Hydrothermal carbonisation as treatment for effective moisture removal from digestate - Mechanical dewatering, flashing-off, and condensates’ processing

Ci a ion: Pawlak-K uczek, H.; U banowska, A.; Niedzwiecki, L.; Cze ep, M.; Ba anowski, M.; A agon- B iceño, C.; Kabsch-Ko bu owicz, M.; A o a, A.; Se uga, P.; Wnukowski, M.; e al. Hyd o he mal Ca bonisa ion as T ea men o E ec i e Mois u e Remo al om Diges a e—Mechanical Dewa e ing, Flashing-O , and Condensa es’ P ocessing. Ene gies 2023,16, 5102. h ps://doi.o g/ 10.3390/en16135102 Academic Edi o : Alok Kuma Pa el Recei ed: 2 May 2023 Re ised: 5 June 2023 Accep ed: 28 June 2023 Published: 1 July 2023 Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). ene gies B ie Repo Hyd o he mal Ca bonisa ion as T ea men o E ec i e Mois u e Remo al om Diges a e—Mechanical Dewa e ing, Flashing-O , and Condensa es’ P ocessing Halina Pawlak-K uczek 1,*, Agnieszka U banowska 2,* , Lukasz Niedzwiecki 1,3 , Michał Cze ep 1, Ma cin Ba anowski 1, Ch is ian A agon-B iceño 4,5 , Małgo za a Kabsch-Ko bu owicz 2, Ami A o a 6, P zemysław Se uga 7,8, Ma eusz Wnukowski 1, Jakub Mula ski 1, Eddy B ame 4, Ge i B em 4 and A u Po˙ za lik 4 1Depa men o Ene gy Con e sion Enginee ing, Facul y o Mechanical and Powe Enginee ing, W ocław Uni e si y o Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspia´nskiego 27, 50-370 W ocław, Poland; lukasz.niedzwiecki@pw .edu.pl (L.N.); michal.cze ep@pw .edu.pl (M.C.); ma cin.ba anowski@pw .edu.pl (M.B.); ma eusz.wnukowski@pw .edu.pl (M.W.); jakub.mula ski@pw .edu.pl (J.M.) 2Depa men o En i onmen P o ec ion Enginee ing, Facul y o En i onmen al Enginee ing, W ocław Uni e si y o Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspia´nskiego 27, 50-370 W ocław, Poland; malgo za a.kabsch-ko bu owicz@pw .edu.pl 3Ene gy Resea ch Cen e, Cen e o Ene gy and En i onmen al Technologies, VŠB—Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 17. Lis opadu 2172/15, 708 00 Os a a, Czech Republic 4Depa men o The mal and Fluid Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Twen e, D iene lolaan 5, 7522 NB Enschede, The Ne he lands; [email p o ec ed] (C.A.-B.); [email p o ec ed] (E.B.); [email p o ec ed] (G.B.); [email p o ec ed] (A.P.) 5Fundacion Ci ce, Pa que Emp esa ial Dinamiza, A da. Ranillas 3D, 1ª Plan a, 50018 Za agoza, Spain 6Depa men o Chemical Enginee ing, Shaheed Bhaga Singh S a e Uni e si y, Fe ozepu 152004, India; [email p o ec ed] o a [email p o ec ed] 7Zaklad Gospoda owania Odpadami Gac Sp. z o.o, Gac 90, 55-200 Olawa, Poland; p zemyslaw[email p o ec ed] 8Depa men o Biop ocess Enginee ing, W oclaw Uni e si y o Economics, Komando ska 118/120, 53-345 W oclaw, Poland *Co espondence: halina.pawlak@pw .edu.pl (H.P.-K.); agnieszka.u banowska@pw .edu.pl (A.U.) Abs ac : One o he p ocesses ha can se e o alo ise low-quali y biomass and o ganic was e is hyd o he mal ca boniza ion (HTC). I is a he mochemical p ocess ha anspi es in he p esence o wa e and uses hea o con e we eeds ocks in o hyd ocha ( he solid p oduc o hyd o he mal ca boniza ion). In he p esen expe imen al s udy, an imp o emen consis ing o an inc eased hyd ophobic cha ac e o HTC- ea ed biomass is demons a ed h ough he p esen a ion o enhanced mechanical dewa e ing a di e en p essu es due o HTC alo isa ion. As pa o his wo k’s scope, lashing-o o low-quali y s eam is addi ionally explo ed, allowing o he eco e y o he physical en halpy o ho hyd ocha slu y. The lashing-o apou s, apa om s eam, con ain condensable hyd oca bons. Acco dingly, a memb ane sys em ha pu i ies such e luen and he subsequen eco e y o chemical ene gy om he e en a e a e aken in o accoun . Mo eo e , he biome hane po en ial is calcula ed o he condensa es, p esen ing he possibili y o he chemical ene gy eco e y o he condensa es. Keywo ds: diges a e; hyd o he mal ca bonisa ion; nano il a ion; mechanical dewa e ing 1. In oduc ion Hyd o he mal ca bonisa ion (HTC) is p omising in e ms o he alo isa ion o a i- ous ypes o we biomass [ 1 – 3 ]. HTC is a he mal alo isa ion p ocess ha anspi es in subc i ical wa e a ele a ed empe a u es ( ypically 170 o 260 ◦ C) [ 4 – 6 ] wi h a esidence Ene gies 2023,16, 5102. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/en16135102 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ene gies Ene gies 2023,16, 5102 2 o 9 ime anging be ween 30 min o 2 h [ 7 – 11 ] and a an au ogenic p essu e, which is highe han he sa u a ion p essu e o wa e . Du ing he HTC p ocess, complex eac ion pa hways a e ca ied ou , wi h di e en eac ions p oceeding in pa allel, including hyd olysis, de- ca boxyla ion, and dehyd a ion as well as aldol condensa ion and polyme isa ion [ 12 , 13 ]. Dehyd a ion is impo an om he pe spec i e o he global p ocessing e iciency o ins al- la ions p ocessing we biomass, as i dec eases he numbe o hyd oxyl g oups (OH) in he p ocess [ 14 ]. F om a p ac ical pe spec i e, a loss o hyd oxyl g oups makes hyd ocha s mo e hyd ophobic bo h in e ms o dec eased equilib ium mois u e con en [ 15 ] and wi h espec o acili a ing mechanical dewa e