 1.8 Curié temperature, Tc(˝C) 350 100 Relative permittivity, εr1650–1750 12–13 Dielectric loss factor, σ0.02 0.02 Coupling factor, kt0.47 0.14 Coupling factor, k31 0.35 0.12 Coupling factor, k33 0.69 - Piezo charge coefficient, |d31| (10´12 C/N) 180 23 Piezo charge coefficient, |d33| (10´12 C/N) 400 33 Piezo voltage coefficient,|g31| (10´3V m/N) 11.3 216 Piezo voltage coefficient,|g33| (10´3V m/N) 25 330 Young’s modulus, Y (109N/m2)55.5 3.1 Minimum radius curvature, rc(mm) 20 5 Active vol. dimensions (l ˆwˆt) (mm) (50 ˆ30 ˆ0.2) (156 ˆ19 ˆ0.028) Electrical capacitance, C (10´9F) 90 12 Sensors 2016,16, 524 4 of 15 While examining the piezoelectric transducers behavior, under conditions to approximate an open-circuit voltage, the generated voltage value from piezoelectric transducers is: V“t ε0εrd31Y∆l l(1) In applications of BMEH, it is assumed that the piezoelectric transducer is vertically suspended to a support and that a force, F , is acting on its end. This force creates a variation in the length l of the sensor, ∆l. The related applied stress on the transducer, X“Y∆l l , is given by the force divided by the cross-sectional area, csa “wt (where w is the width and t is the thickness), so that: Y∆l l“F wt (2) In this way, it is possible to write the equation for the generated electrical energy, Ue , in terms of the applied force [30]: Ue“1 2 ε0εrwl tV2“1 2ε0εr l wtd2 31F2(3) 3.2. The Chosen Human Body Movements Seven body joints were chosen in order to harvest energy from body movements. These joints were chosen in order to measure the most common human body rotations: neck, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee and ankle are the joints around which the transducers were placed. The angle values were manually measured by a goniometer, for each range of motion of the performed tests. These results were accepted on the basis of the results presented in the work of Reese and Bandy [ 31 ]. In Table 2, the body joints, joint movements, range of motion and the frequencies of motion are summarized. Table 2. Body joints, body joint movements, range of motion [31] and frequency of tests. Body Joint Joint Movement Range of Motion (˝) Motion Frequency (Hz) Neck flexion-extension 58 ˘12 1.40˘0.10 Shoulder adduction-abduction 140 ˘9 1.10 ˘0.10 Elbow flexion-extension 141 ˘8 1.25 ˘0.10 Wrist flexion-extension 129 ˘14 1.90 ˘0.10 Hip flexion-extension 138 ˘21 1.05 ˘0.10 Knee flexion-extension 135 ˘11 1.15 ˘0.10 Ankle plantar-dorsiflexion 66 ˘5 1.75 ˘0.10 3.3. The Chosen Human Body Activity Five common locomotion activities were chosen to find out if the two piezoelectric transducers were efficient enough to harvest energy from the body movement in practice. The mentioned activities were walking, going down and up the stairs, jogging and running. The body joints chosen for the comparison of the two piezoelectric transducers were a subset of the aforementioned ones: elbow, ankle, knee, shoulder and hip. The flexion-extension of the wrist and neck were excluded from the measurements because these movements were deemed as minor in terms of exerted forces during the chosen locomotion activities. In Table 3, the activities and their corresponding frequencies are summarized. Sensors 2016,16, 524 5 of 15 Table 3. Summary of the common activities and their frequencies. Common Activity Frequency of the Activity (Hz) Walking 1.15 ˘0.10 Walking downstairs 1.65 ˘0.10 Walking upstairs 1.05 ˘0.10 Jogging 1.60 ˘0.10 Running 2.10 ˘0.10 3.4. Elastic Cotton Fabric for a Tight Suit Piezoelectric transducers must be placed directly onto the skin to transduce the movements of the joints in the most appropriate way. Thus, a tight elastic cotton suit was made. Elastic cotton ensures proper adjacency to the body and comfort, and it is easy to clean. The piezoelectric transducers were placed in the pockets of the suit, around each chosen joint. Figure 2shows the blue suit with the green pockets, and a green belt which was used to capture ankle rotations. Sensors 2016, 16, 524 5 of 15 Table 3. Summary of the common activities and their frequencies. Common Activity Frequency of the Activity (Hz) Walking 1.15 ± 0.10 Walking downstairs 1.65 ± 0.10 Walking upstairs 1.05 ± 0.10 Jogging 1.60 ± 0.10 Running 2.10 ± 0.10 3.4. Elastic Cotton Fabric for a Tight Suit Piezoelectric transducers must be placed directly onto the skin to transduce the movements of the joints in the most appropriate way. Thus, a tight elastic cotton suit was made. Elastic cotton ensures proper adjacency