ing [ 14 ]. Some o he ad an ages o e ed by he p ocess include he imp o ed g indabili y o he hyd ocha s [ 16 , 17 ], an enhancemen in pelle ising [ 16 ], an inc eased hea ing alue o he alo ised biomass [ 18 , 19 ], and imp o ed so p ion capaci y o some compounds [ 20 ], among o he s. A posi i e in luence ac oss he whole alue chain o we biomass has been shown using LCA [ 21 – 24 ]. The HTC p ocess p oduces liquid by-p oduc s, which con ain some chemical ene gy ha could be used o he p oduc ion o biogas [25–27]. Ahmed e al. [ 26 ] e alua ed he in luence o HTC p ocess condi ions on Capilla y Suc- ion Time (CST) and dewa e abili y wi h a cen i uge o sewage sludge samples ob ained om a was ewa e ea men plan in T en o, I aly. HTC a 190 ◦ C wi h a esidence ime o 30 min esul ed in he CST dec easing om 2.78 s/g/L o aw sewage sludge o 2.67 s/g/L o he HTC- ea ed ma e ial [ 26 ]. A u he inc ease in he HTC esidence ime esul ed in a signi ican dec ease in CST, i.e., HTC esidence imes o one, wo, and h ee hou s esul ed in CST alues as low as 0.38 s/g/L, 0.37 s/g/L, and 0.27 s/g/L, espec i ely [ 26 ]. This is in appa en con adic ion o he esul s epo ed by Wang e al. [ 28 ], who obse ed an inc ease in CST o hyd o he mally ea ed samples o sewage sludge om a was ewa e ea men plan in He ei, China, ea ed a empe a u es anging be ween 50 ◦ C and 170 ◦ C wi h a esidence ime o 30 min. Wang e al. [ 28 ] a ibu ed his o he disin eg a ion o locs caused by he he mal ea men . I seems plausible o suspec ha he ela i ely low empe a u e and esidence ime o he hyd o he mal ea men applied by Wang e al. [ 28 ] was enough o disin eg a e he locs bu no enough o dec ease he con en o oxygena ed unc ional g oups (i.e., OH g oups) o ming on he su ace o he hyd ocha s, which has a maximum a a ce ain hyd o he mal ea men empe a u e and hen dec eases wi h a u he empe - a u e inc ease, as epo ed by Jain e al. [ 29 ]. Gao e al. [ 30 ] epo ed he bene i s o he in si u mechanical dewa e ing o sewage sludge in an HTC eac o , esul ing in a educ ion o 27.7–59.6% o he mois u e con en , depending on he HTC se e i y. Wang e al. [ 31 ] also epo ed a dec ease in he mois u e con en o sewage sludge using in si u dewa e ing in an HTC eac o and demons a ed ha he dewa e ing pe o mance is signi ican ly be e in ho condi ions in compa ison o dewa e ing pe o med a e cooling he p oduc s o ambien empe a u e o HTC pe o med a 180 ◦ C wi h esidence imes anging be ween 10 and 90 min. A agon-B iceño e al. [ 32 ] demons a ed he posi i e in luence o HTC ea men on mechanical dewa e ing o he diges a e om he anae obic diges ion o he we ac ion o municipal solid was e ea ed a empe a u es anging om 180 ◦ C o 230 ◦ C wi h esidence imes o 30–120 min. Wilk e al. [ 33 ] ea ed e luen s a e he HTC o sewage sludge wi h acuum dis illa ion and demons a ed ha he chemical oxygen demand (COD) o he il a e dec eased 32- old du ing he p ocess. Cze wi´nska, ´ Sliz, and Wilk [ 34 ] epo ed ha dis illa ion a a mosphe ic p essu e caused a 95% dec ease in COD and o al o ganic ca bon (TOC). Cze wi´nska e al. [ 35 ] pe o med a double nano il a ion o e luen s a e HTC, achie ing an 84.5% dec ease in COD. Lisse h e al. [ 36 ] p oposed eco e ing hea by using lash apou s as he hea sou ce in an ins alla ion wi h HTC. Such a gene a ion o apou s would also en ail he emo al o mois u e om he hyd ocha s. This was e s eam, i.e., he condensa e ob ained in he dis illa ion p ocess, can be bo h a sou ce o wa e and aluable subs ances. Howe e , his equi es i s p ope p ocessing. To eco e wa e and high- alue subs ances, memb ane p essu e-d i en p ocesses can be used, among which nano il a ion seems o be he mos use ul me hod. Ene gies 2023,16, 5102 3 o 9 The aims o his wo k a e as ollows: • The op imisa ion o he dewa e ing p essu e o municipal solid was e diges a e a e HTC; • The de e mina ion o a possible means o pu i ying he condensa e wi h nano il a ion memb anes a e he condensing o apou s lashed o hea eco e y a e HTC; •The e alua ion o he biome hane po en ial o lashed apou s. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods Samples o he diges a e, p oduced using he o ganic ac ion o municipal solid was e, we e aken om a biogas plan loca ed a he p emises o ZGO Ga´c nea Oława in Lowe Silesia, Poland. The diag am o he expe imen al se up o hyd o he mal ca bonisa ion (Figu e 1) gi en below shows he au ocla e ig. The au ocla e was illed wi h 3.0 li es o we diges a e, which had solid con en o 30%. Mois u e con en was de e mined wi h Radwag MA.X2.A (Radom, Poland)a 105 ◦C. Ene gies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 10 p essu e-d i en p ocesses can be used, among which nano il a ion seems o be he mos use ul me hod. The aims o his wo k a e as ollows: • The op imisa ion o he dewa e ing p essu e o municipal solid was e diges a e a e HTC; • The de e mina ion o a possible means o pu i ying he condensa e wi h nano il a ion memb anes a e he condensing o apou s lashed o hea eco e y a e HTC; • The e alua ion o he biome hane po en ial o lashed apou s. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods Samples o he diges a e, p oduced using he o ganic ac ion o municipal solid was e, we e aken om a biogas plan loca ed a he p emises o ZGO Gać nea Oława in Lowe Silesia, Poland. The diag am o he expe imen al se up o hyd o he mal ca bonisa ion (Figu e 1) gi en below shows he au ocla e ig. The au ocla e was illed wi h 3.0 li es o we diges a e, which had solid con en o 30%. Mois u e con en was de e mined wi h Radwag MA.X2.A (Radom, Poland)a 105 °C. HTC empe a u e o 200 °C was chosen based on he ange be ween 200 °C and 260 °C [37,38] speci ied in he li e a u e and by aking in o accoun he design p e e ence in indus ial-scale HTC ins alla ions o a lowe ange o p essu e, which allows o compa ably lowe hickness o a eac o ’s walls. A e hea ing he biomass wi h a hea ing a e o 1.57 °C/min, he biomass was kep in he eac o o 120 min. Subsequen ly, he hea ing was hal ed, and he ig was allowed o cool o e nigh . Figu e 1. Diag am o he HTC ig (1— essel; 2— he mocouple; 3—PLC; 4—hea e s; 5—co on il e ; 6— il e ’s base; 7—e luen ; 8—sepa a ed hyd ocha ; 9—sa e y al e; 10—pu ge gas; 11— lashing- o al e; 12—labo a o y coole ). Flashing-o was pe o med, a e he sepa a ion o we hyd ocha s om liquid e luen , a a empe a u e o 110 °C. When his empe a u e had been achie ed in he au ocla e, he lashing-o al e was sligh ly opened, and apou s we e eleased in o an Allihn- ype glass coole wi h 1 m o e ec i e leng h and cooled wi h ap wa e . The opening o he al e was kep a a le el allowing o a su icien p essu e d op in o de o p e en he glass coole om sha e ing due o apou p essu e. Condensa e was collec ed o 2 h in o 5 con aine s, wi h each con aine being changed a e app ox. 25 min. Figu e 1. Diag am o he HTC ig (1— essel; 2— he mocouple; 3—PLC; 4—hea e s; 5—co on il e ; 6— il e ’s base; 7—e luen ; 8—sepa a ed hyd ocha ; 9—sa e y al e; 10—pu ge gas; 11— lashing-o al e; 12—labo a o y coole ). HTC empe a u e o 200 ◦ C was chosen based on he ange be ween 200 ◦ C and 260 ◦ C [ 37 , 38 ] speci ied in he li e a u e and by aking in o accoun he design p e e ence in indus ial-scale HTC ins alla ions o a lowe ange o p essu e, which allows o compa a- bly lowe hickness o a eac o ’s walls. A e hea ing he biomass wi h a hea ing a e o 1.57 ◦ C/min, he biomass was kep in he eac o o 120 min. Subsequen ly, he hea ing was hal ed, and he ig was allowed o cool o e nigh . Flashing-o was pe o med, a e he sepa a ion o we hyd ocha s om liquid e lu- en , a a empe a u e o 110 ◦ C. When his empe a u e had been achie ed in he au ocla e, he lashing-o al e was sligh ly opened, and apou s we e eleased in o an Allihn- ype glass coole wi h 1 m o e ec i e leng h and cooled wi h ap wa e . The opening o he al e was kep a a le el allowing o a su icien p essu e d op in o de o p e en he glass coole om sha e ing due o apou p essu e. Condensa e was collec ed o 2 h in o 5 con aine s, wi h each con aine being changed a e app ox. 25 min. Cha ac e isa ion o each condensa e was ca ied ou acco ding o he S anda d Me hods o he Examina ion o Wa e and Was ewa e , 23 d Edi ion. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD 5 ), Dissol ed O ganic Ca bon (DOC), pH, conduc i i y, d y mass, alkaline me al con en (Na + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , and K + ), phospho us con en ( o al P and PO4 3− ), ni ogen con en ( o al ni ogen, NO 3− , and NH 4+ ), sulpha e con en (SO 32− ), and halogen con en Ene gies 2023,16, 5102 4 o 9 (Cl − , B − , and F − ) we e de e mined. The cha ac e is ics o he es solu ions (K0–K4) a e p esen ed in Table 1. Table 1. P ope ies o he es solu ions o condensa e. Pa ame e Tes Solu ion K0 K1 K2 K3 K4 pH 8.12 10.46 10.88 9.98 9.61 conduc i i y, mS/cm 32.8 8.23 5.74 1.841 1.042 d y mass, mg/dm327,050 790 850 680 570 COD, mg O2/dm330,940 2670 2130 1410 840 BOD5, mg O2/dm36200 484 448 464 460 DOC, mg C/dm37970 1250 940 660 370 N-NH4+, mg/dm33026 2364 2396 327 218 N-NO3−, mg/dm30 0 0 17.6 18 N, mg/dm33280 2880 2640 389 261 Na+, mg/dm32300 1720 1290 630 460 K+, mg/dm32150 1580 1030 550 390 Mg2+, mg/dm3285 41 11.8 10.3 10.9 Ca2+, mg/dm3440 95.2 22.1 20.8 21.3 F−, mg/dm382.5 8.14 2.83 11 11.3 Cl−, mg/dm35965 35 50.2 14.6 14.1 B −, mg/dm314.6 1.14 1.14 0.25 1.24 P-PO43−, mg/dm330.3 5.52 2.54 2.87 3 SO42−, mg/dm31240 83.3 45 35.8 35.4 P, mg/dm331.8 6.2 5.3 5.6 4.9 T ea men o indi idual condensa es was ca ied ou using NPO10P and NPO30P la nano il a ion memb anes om Mann + Hummel Wa e & Fluid Solu ions (Ludwigsbu g, Ge many). Thei cha ac e is ics a e shown in Table 2. Table 2. NF memb anes used in he expe imen s [39]. Memb ane Type Memb ane Ma e ial Na2SO4 Re en ion MWCO, kDa Con ac Angle Max Temp., ◦CpH Range E ec i e Fil a ion Su ace, cm2 NP010P polye he sul one 25–40% 1040–1400 62.5◦95 0–14 45.3 NP030P 80–95% 520–700 The memb anes we e condi ioned be o e he ac ual memb ane il a ion p ocess by il e ing he edis illed wa e h ough he memb anes successi ely unde di e en ans- memb ane p essu es om 0.1 o 0.4 MPa un il cons an wa e lux alues we e ob ained. A e each expe imen , he memb anes we e cleaned (chemically egene a ed) wi h 0.1 mol/dm 3 o NaOH solu ion (A an o Pe o mance Ma e ials Poland S.A., Gliwice, Poland) and insed wi h edis illed wa e un il he ini ial alues o pe mea e lux we e ob ained. The nano il a ion p ocess was ca ied ou on a es s and equipped wi h an Amicon 8400 cell p oduced by Millipo e (Figu e 2). This cell allows o a dead-end il a ion p ocess and is designed o wo k wi h la shee memb anes. The olume o he Amicon 8400 cell is 400 cm 3 , and he memb ane diame e is 76 mm. The cell was placed on an ARE magne ic s i e p oduced by OMC En ag (Wa saw, Poland) so ha he con aminan concen a ion was uni o m h oughou he solu ion olume. The ansmemb ane p essu e used in his s udy was 0.3 MPa. Ene gies 2023,16, 5102 5 o 9 Ene gies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 10 concen a ion was uni o m h oughou he solu ion olume. The ansmemb ane p essu e used in his s udy was 0.3 MPa. Figu e 2. Amicon 8400 dead-end memb ane sys em (1— il a ion cell, 2—memb ane, 3—s i e , 4— p essu ized ni ogen cylinde , and 5—p essu e al e). The sepa a ion e iciency was e alua ed by de e mining he concen a ion o impu- i ies in he ea ed solu ion and in he pu i ied solu ion and by de e mining he alue o he educ ion ac o ( emo al/ e en ion), R, using he ollowing o mula: R = (1 – c/c) ∙ 100,% (1) whe e: cp—concen a ion o impu i ies in he ea ed solu ion, g/m3; c0—ini ial concen a ion o impu i ies in he condensa e, g/m3. Equa ion (2) p esen s he o mula used o he calcula ion o he heo e ical bio- me hane po en ial (BMP) in he condensa es. BMP =0.39∙𝐶𝑂𝐷∙   ∙ 0.9,dm dm   (2) To assess he heo e ical BMP o he condensa es, he s ochiome ic Fo mula (3) o me hane oxida ion was used. This o mula allows o he calcula ion o he po en ial amoun o me hane p oduced based on he COD balance o a sample [40]. The COD con e sion o me hane a 35 °C is 0.39 dm3 o CH4 pe g am o COD. Fu - he mo e, a second co ec ion ac o was applied o ende he p edic ion mo e accu a e. The i s co ec ion ac o was he DOC- o-COD a io, which was used since he COD e- e s o all he o ganics and ino ganics ha can be oxidized, while he DOC only e e s o he o ganic ca bon compounds ha can po en ially be con e ed in o me hane. The sec- ond co ec ion ac o was he biodeg adabili y o HTC p ocess wa e , which was 90%. This ac o was based on a compa ison o he eal BMP epo ed in p e ious s udies e sus he heo e ical BMP alue om he no mal con e sion o he s ochiome ic o mula [25,41]. CH+2O→ CO+2HO (3) 3. Resul s The ob ained esul s (Table 3) show ha HTC esul ed in a educ ion in he mois u e con en o he diges a e, as mois u e con en alues o he dewa e ed hyd ocha s we e much lowe in compa ison o he mois u e con en o he aw diges a e (75.7%w.b.) and he diges a e a e dewa e ing a 3 MPa (65.3%). Fu he mo e, he inc ease in dewa e ing p es- su e allowed o a u he educ ion in he mois u e con en , which allowed achie ing 37.1% mois u e con en a e dewa e ing a a p essu e o 10 MPa. Figu e 2. Amicon 8400 dead-end memb ane sys em (1— il a ion cell, 2—memb ane, 3—s i e , 4—p essu ized ni ogen cylinde , and 5—p essu e al e). The sepa a ion e iciency was e alua ed by de e mining he concen a ion o impu i ies in he ea ed solu ion and in he pu i ied solu ion and by de e mining he alue o he educ ion ac o ( emo al/ e en ion), R, using he ollowing o mula: R=1–cp/c0·100, % (1) whe e: cp—concen a ion o impu i ies in he ea ed solu ion, g/m3; c0—ini ial concen a ion o impu i ies in he condensa e, g/m3. Equa ion (2) p esen s he o mula used o he calcula ion o he heo e ical biome hane po en ial (BMP) in he condensa es. BMPTh =0.39·COD·DOC COD ·0.9, dm3 CH4 . dm3 liquid (2) To assess he heo e ical BMP o he condensa es, he s ochiome ic Fo mula (3) o me hane oxida ion was used. This o mula allows o he calcula ion o he po en ial amoun o me hane p oduced based on he COD balance o a sample [40]. The COD con e sion o me hane a 35 ◦ C is 0.39 dm 3 o CH 4 pe g am o COD. Fu he mo e, a second co ec ion ac o was applied o ende he p edic ion mo e accu a e. The i s co ec ion ac o was he DOC- o-COD a io, which was used since he COD e e s o all he o ganics and ino ganics ha can be oxidized, while he DOC only e e s o he o ganic ca bon compounds ha can po en ially be con e ed in o me hane. The second co ec ion ac o was he biodeg adabili y o HTC p ocess wa e , which was 90%. This ac o was based on a compa ison o he eal BMP epo ed in p e ious s udies e sus he heo e ical BMP alue om he no mal con e sion o he s ochiome ic o mula [25,41]. CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O (3) 3. Resul s The ob ained esul s (Table 3) show ha HTC esul ed in a educ ion in he mois u e con en o he diges a e, as mois u e con en alues o he dewa e ed hyd ocha s we e much lowe in compa ison o he mois u e con en o he aw diges a e (75.7% w.b. ) and he diges a e a e dewa e ing a 3 MPa (65.3%). Fu he mo e, he inc ease in dewa e ing p essu e allowed o a u he educ ion in he mois u e con en , which allowed achie ing 37.1% mois u e con en a e dewa e ing a a p essu e o 10 MPa. Ene gies 2023,16, 5102 6 o 9 Table 3. Mois u e con en o hyd ocha s a e dewa e ing a di e en p essu es (w.b.