to the body and comfort, and it is easy to clean. The piezoelectric transducers were placed in the pockets of the suit, around each chosen joint. Figure 2 shows the blue suit with the green pockets, and a green belt which was used to capture ankle rotations. Figure 2. The blue suit with the green pockets and a green belt (please see Table 4 for denotation). The positions of the transducers on the suit were chosen according to the value of their folding parameter, the minimum radius curvature. LDT4-028k is more flexible than P-876.A12, and therefore the former one was placed in the inner parts of the suit where the joints are at the maximum bending angle. The inner parts of the suit relate to the inner parts of the elbow, knee and shoulder. Conversely, P-876.A12 transducers were placed on the outer parts of those joints. The positions of transducers were the same for the measurements of the wrist, neck, ankle and hip joints. Table 4 shows the reference positions for the transducers referring to the numbers in Figure 2. Table 4. Positions of the transducers on the suit and on the belt. Numbers in Figure 2 Joint, Transducer Reference Position for the Measurements 1 Wrist, P-876.A12 Top of wrist 2 Wrist, LDT4-028k Top of wrist 3 Elbow, P-876.A12 Outer elbow 4 Elbow, LDT4-028k Inner elbow 5 Neck, P-876.A12 Back of the neck 6 Neck, LDT4-028k Back of the neck 7 Knee, P-876.A12 Outer knee 8 Knee, LDT4-028k Inner knee 9 Hip, P-876.A12 Front hip 10 Hip, LDT4-028k Front hip 11 Shoulder, P-876.A12 Outer shoulder 12 Shoulder, LDT4-028k Inner shoulder 13 Ankle, P-876.A12 The ankle plantar 14 Ankle, LDT4-028k The ankle plantar Figure 2. The blue suit with the green pockets and a green belt (please see Table 4for denotation). The positions of the transducers on the suit were chosen according to the value of their folding parameter, the minimum radius curvature. LDT4-028k is more flexible than P-876.A12, and therefore the former one was placed in the inner parts of the suit where the joints are at the maximum bending angle. The inner parts of the suit relate to the inner parts of the elbow, knee and shoulder. Conversely, P-876.A12 transducers were placed on the outer parts of those joints. The positions of transducers were the same for the measurements of the wrist, neck, ankle and hip joints. Table 4shows the reference positions for the transducers referring to the numbers in Figure 2. Table 4. Positions of the transducers on the suit and on the belt. Numbers in Figure 2Joint, Transducer Reference Position for the Measurements 1 Wrist, P-876.A12 Top of wrist 2 Wrist, LDT4-028k Top of wrist 3 Elbow, P-876.A12 Outer elbow 4 Elbow, LDT4-028k Inner elbow 5 Neck, P-876.A12 Back of the neck 6 Neck, LDT4-028k Back of the neck 7 Knee, P-876.A12 Outer knee 8 Knee, LDT4-028k Inner knee 9 Hip, P-876.A12 Front hip 10 Hip, LDT4-028k Front hip 11 Shoulder, P-876.A12 Outer shoulder 12 Shoulder, LDT4-028k Inner shoulder 13 Ankle, P-876.A12 The ankle plantar 14 Ankle, LDT4-028k The ankle plantar Sensors 2016,16, 524 6 of 15 4. Experimental Section 4.1. Preliminary Measurements To find out the voltage output, the following measurement circuit (Figure 3) was used, and the values of the voltage output were measured and acquired by the NI USB-6210 data acquisition system (DAQ), National Instruments. A voltage divider circuit was used as the input stage of the NI USB-6210 DAQ in order to avoid the problem of saturation given by the range of voltage values at the input stage of the DAQ. Sensors 2016, 16, 524 6 of 15 4. Experimental Section 4.1. Preliminary Measurements To find out the voltage output, the following measurement circuit (Figure 3) was used, and the values of the voltage output were measured and acquired by the NI USB-6210 data acquisition system (DAQ), National Instruments. A voltage divider circuit was used as the input stage of the NI USB-6210 DAQ in order to avoid the problem of saturation given by the range of voltage values at the input stage of the DAQ. Figure 3. Measurement circuit. The voltage output for the circuit in Figure 3 is given by the following Equation (4) [32]: Vout =I Rload  1+󰇡2πfCpRload󰇢2(4) The power values, based on a fixed value of the resistive load, were calculated. In order to optimize the power output, the ranges of fixed values of the resistors were carefully chosen based on the transducers datasheets [33,34] and on the motion frequency of the joint movements, so that the following relation is achieved: dP dR =dV  R dR =0⇔R =1 2π f C (5) The range values of the resistor loads are shown in Table 5. Table 5. The chosen fixed values of the resistors. Rload → P-876.A12 Transducer Rload →LDT4-028k Transducer 0.075 MΩ 1.865 MΩ 0.220 MΩ 3.715 MΩ 0.440 MΩ 5.745 MΩ 0.610 MΩ 7.100 MΩ 0.830 MΩ 8.530 MΩ 0.900 MΩ 10.545 MΩ 1.180 MΩ 13.180 MΩ 1.400 MΩ 14.930 MΩ 1.850 MΩ 17.215 MΩ 2.400 MΩ 18.775 MΩ 3.600 MΩ 22.340 MΩ 5.850 MΩ 25.175 MΩ Figure 3. Measurement circuit. The voltage output for the circuit in Figure 3is given by the following Equation (4) [32]: Vout “IRload b1``2πfCpRload˘2(4) The power values, based on a fixed value of the resistive load, were calculated. In order to optimize the power output, the ranges of fixed values of the resistors were carefully chosen based on the transducers datasheets [ 33 , 34 ] and on the motion frequency of the joint movements, so that the following relation is achieved: dPout dRload “ d´V2 out Rload ¯ dRload “0ôRload “1 2πfCp(5) The range values of the resistor loads are shown in Table 5. Table 5. The chosen fixed values of the resistors. Rload ÑP-876.A12 Transducer Rload ÑLDT4-028k Transducer 0.075 MΩ1.865 MΩ 0.220 MΩ3.715 MΩ 0.440 MΩ5.745 MΩ 0.610 MΩ7.100 MΩ 0.830 MΩ8.530 MΩ 0.900 MΩ10.545 MΩ 1.180 MΩ13.180 MΩ 1.400 MΩ14.930 MΩ 1.850 MΩ17.215 MΩ 2.400 MΩ18.775 MΩ 3.600 MΩ22.340 MΩ 5.850 MΩ25.175 MΩ To ensure that the P-876.A12 transducer could be bent properly, perfectly following the whole movement of the joints, it was necessary to place an extra elastic band over the suit, to make the Sensors 2016,16, 524 7 of 15 transducers adhere to the body part during movement. Conversely, the LDT4-028k transducers did not need any additional support to secure their placement, due to their higher flexibility and ability to follow the joint movements. To obtain the root mean square values of the voltages, currents and powers, the measured values of the peak-to-peak voltage output were used in the following Equation (6). Vrms “Vout 2?2ñIrms “Vrms Rfixed ñPrms “VrmsIrms (6) Equation (6) was used to find the RMS values from each performed movement repetition, shown in Table 2. In the case of these movements, the nature of the angular movements could be roughly approximated to Equation (6), even if it deviates from a pure sinusoidal tone, as it is shown in Figure 4. Sensors 2016, 16, 524 7 of 15 To ensure that the P-876.A12 transducer could be bent properly, perfectly following the whole movement of the joints, it was necessary to place an extra elastic band over the suit, to make the transducers adhere to the body part during movement. Conversely, the LDT4-028k transducers did not need any additional support to secure their placement, due to their higher flexibility and ability to follow the joint movements. To obtain the root mean square values of the voltages, currents and powers, the measured values of the peak-to-peak voltage output were used in the following Equation (6). Vrms =Vou t 2 √ 2⇒I rms =Vrms Rfixed ⇒P rms =VrmsIrms (6) Equation (6) was used to find the RMS values from each performed movement repetition, shown in Table 2. In the case of these movements, the nature of the angular movements could be roughly approximated to Equation (6), even if it deviates from a pure sinusoidal tone, as it is shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Sample of the signal of the voltage output measured by using the LDT4-028k transducer placed on the elbow joint for the movement of flexion-extension. The calculated RMS value corresponds to 13.78 V, slightly less than the value that could have been obtained if Equation (6), for sinusoidal waves, had been applied (14.62 V). Three healthy male volunteers (age: 34 ± 5 years; body weight: 76 ± 4 kg; height: 175 ± 5 cm) were recruited to perform the joint movements listed in Table 2. Each joint movement was repeated five times, and the measuring time for each test was around ten seconds. Figure 5 shows output RMS power values coming from the body joints for each value of the resistive load. Both transducers produce a signal output proportional to the folding movement and frequency of the performed test. To obtain the maximum value of the power output, the most important parameter is the proper positioning of the transducer on the suit close to the skin, so that it can be bent as much as possible. The inherent different nature of the transducers makes it difficult to use the same exact location for both sensors, since the rigidity of the P-876.A12 transducer makes it necessary to provide the user with a sustaining structure and a different placement as compared to the LDT4-028k transducer. This consideration makes it impossible to directly compare the power output of transducers, but since the focus of the work is on the applicability of the transducers in real-life conditions, the comparison between transducers needs to include the positioning choice, as well. In the P-876.A12 transducer diagram (Figure 5a), the power outputs for the elbow joint are higher than those obtained for the other joints. In the graph of the LDT4-028k transducer (Figure 5b), the highest power output values are those related to wrist, knee and hip joints. For both transducers, the values of the power output increase with the increase of R load to reach a maximum value, and Figure 4. Sample of the signal of the voltage output measured by using the LDT4-028k transducer placed on the elbow joint for the movement of flexion-extension. The calculated RMS value corresponds to 13.78 V, slightly less than the value that could have been obtained if Equation (6), for sinusoidal waves, had been applied (14.62 V). Three healthy male volunteers (age: 34 ˘ 5 years; body weight: 76 ˘ 4 kg; height: 175 ˘ 5 cm) were recruited to perform the joint movements listed in Table 2. Each joint movement was repeated five times, and the measuring time for each test was around ten seconds. Figure 5shows output RMS power values coming from the body joints for each value of the resistive load. Both transducers produce a signal output proportional to the folding movement and frequency of the performed test. To obtain the maximum value of the power output, the most important parameter is the proper positioning of the transducer on the suit close to the skin, so that it can be bent as much as possible. The inherent different nature of the transducers makes it difficult to use the same exact location for both sensors, since the rigidity of the P-876.A12 transducer makes it necessary to provide the user with a sustaining structure and a different placement as compared to the LDT4-028k transducer. This consideration makes it impossible to directly compare the power output of transducers, but since the focus of the work is on the applicability of the transducers in real-life conditions, the comparison between transducers needs to include the positioning choice, as well. In the P-876.A12 transducer diagram (Figure 5a), the power outputs for the elbow joint are higher than those obtained for the other joints. In the graph of the LDT4-028k transducer (Figure 5b), the highest power output values are those related to wrist, knee and hip joints. For both transducers, the values of the power output increase with the increase of R load to reach a maximum value, and then, they gradually decrease. Comparing the graphs in Figure 5a,b, the maximum values of the power output for P-876.A12 on the elbow (49.1 µ W), ankle (4.94 µ W), wrist (22.2 µ W) and neck (7.68 µ W) Sensors 2016,16, 524 8 of 15 joints are higher than those obtained by LDT4-028k on the same joints. Conversely, the maximum values of the power output for LDT4-028k on the shoulder (12.3 µ W), knee (15.9 µ W) and hip (15.0 µ W) joints are higher than those appearing for P-876.A12 placed on the same joints. Sensors 2016, 16, 524 8 of 15 then, they gradually decrease. Comparing the graphs in Figure 5a,b, the maximum values of the power output for P-876.A12 on the elbow (49.1 µW), ankle (4.94 µW), wrist (22.2 µW) and neck (7.68 µW) joints are higher than those obtained by LDT4-028k on the same joints. Conversely, the maximum values of the power output for LDT4-028k on the shoulder (12.3 µW), knee (15.9 µW) and hip (15.0 µW) joints are higher than those appearing for P-876.A12 placed on the same joints. (a) (b) Figure 5. The calculated mean values of the power output for each value of the load resistor. Error bars represent standard deviations. (a) P-876.A12; (b) LDT4-028k. 4.2. Measurements of the Power Output during Locomotion Activities Five common activities were chosen to test the two piezoelectric transducers. The common activities were walking, walking down and up the stairs, jogging and running, and the chosen joints for the tests were the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee and ankle. For each activity, voltages were measured and acquired by the NI USB-6210 DAQ, National Instruments, while current and power values, based on a fixed value of the resistive load, were calculated using MATLAB software. A voltage divider circuit was used