—we basis). Sample pdewa e ing, MPa Mois u e Con en , %w.b. Raw diges a e - 75.7 Dewa e ed diges a e 3 65.3 Dewa e ed hyd ocha s 3 45.4 5 42.9 7 41.4 10 37.1 The esul s o he es s o de e mining he sui abili y o nano il a ion memb anes o he pu i ica ion o condensa es ob ained in he dis illa ion p ocess o he liquid ac ion o municipal pos -HTC diges a e a e p esen ed in Figu e 3. The e ec o he memb ane cu -o (MWCO) alue on he sepa a ion e iciency o he o ganic compounds om he analysed solu ions was analysed. Upon compa ing he esul s ob ained, i can be seen ha bo h o he es ed nano il a ion memb anes can be applied in he ea men o condensa es, al hough a de e io a ion in he quali y o he pe mea e was obse ed as he cu -o alue inc eased. In he nano il a ion p ocess, he sepa a ion e ec o o ganic mac omolecules is de e mined by he sie e mechanism as well as he solu ion–di usion mechanism and elec os a ic in e ac ions be ween he memb ane and he solu ion componen s. Pu i ica ion wi h he NPO10P memb ane allowed o he acquisi ion o he e en ion coe icien s o biological oxygen demand (BOD 5 ), COD, and DOC a le els o up o 62, 47, and 50% and, o he NPO30P memb ane, 73, 61, and 82%, espec i ely. The be e sepa a ion p ope ies o he NPO30P memb ane may be due o i s dense s uc u e. Acco ding o Ko acs e al. [ 42 ], he cu -o alue o he NPO10P memb ane is highe and is in he ange o 1010–1400 Da (wi h a po e diame e o 0.80–1.29 nm), while ha o he NPO30P memb ane is 500–700 Da (wi h a po e diame e o 0.57–0.93 nm). Ene gies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 10 Table 3. Mois u e con en o hyd ocha s a e dewa e ing a di e en p essu es (w.b.—we basis). Sample p dewa e ing , MPa Mois u e Con en , % w.b. Raw diges a e - 75.7 Dewa e ed diges a e 3 65.3 Dewa e ed hyd ocha s 3 45.4 5 42.9 7 41.4 10 37.1 The esul s o he es s o de e mining he sui abili y o nano il a ion memb anes o he pu i ica ion o condensa es ob ained in he dis illa ion p ocess o he liquid ac ion o municipal pos -HTC diges a e a e p esen ed in Figu e 3. The e ec o he memb ane cu -o (MWCO) alue on he sepa a ion e iciency o he o ganic compounds om he analysed solu ions was analysed. Upon compa ing he esul s ob ained, i can be seen ha bo h o he es ed nano il a ion memb anes can be applied in he ea men o conden- sa es, al hough a de e io a ion in he quali y o he pe mea e was obse ed as he cu -o alue inc eased. In he nano il a ion p ocess, he sepa a ion e ec o o ganic mac omol- ecules is de e mined by he sie e mechanism as well as he solu ion–di usion mechanism and elec os a ic in e ac ions be ween he memb ane and he solu ion componen s. Pu i- ica ion wi h he NPO10P memb ane allowed o he acquisi ion o he e en ion coe i- cien s o biological oxygen demand (BOD 5 ), COD, and DOC a le els o up o 62, 47, and 50% and, o he NPO30P memb ane, 73, 61, and 82%, espec i ely. The be e sepa a ion p ope ies o he NPO30P memb ane may be due o i s dense s uc u e. Acco ding o Ko- acs e al. [42], he cu -o alue o he NPO10P memb ane is highe and is in he ange o 1010–1400 Da (wi h a po e diame e o 0.80–1.29 nm), while ha o he NPO30P mem- b ane is 500–700 Da (wi h a po e diame e o 0.57–0.93 nm). Figu e 3. E ec o nano il a ion memb ane ype, i.e., (a) NPO10P and (b) NPO30P, on he e iciency o he sepa a ion o o ganic pollu an s om condensa es ob ained om he liquid ac ion o mu- nicipal pos -HTC diges a e (Δp = 0.3 MPa). Upon analysing he esul s ob ained o he indi idual condensa es, i was ound ha ega dless o he ype o nano il a ion memb ane, he e en ion coe icien s o BOD 5 , COD, and DOC emained a a ela i ely cons an le el, which may mean ha he du a ion o he dis illa ion p ocess had no signi ican e ec on he e iciency o o ganic compound emo al om he analysed liquids. In his s udy, he po en ial o me hane p oduc ion om he e en a e h ough cas- cade memb ane il a ion was conside ed o a mo e ci cula app oach. This app oach has been adop ed in some s udies ha ha e used he e en a es om he memb ane il a ion o was ewa e o anae obic diges ion o p oduce biogas. Luo e al. [43] sugges ed his Figu e 3. E ec o nano il a ion memb ane ype, i.e., ( a ) NPO10P and ( b ) NPO30P, on he e iciency o he sepa a ion o o ganic pollu an s om condensa es ob ained om he liquid ac ion o municipal pos -HTC diges a e (∆p = 0.3 MPa). Upon analysing he esul s ob ained o he indi idual condensa es, i was ound ha ega dless o he ype o nano il a ion memb ane, he e en ion coe icien s o BOD 5 , COD, and DOC emained a a ela i ely cons an le el, which may mean ha he du a ion o he dis illa ion p ocess had no signi ican e ec on he e iciency o o ganic compound emo al om he analysed liquids. In his s udy, he po en ial o me hane p oduc ion om he e en a e h ough cascade memb ane il a ion was conside ed o a mo e ci cula app oach. This app oach has been adop ed in some s udies ha ha e used he e en a es om he memb ane il a ion o was ewa e o anae obic diges ion o p oduce biogas. Luo e al. [ 43 ] sugges ed his app oach in hei s udy, whe e hey applied an ul a il a ion/nano il a ion sys em in a Ene gies 2023,16, 5102 7 o 9 dai y was ewa e model. They did no conduc expe imen al wo k bu highligh ed his app oach none heless, as he e en a e om memb ane il a ion sys em con ained a high concen a ion o o ganics. Chen e al. [ 44 ] in eg a ed isoelec ic p ecipi a ion, nano il a- ion, and anae obic diges ion in o a cascade, using a model dai y was ewa e . The aim o he s udy was o inc ease he p oduc ion o biogas ( ocused on hyd ogen) h ough concen a ing he sho chain o ganics in he e en a e and, a he same ime, educe he ouling o he memb ane. The esul was an inc ease in hyd ogen in he biogas om 32.4% o 58.8%. Campell e al. [ 45 ] used HTC-p ocessed wa e om spen co ee g ounds and applied nano il a ion and e e se osmosis o ea he p ocess wa e and educe i s COD. Bo h e en a es we e mixed and subjec ed o anae obic diges ion, ob aining yields o 0.21 dm 3 /g COD . Howe e , one o he main poin s o conside is ha he e en a es can con ain high concen a ions o me als and nu ien s (phospho us and ni ogen) ha can inhibi he anae obic diges ion p ocess [46]. Table 4shows he biome hane po en ial o he i e di e en e en a es. The i s sample o condensa e (K0) p esen ed he highes and mos signi ican BMP alue compa ed wi h hose o he subsequen samples, which g adually dec eased. Howe e , an al e na i e app oach should be conside ed since nano il a ion has shown signi ican COD educ ion po en ial. The e o e, i migh be bene icial o pe o m he anae obic diges ion o he e en a es emaining a e memb ane pu i ica ion. Table 4. Biome hane po en ial (BMP) o subsequen ly aken condensa e samples. Pa ame e Tes Solu ion K0K1K2K3K4 BMP, dm3CH4/dm3liquid 2.80 0.44 0.33 0.23 0.13 4. Conclusions This esea ch shows ha i is bene icial o inc ease he dewa e ing p essu e in he dewa e ing o hyd ocha s a e hyd o he mal ca bonisa ion. Howe e , echnical di icul ies ela ed o inc eased p oblems wi h he s eng h o he ma e ials used in he cons uc ion o dewa e ing p esses should also be conside ed when selec ing dewa e ing pa ame e s. Flashing-o a sha e o he liquid by-p oduc s seems o be a easible way o eco e he sensible hea o hyd ocha s a e he HTC p ocess. In his s udy, he condensa es had some biome hane po en ial, which could be u ilized o u he imp o e he ene gy balance o such ins alla ions. The nano il a ion memb anes, which we e made o polye he sul- one, demons a ed good COD emo al a es, p o ing hei sui abili y o he pu i ica ion o condensa es o igina ing om lashed apou s. O e all, he exis ing possibili ies o he pu i ica ion o condensa es make lashing-o a iable dewa e ing op ion. We ecom- mend ha u he esea ch is conduc ed on he combina ion o no el in si u dewa e ing me hods p esen ed in he li e a u e wi h he use o lashing as a hea eco e y op ion in HTC ins alla ions. Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualisa ion: H.P.-K., A.U. and L.N.; me hodology: A.U., C.A.-B. and L.N.; alida ion: M.K.-K., A.A. and P.S.; o mal analysis: A.U., C.A.-B., L.N. and M.W.; in es iga ion: A.U., M.C., M.B. and M.W.; esou ces: H.P.-K., M.K.-K., E.B. and G.B.; da a cu a ion: P.S., M.W., J.M. and A.A.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion: A.U., L.N. and C.A.-B.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing: L.N., H.P.-K., M.K.-K., E.B., G.B. and A.P.; isualisa ion: J.M. and P.S; supe ision: H.P.-K., M.K.-K., E.B., G.B. and A.P.; p ojec adminis a ion: H.P.-K., A.P. and P.S.; unding acquisi ion: H.P.-K., A.P., E.B., G.B., P.S. and A.U. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: The au ho s would like o hank he Eu opean Commission, he Na ional Cen e o Resea ch and De elopmen (Poland), Nede landse O ganisa ie Voo We enschappelijk Onde zoek (Ne he lands), and he Swedish Resea ch Council Fo mas o p o iding unding h ough he ame- wo k o he collabo a i e in e na ional conso ium (RECOWATDIG) inanced unde he 2018 Join call o he Wa e Wo ks 2017 ERA-NET Co und. This ERA-NET is an in eg al pa o he ac i i ies Ene gies 2023,16, 5102 8 o 9 de eloped by he Wa e JPI. Na ional Cen e o Resea ch and De elopmen ag eemen numbe WATERWORKS2017/I/RECOWATDIG/01/2019. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a a e a ailable on eques . Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . The unde s had no ole in he design o he s udy; in he collec ion, analyses, o in e p e a ion o da a; in he w i ing o he manusc ip ; o in he decision o publish he esul s. Re e ences 1. A agón-B iceño, C.I.; Ross, A.B.; Cama go-Vale o, M.A. Mass and ene gy in eg a ion s udy o hyd o he mal ca boniza ion wi h anae obic diges ion o sewage sludge. Renew. Ene gy 2021,167, 473–483. [C ossRe ] 2. Shi, W.; Fen on, O.; Ashekuzzaman, S.M.; Daly, K.; Leahy, J.J.; Khala , N.; Hu, Y.; Chojnacka, K.; Num iyimana, C.; Healy, M.G. An examina ion o maximum legal applica ion a es o dai y p ocessing and associa ed STRUBIAS e ilising p oduc s in ag icul u e. J. En i on. Manag. 