as the input stage of the NI USB-6210 DAQ to avoid saturation given by the range Figure 5. The calculated mean values of the power output for each value of the load resistor. Error bars represent standard deviations. (a) P-876.A12; (b) LDT4-028k. 4.2. Measurements of the Power Output during Locomotion Activities Five common activities were chosen to test the two piezoelectric transducers. The common activities were walking, walking down and up the stairs, jogging and running, and the chosen joints for the tests were the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee and ankle. For each activity, voltages were measured and acquired by the NI USB-6210 DAQ, National Instruments, while current and power values, based on a fixed value of the resistive load, were calculated using MATLAB software. A voltage divider circuit was used as the input stage of the NI USB-6210 DAQ to avoid saturation given by the range Sensors 2016,16, 524 9 of 15 of voltage values at the input stage of the DAQ. The fixed values of the resistive load, based on the previous measurements (Figure 5), were carefully chosen for each joint, and they are shown in Table 6. These values were obtained through interpolation and approximation of the discrete values tested in the first experimentation. Table 6. The fixed values of the resistors for each joint. Joint Rload ÑP-876.A12 Rload ÑLDT4-028k Shoulder 2.000 MΩ8.880 MΩ Elbow 0.952 MΩ7.880 MΩ Hip 2.000 MΩ10.565 MΩ Knee 1.430 MΩ10.565 MΩ Ankle 0.952 MΩ7.080 MΩ The tests were repeated for each reported resistance value, and thus, the values of the power output were obtained in statistical terms as average values across multiple repetitions, to take into account the inherent variability of having different participant population samples repeating the mentioned activities. Three healthy male volunteers (age: 34 ˘ 5 year; body weight: 76 ˘ 4 kg; height: 175 ˘ 5 cm) were recruited to perform the activities listed in Table 3. Each task was repeated four times. The measuring time of walking and walking down and up the stairs was one minute for each test, while the measuring time of the jogging activity was twenty seconds and for the running activity eight seconds. Also for these tests, the inherent different nature of the transducers makes it difficult to use the same exact location for both sensors, since the rigidity of the P-876.A12 transducer makes it necessary to provide the user with a sustaining structure and a different placement as compared to the LDT4-028k transducer. Figure 6shows the measurements of the RMS power output values of the body joints, for each performed activity. Locomotion activities, such as walking and walking up stairs, produce the lowest values of the power output for both transducers, while running produces the highest values for both of them, followed by power output values of jogging and walking down stairs. As it can be clearly seen in Figure 6a, walking, walking up stairs and walking down stairs, for P-876.A12, led to very similar power output. Out of these three activities, the knee joint produces the highest values of power output (2.21 µ W) followed by the ankle (0.54 µ W), elbow (0.41 µ W), shoulder (0.31 µ W) and hip (0.20 µ W) joints. As for the jogging activity, the knee joint produces the highest value of power output (5.98 µ W) followed by the shoulder (2.24 µ W), ankle (1.45 µ W), elbow (0.60 µ W) and hip (0.31 µ W) joints. As for running, the knee joint produces the highest value of the power output (23.70 µ W) followed by hip (9.37 µ W), elbow (8.16 µ W), shoulder (3.12 µ W) and ankle (1.65 µ W) joints. Similar considerations apply to the LDT4-028k transducer (Figure 6b), though with lower absolute values. In all activities, except running and jogging, the knee joint produces the highest value of power output (1.90 µ W) followed by the hip (0.95 µ W), ankle (0.67 µ W), elbow (0.25 µ W) and shoulder (0.21 µ W) joints. As for jogging, the knee joint produces the highest value of power output (3.71 µ W) followed by the ankle (2.88 µ W), hip (2.43 µ W), elbow (1.86 µ W) and shoulder (4.46 µ W) joints. As for running, the knee joint produces the highest value of power output (8.83 µ W) followed by the shoulder (5.16 µW), ankle (5.13 µW), elbow (4.83 µW) and hip (4.46 µW) joints. Table 7breaks down the comparison between P-876.A12 (PZT) and LDT4-028k (PVDF) considering all the locomotion activities and all the joints, highlighting which transducer performed best for each activity and joint.