2022,301, 113880. [C ossRe ] 3. Num iyimana, C.; Wa choł, J.; Khala , N.; Leahy, J.J.; Chojnacka, K. Phospho us eco e y as s u i e om hyd o he mal ca boniza ion liquo o chemically p oduced dai y sludge by ex ac ion and p ecipi a ion. J. En i on. Chem. Eng. 2022 ,10, 106947. [C ossRe ] 4. ´ Sliz, M.; Wilk, M. A comp ehensi e in es iga ion o hyd o he mal ca boniza ion: Ene gy po en ial o hyd ocha de i ed om Vi ginia mallow. Renew. Ene gy 2020,156, 942–950. [C ossRe ] 5. Wilk, M.; Magdzia z, A.; Kalemba-Rec, I.; Szyma´nska-Cha go , M. Upg ading o g een was e in o ca bon- ich solid bio uel by hyd o he mal ca boniza ion: The e ec o p ocess pa ame e s on hyd ocha de i ed om acacia. Ene gy 2020 ,202, 117717. [C ossRe ] 6. Magdzia z, A.; Wilk, M.; W ˛ad zyk, M. Py olysis o hyd ocha de i ed om biomass—Expe imen al in es iga ion. Fuel 2020 ,267, 117246. [C ossRe ] 7. Kuma , N.; Weldon, R.; Lynam, J.G. Hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o co ee sil e skins. Bioca al. Ag ic. Bio echnol. 2021 ,36, 102145. [C ossRe ] 8. Sobek, S.; T an, Q.-K.; Junga, R.; We le, S. Hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o he was e s aw: A s udy o he biomass ansien hea ing beha io and solid p oduc s combus ion kine ics. Fuel 2021,314, 122725. [C ossRe ] 9. Lühmann, T.; Wi h, B. Sewage Sludge Valo iza ion ia Hyd o he mal Ca boniza ion: Op imizing Dewa e abili y and Phospho us Release. Ene gies 2020,13, 4417. [C ossRe ] 10. Román, S.; Lib a, J.; Be ge, N.; Sabio, E.; Ro, K.; Li, L.; Ledesma, B.; Ál a ez, A.; Bae, S. Hyd o he mal ca boniza ion: Modeling, inal p ope ies design and applica ions: A e iew. Ene gies 2018,11, 216. [C ossRe ] 11. Smi h, A.M.; Ekpo, U.; Ross, A.B. The in luence o pH on he combus ion p ope ies o bio-coal ollowing hyd o he mal ea men o swine manu e. Ene gies 2020,13, 331. [C ossRe ] 12. Djandja, O.S.; Yin, L.-X.; Wang, Z.-C.; Duan, P.-G. F om was ewa e ea men o esou ces eco e y h ough hyd o he mal ea men s o municipal sewage sludge: A c i ical e iew. P ocess Sa . En i on. P o . 2021,151, 101–127. [C ossRe ] 13. Picone, A.; Volpe, M.; Messineo, A. P ocess Wa e Reci cula ion du ing Hyd o he mal Ca boniza ion o Was e Biomass: Cu en Knowledge and Challenges. Ene gies 2021,14, 2962. [C ossRe ] 14. Funke, A.; Ziegle , F. Hyd o he mal ca bonisa ion o biomass: A summa y and discussion o chemical mechanisms o p ocess enginee ing. Bio uels Biop od. Bio e ining 2010,4, 160–177. [C ossRe ] 15. Acha jee, T.C.; Co onella, C.J.; Vasquez, V.R. E ec o he mal p e ea men on equilib ium mois u e con en o lignocellulosic biomass. Bio esou . Technol. 2011,102, 4849–4854. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 16. Sha ma, H.B.; Panig ahi, S.; Dubey, B.K. Hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o ya d was e o solid bio- uel p oduc ion: S udy on combus ion kine ic, ene gy p ope ies, g indabili y and lowabili y o hyd ocha . Was e Manag. 2019,91, 108–119. [C ossRe ] 17. Kambo, H.S.; Du a, A. Compa a i e e alua ion o o e ac ion and hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o lignocellulosic biomass o he p oduc ion o solid bio uel. Ene gy Con e s. Manag. 2015,105, 746–755. [C ossRe ] 18. Cze wi´nska, K.; ´ Sliz, M.; Wilk, M. Hyd o he mal ca boniza ion p ocess: Fundamen als, main pa ame e cha ac e is ics and possible applica ions including an e ec i e me hod o SARS-CoV-2 mi iga ion in sewage sludge. A e iew. Renew. Sus ain. Ene gy Re . 2022,154, 111873. [C ossRe ] 19. Mlonka-M˛ed ala, A.; Sie adzka, M.; Magdzia z, A. The mal upg ading o hyd ocha om anae obic diges ion o municipal solid was e o ganic ac ion. Fuel 2022,324, 124435. [C ossRe ] 20. Mok zycki, J.; Lo enc-G abowska, E.; Ko dek-Khalil, K.; Ru kowski, P. Hyd o he mal and py oly ic biocha s om was e milk his le (Silybum ma ianum) ex uda es as p ecu so s o p oduc ion o e ec i e isop o u on adso ben s. J. Wa e P ocess Eng. 2020,37, 101459. [C ossRe ] 21. Maye , F.; Bhanda i, R.; Gä h, S.A. Li e cycle assessmen on he ea men o o ganic was e s eams by anae obic diges ion, hyd o he mal ca boniza ion and incine a ion. Was e Manag. 2021,130, 93–106. [C ossRe ] 22. S obe nack, N.; Maye , F.; Malek, C.; Bhanda i, R. E alua ion o he ene ge ic and en i onmen al po en ial o he hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o biowas e: Modeling o he en i e p ocess chain. Bio esou . Technol. 2020,318, 124038. [C ossRe ] Ene gies 2023,16, 5102 9 o 9 23. Medina-Ma os, E.; Is a e, I.R.; Villamil, J.A.; Gál ez-Ma os, J.L.; Du ou , J.; Mohedano, Á.F. Techno-economic and li e cycle assessmen o an in eg a ed hyd o he mal ca boniza ion sys em o sewage sludge. J. Clean. P od. 2020, 277. [C ossRe ] 24. Mendecka, B.; Lomba di, L.; Micali, F.; de Risi, A. Ene gy Reco e y om Oli e Pomace by Hyd o he mal Ca boniza ion on Hypo he ical Indus ial Scale: A LCA Pe spec i e. Was e Biomass Valo iza ion 2020,11, 5503–5519. [C ossRe ] 25. A agón-B iceño, C.; Ross, A.B.B.; Cama go-Vale o, M.A.A. E alua ion and compa ison o p oduc yields and bio-me hane po en ial in sewage diges a e ollowing hyd o he mal ea men . Appl. Ene gy 2017,208, 1357–1369. [C ossRe ] 26. Ahmed, M.; And eo ola, G.; Elag oudy, S.; Negm, M.S.; Fio i, L. Coupling hyd o he mal ca boniza ion and anae obic diges ion o sewage diges a e managemen : In luence o hyd o he mal ea men ime on dewa e abili y and bio-me hane p oduc ion. J. En i on. Manag. 2021,281, 111910. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 27. Cao, Z.; Hülsemann, B.; Wüs , D.; Oechsne , H.; Lau enbach, A.; K use, A. E ec o esidence ime du ing hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o biogas diges a e on he combus ion cha ac e is ics o hyd ocha and he biogas p oduc ion o p ocess wa e . Bio esou . Technol. 2021,333, 125110. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 28. Wang, L.-F.; Qian, C.; Jiang, J.-K.; Ye, X.-D.; Yu, H.-Q. Response o ex acellula polyme ic subs ances o he mal ea men in sludge dewa e ing p ocess. En i on. Pollu . 2017,231, 1388–1392. [C ossRe ] 29. Jain, A.; Balasub amanian, R.; S ini asan, M.P. Hyd o he mal con e sion o biomass was e o ac i a ed ca bon wi h high po osi y: A e iew. Chem. Eng. J. 2016,283, 789–805. [C ossRe ] 30. Gao, N.; Li, Z.; Quan, C.; Miskolczi, N.; Egedy, A. A new me hod combining hyd o he mal ca boniza ion and mechanical comp ession in-si u o sewage sludge dewa e ing: Bench-scale e i ica ion. J. Anal. Appl. Py olysis 2019 ,139, 187–195. [C ossRe ] 31. Wang, L.; Zhang, L.; Li, A. Hyd o he mal ea men coupled wi h mechanical exp ession a inc eased empe a u e o excess sludge dewa e ing: In luence o ope a ing condi ions and he p ocess ene ge ics. Wa e Res. 2014 ,65, 85–97. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 32. A agon-B iceño, C.; Po˙ za lik, A.; B ame , E.; B em, G.; Wang, S.; Wen, Y.; Yang, W.; Pawlak-K uczek, H.; Nied´zwiecki, Ł.; U banowska, A.; e al. In eg a ion o hyd o he mal ca boniza ion ea men o wa e and ene gy eco e y om o ganic ac ion o municipal solid was e diges a e. Renew. Ene gy 2022,184, 577–591. [C ossRe ] 33. Wilk, M.; Cze wi´nska, K.; ´ Sliz, M.; Imbie owicz, M. Hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o sewage sludge: Hyd ocha p ope ies and p ocessing wa e ea men by dis illa ion and we oxida ion. Ene gy Rep. 2023,9, 39–58. [C ossRe ] 34. Cze wi´nska, K.; ´ Sliz, M.; Wilk, M. The mal Disposal o Pos -p ocessing Wa e De i ed om he Hyd o he mal Ca boniza ion P ocess o Sewage Sludge. Was e Biomass Valo iza ion 2023, 1–10. [C ossRe ] 35. Cze wi´nska, K.; Ma szałek, A.; Kudlek, E.; ´ Sliz, M.; Dudziak, M.; Wilk, M. The ea men o pos -p ocessing liquid om he hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o sewage sludge. Sci. To al En i on. 2023,885, 163858. [C ossRe ] 36. Lisse h, C.; Ma inez, M.; Se myagina, E.; Saa i, J.; Sil a, M.; Jesus, D.; Ca doso, M.; de Almeida, G.M.; Vakkilainen, E. Biomass and Bioene gy Hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o lignocellulosic ag o- o es based biomass esidues. Biomass Bioene gy 2021 ,147, 106004. [C ossRe ] 37. Wnukowski, M.; Owcza ek, P.; Nied´zwiecki, Ł. We To e ac ion o Miscan hus—Cha ac e iza ion o Hyd ocha s in View o Handling, S o age and Combus ion P ope ies. J. Ecol. Eng. 2015,16, 161–167. [C ossRe ] 38. Yan, W.; Has ings, J.T.; Acha jee, T.C.; Co onella, C.J.; Vásquez, V.R. Mass and ene gy balances o we o e ac ion o lignocellulosic biomass. Ene gy Fuels 2010,24, 4738–4742. [C ossRe ] 39. MICRODYN-NADIR. Fla Shee Memb ane Da a Shee s—MICRODYN-NADIR n.d. A ailable online: h ps://www.mic odyn- nadi .com/ la -shee -memb ane-da a-shee s/ (accessed on 15 Feb ua y 2021). 40. Taube , J.; Pa a icini, V.; S a dal, K.; K ampe, J. Quan i ying me hane emissions om anae obic diges e s. Wa e Sci. Technol. 2019,80, 1654–1661. [C ossRe ] 41. A agón-B iceño, C.I.; G asham, O.; Ross, A.B.; Dupon , V.; Cama go-Vale o, M.A. Hyd o he mal ca boniza ion o sewage diges a e a was ewa e ea men wo ks: In luence o solid loading on cha ac e is ics o hyd ocha , p ocess wa e and plan ene ge ics. Renew. Ene gy 2020,157, 959–973. [C ossRe ] 42. Ko acs, Z.; Samhabe , W. Cha ac e iza ion o nano il a ion memb anes wi h uncha ged solu es. Memb an echnika 2008 ,12, 22–36. 43. Luo, J.; Ding, L.; Qi, B.; Ja in, M.Y.; Wan, Y. A wo-s age ul a il a ion and nano il a ion p ocess o ecycling dai y was ewa e . Bio esou . Technol. 2011,102, 7437–7442. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 44. Chen, Z.; Luo, J.; Chen, X.; Hang, X.; Shen, F.; Wan, Y. Fully ecycling dai y was ewa e by an in eg a ed isoelec ic p ecipi a ion– nano il a ion–anae obic e men a ion p ocess. Chem. Eng. J. 2016,283, 476–485. [C ossRe ] 45. Campbell, B.S.; Tho pe, R.B.; Peus, D.; Lee, J. Anae obic diges ion o un ea ed and ea ed p ocess wa e om he hyd o he mal ca bonisa ion o spen co ee g ounds. Chemosphe e 2022,293, 133529. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 46. Zacha o , M.-P.; Mandale, S.J.; Oa ley-Radcli e, D.; Lo i , R.W. Nu ien eco e y and ac iona ion o anae obic diges e e luen s employing pilo scale memb ane echnology. J. Wa e P ocess Eng. 2019,31, 100846. [C ossRe ] Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .