Analysis of thermomechanical properties and the influence of machining process on the surface structure of composites manufactured from metal chips with a polymer matrix
Abstract
Nowadays, the dynamic development of the entire market of composite materials is noticeable, which is very often associated with the need to use waste or recycled materials in their production. In the process of producing composites themselves, the easy possibility of shaping their mechanical and thermomechanical properties becomes apparent, which can be a big problem for materials with a homogeneous structure. For the tests, samples made of a combination of acrylic-phenolic resin with fine aluminum and brass chips were used. The tests were performed for composite samples produced by pressing. This paper presents the results of the DMTA method of the conservative modulus and the tangent of mechanical loss angle of the composite, a detailed stereometric analysis of the surface after machining, roughness parameters and volumetric functional parameters were performed. For the tested samples, changes in the values of the conservative modulus and the mechanical loss coefficient were recorded, which indicated significant differences for the composite with brass chips in relation to composites with aluminum chips. In the case of the composite with aluminum chips, slight changes in the conservative modulus were recorded in the glass transition phase and the elastic deformation phase at different frequencies. In contrast, for composites with brass, slight changes were recorded in the entire range of the course of the conservative module as a function of temperature when different excitation frequencies were applied. In relation to the polymer matrix, a significant increase in the value of the conservative modulus of composites was recorded in the entire temperature range of the test. Significant differences were recorded in the study of the surface of composites in the case of using different materials obtained after machining as fillers. The dependences of the amplitude parameters of the surface after machining the sample made of phenolic-acrylic resin prove the poor performance properties of the surface. The use of chips in the composite significantly changed the surface geometry.
Full text
Ci a ion: Gna owski, A.; Goł˛ebski, R.;
Pe u, J.; Pagac, M. Analysis o
The momechanical P ope ies and
he In luence o Machining P ocess
on he Su ace S uc u e o
Composi es Manu ac u ed om
Me al Chips wi h a Polyme Ma ix.
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/polym14173501
Academic Edi o : Swee Leong Sing
Recei ed: 24 July 2022
Accep ed: 24 Augus 2022
Published: 26 Augus 2022
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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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polyme s
A icle
Analysis o The momechanical P ope ies and he In luence o
Machining P ocess on he Su ace S uc u e o Composi es
Manu ac u ed om Me al Chips wi h a Polyme Ma ix
Adam Gna owski 1,*, Ra ał Goł˛ebski 1,* , Jana Pe u 2and Ma ek Pagac 2
1Depa men o Technology and Au oma ion, Czes ochowa Uni e si y o Technology,
42-200 Czes ochowa, Poland
2Depa men o Machining, Assembly and Enginee ing Me ology, Technical Uni e si y o Os a a,
70800 Os a a, Czech Republic
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (A.G.); [email p o ec ed] (R.G.)
Abs ac :
Nowadays, he dynamic de elopmen o he en i e ma ke o composi e ma e ials is
no iceable, which is e y o en associa ed wi h he need o use was e o ecycled ma e ials in hei
p oduc ion. In he p ocess o p oducing composi es hemsel es, he easy possibili y o shaping
hei mechanical and he momechanical p ope ies becomes appa en , which can be a big p oblem
o ma e ials wi h a homogeneous s uc u e. Fo he es s, samples made o a combina ion o
ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h ine aluminum and b ass chips we e used. The es s we e pe o med
o composi e samples p oduced by p essing. This pape p esen s he esul s o he DMTA me hod
o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o mechanical loss angle o he composi e, a de ailed
s e eome ic analysis o he su ace a e machining, oughness pa ame e s and olume ic unc ional
pa ame e s we e pe o med. Fo he es ed samples, changes in he alues o he conse a i e
modulus and he mechanical loss coe icien we e eco ded, which indica ed signi ican di e ences
o he composi e wi h b ass chips in ela ion o composi es wi h aluminum chips. In he case o
he composi e wi h aluminum chips, sligh changes in he conse a i e modulus we e eco ded in
he glass ansi ion phase and he elas ic de o ma ion phase a di e en equencies. In con as ,
o composi es wi h b ass, sligh changes we e eco ded in he en i e ange o he cou se o he
conse a i e module as a unc ion o empe a u e when di e en exci a ion equencies we e applied.
In ela ion o he polyme ma ix, a signi ican inc ease in he alue o he conse a i e modulus o
composi es was eco ded in he en i e empe a u e ange o he es . Signi ican di e ences we e
eco ded in he s udy o he su ace o composi es in he case o using di e en ma e ials ob ained a e
machining as ille s. The dependences o he ampli ude pa ame e s o he su ace a e machining
he sample made o phenolic–ac ylic esin p o e he poo pe o mance p ope ies o he su ace. The
use o chips in he composi e signi ican ly changed he su ace geome y.
Keywo ds:
polyme composi es; me allic ille ; machining; DMTA es ing; oughness; su ace
in eg i y pa ame e s
1. In oduc ion
Polyme -based composi es ein o ced wi h me allic pa icles a e inc easingly used in
mode n cons uc ions, displacing adi ional ma e ials in a ious indus ies. The ma ix o
composi e ma e ials can be me als, ce amics and plas ics. The unc ion o he ma ix is o
keep he ein o cing phase in a speci ic place in he ma e ial s uc u e and o coun e ac
de o ma ion unde he in luence o loads, ans e ing he s esses o he componen s o he
ein o cing phase. The selec ion o an app op ia e me al ille o polyme modi ica ion
causes changes in i s speci ic mechanical [
1
] and he mal [
2
] p ope ies o a educ ion in
he p ice o a gi en p oduc wi h simila p ope ies [
3
]. In ecen yea s, he e has been
a s eady inc ease in ma e ial ecycling, which consis s o he p ocessing o unsui able
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/polym14173501 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/polyme s
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 2 o 16
elemen s in o aw ma e ials ha could be eused in he p oduc ion o new end p oduc s
wi h simila mechanical p ope ies as polyme ic ma e ials wi h high he momechanical
pa ame e s [
4
]. Ma e ials om machining p ocesses, i.e., pos -p oduc ion me al chips,
which ha e no been p ocessed so a , a e also ields o in e es [
5
]. Depending on he
selec ed ype o me al ein o cemen , we can heo e ically p edic he p ope ies o a gi en
composi e. Me al–polyme composi es combine a o able p ope ies such as elec ical
and he mal conduc i i y wi h a lowe densi y han pu e me al [
6
]. In he case o using
aluminum powde as a ille o he polyme in he es s p esen ed in [
7
], an inc ease in he
s eng h pa ame e s o he es ed ma e ials was ob ained. The wo k [
8
] p esen s he esul s
o esea ch and analysis o he elec ical, mechanical and he mal p ope ies o poly inyl
chlo ide (PVC) composi es illed wi h a ious con en s o aluminum powde in he ange
om 0 o 40% by weigh , indica ing he a o able p ope ies o he p oduced composi e,
including inc easing he he mal s abili y o composi e samples wi h an inc ease in he
con en o aluminum ille . Sehajpal e al. [
9
] p esen ed es s o poly (me hyl me hac y-
la e) wi h a ille con aining sil e , aluminum and coppe pa icles, inc easing he mal
conduc i i y and s eng h pa ame e s, espec i ely. Bhagyasheka e al. [
10
] ca ied ou
es s on a composi e consis ing o me allic and non-me allic ille s. The esul s o es s
ca ied ou on composi es con aining h ee di e en ille s, in he o m o pa icles, me allic
ma e ials (Cu and Al), ce amic (SiC) and g ease (G ), showed ha he p ope ies changed
wi h inc easing ille con en . The ha dness o he composi es inc eased wi h he inc ease
in he ille con en , excep o he composi es wi h a G illing, which showed he opposi e
endency. The wo ks o many o he au ho s ake in o accoun bo h he issues ela ed o
he p oduc ion me hod and heo e ical desc ip ions o he modi ica ion o he polyme
ma e ial wi h ille s. In he wo k o Akh a e al. [
11
], hyb id ille s—alumina g aphene
(G -Al
2
O
3
)—we e syn hesized and added o he epoxy ma ix in o de o imp o e he
he mal p ope ies o he composi e. Abdulka eem e al. [
12
] p esen ed he e ec o he
con en o me al ille and pa icle size on he ha dness and ensile s eng h o polys y ene
composi es. In he wo k [
13
], polyp opylene (PP) composi es illed wi h aluminum wi h
a ious shapes o ille pa icles and con en s anging om 0% o 55% by olume we e
in es iga ed. The in luence o loads and he shape o he ille pa icles on he p ope ies o
he composi es was iden i ied. Nu az eena e al. [
14
] in es iga ed he elec ical p ope ies
and ensile s eng h o composi es o med by adhibi ion me al powde s such as aluminum
(Al), coppe (Cu) and i on (Fe) in o a high-densi y polye hylene (HDPE) ma ix. Simila
s udies we e conduc ed by Lo y e al. [
15
] and Ta man e al. [
16
]. The wo k [
17
] conce ns
he p epa a ion and cha ac e iza ion o composi e ma e ials p oduced by comp ession
molding o a mix u e o aluminum lakes and nylon 6 powde . Elec ical conduc i i y,
densi y, ha dness and mo phology o he composi es we e in es iga ed, ob aining a o able
p ope ies o he composi es. O he s udies wi h an aluminum ille we e conduc ed by
Sch icke e al. [
18
]. The joining zone o semi-c ys alline polyamide 6 wi h aluminum was
in es iga ed in he lase joining p ocess and he mechanical p ope ies o he join we e
assessed. The mechanical p ope ies we e es ed up o cohesi e ailu e. Fu he mo e, he
mechanical p ope ies we e co ela ed wi h he esul s o ha dness, mo phology, di e -
en ial scanning calo ime y (DSC) and X- ay di ac ion (XRD) esul s. The p ope ies o
elec o-con ac -sin e ed me al–polyme composi e ma e ials we e analyzed in he wo k o
Ko un e al. [
19
]. Bloo e al. [
20
] in es iga ed me al–polyme composi es con aining a
ille dispe sed in an insula ing polyme ma ix, p epa ed by mixing componen s a high
speed. Das u e and Kelka [
21
] in es iga ed he mechanical, s uc u al and mo phological
p ope ies o a low-densi y polye hylene (LDPE) composi e wi h an aluminum ille . In
con as , esea ch on he use o me al–polyme composi es wi h a me al ille in he o m
o b ass was ca ied ou by Eddoumy e al. [
22
]. To analyze he bene i s o adding b ass,
he ic ion and wea we e in es iga ed, as well as he he momechanical p ope ies o
he b ass- illed ma e ial. The pape [
23
] p esen s an al e na i e me hod o he classical
mel ing p ocess, esembling he powde me allu gy p ocess, in he ecycling o me al chips
mass-p oduced as a esul o machining. The in luence o he deg ee o ein o cemen on he
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 3 o 16
mechanical p ope ies and mic os uc u e o he composi e ma e ial was in es iga ed and
he ob ained composi e ma e ials we e compa ed wi h he indus ial b ass alloy. Adding
a ille o o ming a polyme blend educes he cos o p oducing a gi en p oduc . Using
known manu ac u ing echniques, a ious composi es can be p oduced depending on he
con en and ype o ille used. The modi ica ion o polyme s signi ican ly in luences he
ea men p ocess [24].
The sub ac i e p ocessing o composi e ma e ials is o g ea impo ance in he p oduc-
ion p ocess o componen s ha a e subjec o high quali y equi emen s, wi h pa icula
emphasis on dimensional ole ances. Due o he andom s uc u e o he ma e ial, machin-
abili y es s o composi es using a ious ools and machining s a egies a e inc easingly
being ca ied ou . This was poin ed ou by Usca e al. [
25
] by conduc ing his ype o
esea ch and de e mining he op imal composi ion o he composi e in o de o imp o e he
machinabili y ac o s in he applied machining p ocess. Ve y o en, he p oduced composi e
ma e ials coope a e wi h each o he , unde going ibological wea [
26
]; he e o e, o a
be e quali y o componen s, he pa ame e s o he inishing p ocess a e o g ea impo -
ance, and he e y assessmen o ibological cha ac e is ics in he es ing p ocesses o
composi es is inc easingly impo an . Con en ional machining p ocesses, such as u ning,
d illing o milling, can be applied o composi e ma e ials, p o ided ha he app op ia e
ool design, wo king condi ions and cu ing pa ame e s a e adop ed. Due o he aniso opic
and he e ogeneous s uc u e o composi es, he p ocessing o composi es becomes mo e
and mo e demanding. The p ocessing o he e ogeneous ma e ials (o di e en ha dness)
causes hei une en cu ing— he ma ix ma e ial beha es di e en ly du ing p ocessing—o
illing [
27
]. Depending on he adop ed cu ing pa ame e s and he composi e s uc u e, he
ene gy consump ion o he p ocess may a y conside ably. An a icle by Usca e al. [
28
]
p oposed a e y accu a e comp ehensi e app oach o assess he ene gy consump ion o
he p ocess in he con ex o he machinabili y c i e ia o he es ed composi es. Me al
ma ix composi es pose a much g ea e challenge o he p ocessing p ocess compa ed o
composi es wi h a me al ille . The he e ogenic s uc u e o such ma e ial e y o en leads
o damage o he cu ing ool du ing machining, which is a consequence o he p esence
o ela i ely ha de pa icles in he ma e ial [
29
], which consequen ly leads o an inc ease
in su ace oughness and loss o s abili y o he unc ional pa ame e s o he su ace a e
machining. The e o e, in his wo k i seems jus i ied o unde ake a esea ch ask o e alua e
he p oduced composi e wi h a me allic ille .
This pape p esen s esea ch on he p oduc ion o a polyme ma ix composi e wi h
me allic ille s. In quan i a i e e ms, he aim o he s udy was o de e mine he scope o he
impac o modi ica ion by adding a ille o he ma e ial on he quali y pa ame e s o he
p ocessed elemen s, samples p oduced om composi es based on me al chips. This wo k
will also include an analysis o he impac o modi ying he he momechanical p ope ies
o he polyme ma ix h ough he use o a ille on he imp o emen o he machinabili y
o he polyme ma e ial, and, consequen ly, he quali a i e assessmen o he imp o emen
o he su ace laye condi ion, aking in o accoun se e al pa ame e s such as: su ace
oughness, olume ic unc ional pa ame e s and analysis o su ace s e eome y.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
The es s we e ca ied ou o samples made o a combina ion o Dialok 939P ac ylic–
phenolic esin (Bi ez L d, B adley Lane, S andish, UK) wi h ine aluminum (2017A alu-
minum) and b ass (B ass CuZn37Pb0.5) chips wi h a ac ion o 0.6–0.75 mm in he amoun
o 95% by weigh . A hyd aulic p ess (Vibe -Sys em, Go zow Wielkopolski, Poland) wi h a
p essing o ce o 75 ons was used o p epa e he samples. The 80
×
80
×
25 mm samples
we e o med in he p ess mold unde a compac ion p essu e o 61.3 MPa. The plas iciza ion
empe a u e was 95
◦
C and he c oss-linking empe a u e was 180
◦
C, wi h a ime o 15 min.
Figu e 1shows a s and o manu ac u ing samples by p essing. The mold wi h a diame e
o 110 mm was hea ed o he nominal ope a ing empe a u e using a 2.4 kW band hea e .
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 4 o 16
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 17
The mold wi h a diame e o 110 mm was hea ed o he nominal ope a ing empe a u e
using a 2.4 kW band hea e .
Figu e 1. S and o manu ac u ing composi e samples.
In o de o compa e he es esul s o composi es o he polyme ma ix, samples
we e also made o pu e esin; in he p oduc ion p ocess, he same p ocessing pa ame e s
we e used as in he samples wi h he addi ion o ille s. The mal analysis o dynamic me-
chanical p ope ies—DMTA—was ca ied ou in acco dance wi h he s anda d [30] wi h
he NETSCH DMA 242 C de ice (Ne zsch G oup, Selb, Ge many) a a empe a u e o 70
o 300 °C, hea ing a a a e o 2 °C/min and a equencies o 1 Hz and 10 Hz. The dimen-
sions o he samples we e 50 × 10 × 4 mm. Based on he alues o o ce and de o ma ion
( ead by measu ing senso s—Ne zsch P o en Excellence, Selb, Ge many), aking in o ac-
coun he dimensions o he sample, he alue o he conse a i e modulus E’ and he
angen o he mechanical loss angle gδ we e calcula ed [31,32]. The esul s a e p esen ed
in he o m o a g aph o changes in he conse a i e modulus E’ and he angen o he
mechanical loss angle gδ as a unc ion o empe a u e. Figu e 2 shows he DMTA es
s and wi h a h ee-poin bending holde placed wi hou ixing he sample. The dynamic
mechanical– he mal analysis used in he esea ch is one o he me hods ha allow he
es ima ion o he changes occu ing in he ma e ial du ing bending in a wide ange o
empe a u e and equency o load changes. The knowledge o he cou se o hese changes
allows he es ablishmen o he ela ionship be ween he molecula pa ame e s and he
mechanical p ope ies o ma e ials [32].
Figu e 2. Resea ch s and Ne sch DMA 242 C.
Figu e 1. S and o manu ac u ing composi e samples.
In o de o compa e he es esul s o composi es o he polyme ma ix, samples
we e also made o pu e esin; in he p oduc ion p ocess, he same p ocessing pa ame e s
we e used as in he samples wi h he addi ion o ille s. The mal analysis o dynamic
mechanical p ope ies—DMTA—was ca ied ou in acco dance wi h he s anda d [
30
] wi h
he NETSCH DMA 242 C de ice (Ne zsch G oup, Selb, Ge many) a a empe a u e o 70 o
300
◦
C, hea ing a a a e o 2
◦
C/min and a equencies o 1 Hz and 10 Hz. The dimensions
o he samples we e 50
×
10
×
4 mm. Based on he alues o o ce and de o ma ion ( ead
by measu ing senso s—Ne zsch P o en Excellence, Selb, Ge many), aking in o accoun
he dimensions o he sample, he alue o he conse a i e modulus E’ and he angen o
he mechanical loss angle g
δ
we e calcula ed [
31
,
32
]. The esul s a e p esen ed in he o m
o a g aph o changes in he conse a i e modulus E’ and he angen o he mechanical loss
angle g
δ
as a unc ion o empe a u e. Figu e 2shows he DMTA es s and wi h a h ee-
poin bending holde placed wi hou ixing he sample. The dynamic mechanical– he mal
analysis used in he esea ch is one o he me hods ha allow he es ima ion o he changes
occu ing in he ma e ial du ing bending in a wide ange o empe a u e and equency
o load changes. The knowledge o he cou se o hese changes allows he es ablishmen
o he ela ionship be ween he molecula pa ame e s and he mechanical p ope ies o
ma e ials [32].
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 17
The mold wi h a diame e o 110 mm was hea ed o he nominal ope a ing empe a u e
using a 2.4 kW band hea e .
Figu e 1. S and o manu ac u ing composi e samples.
In o de o compa e he es esul s o composi es o he polyme ma ix, samples
we e also made o pu e esin; in he p oduc ion p ocess, he same p ocessing pa ame e s
we e used as in he samples wi h he addi ion o ille s. The mal analysis o dynamic me-
chanical p ope ies—DMTA—was ca ied ou in acco dance wi h he s anda d [30] wi h
he NETSCH DMA 242 C de ice (Ne zsch G oup, Selb, Ge many) a a empe a u e o 70
o 300 °C, hea ing a a a e o 2 °C/min and a equencies o 1 Hz and 10 Hz. The dimen-
sions o he samples we e 50 × 10 × 4 mm. Based on he alues o o ce and de o ma ion
( ead by measu ing senso s—Ne zsch P o en Excellence, Selb, Ge many), aking in o ac-
coun he dimensions o he sample, he alue o he conse a i e modulus E’ and he
angen o he mechanical loss angle gδ we e calcula ed [31,32]. The esul s a e p esen ed
in he o m o a g aph o changes in he conse a i e modulus E’ and he angen o he
mechanical loss angle gδ as a unc ion o empe a u e. Figu e 2 shows he DMTA es
s and wi h a h ee-poin bending holde placed wi hou ixing he sample. The dynamic
mechanical– he mal analysis used in he esea ch is one o he me hods ha allow he
es ima ion o he changes occu ing in he ma e ial du ing bending in a wide ange o
empe a u e and equency o load changes. The knowledge o he cou se o hese changes
allows he es ablishmen o he ela ionship be ween he molecula pa ame e s and he
mechanical p ope ies o ma e ials [32].
Figu e 2. Resea ch s and Ne sch DMA 242 C.
Figu e 2. Resea ch s and Ne sch DMA 242 C.
Mac oscopic ( isual) examina ion o he su ace was ca ied ou using a Keyence VHX
7000 (Keyence L d, Mil on Keynes, U.K) con ocal mic oscope (see Figu e 3), which uses
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 5 o 16
whi e ligh and lase ligh . I scans he su ace o a gi en ma e ial, collec ing in o ma ion
abou he oughness and shape o he su ace, and c ea es an op ical image. The mea-
su emen p ocess akes place wi hou con ac wi h an accu acy o nanome e s. The high
imaging esolu ion allowed o he p ecise measu emen o su ace quali y and analysis
in e ms o measu ing de ec s, mic oc acks and po osi y. The s udy o he su ace mac o-
scopic s uc u e o composi es using a Keyence VHX 7000 digi al mic oscope (Keyence L d,
Mil on Keynes, UK) was ca ied ou on samples o ac ylic–phenolic esin, ac ylic–phenolic
esin wi h aluminum chip ille and b ass ille . The su aces o he samples, p oduced by
p essing a e he machining p ocess, we e obse ed. All es s we e p eceded by de ice
calib a ion in o de o imp o e he quali y o esul s. The use o mac oscopic imaging made
i possible o app ecia e he uni o mi y o he illing dis ibu ion on he machined su ace.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 17
Mac oscopic ( isual) examina ion o he su ace was ca ied ou using a Keyence
VHX 7000 (Keyence L d, Mil on Keynes, U.K) con ocal mic oscope (see Figu e 3), which
uses whi e ligh and lase ligh . I scans he su ace o a gi en ma e ial, collec ing in o -
ma ion abou he oughness and shape o he su ace, and c ea es an op ical image. The
measu emen p ocess akes place wi hou con ac wi h an accu acy o nanome e s. The
high imaging esolu ion allowed o he p ecise measu emen o su ace quali y and anal-
ysis in e ms o measu ing de ec s, mic oc acks and po osi y. The s udy o he su ace
mac oscopic s uc u e o composi es using a Keyence VHX 7000 digi al mic oscope
(Keyence L d, Mil on Keynes, UK) was ca ied ou on samples o ac ylic–phenolic esin,
ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h aluminum chip ille and b ass ille . The su aces o he sam-
ples, p oduced by p essing a e he machining p ocess, we e obse ed. All es s we e
p eceded by de ice calib a ion in o de o imp o e he quali y o esul s. The use o mac-
oscopic imaging made i possible o app ecia e he uni o mi y o he illing dis ibu ion
on he machined su ace.
Figu e 3. Keyence VHX 7000 con ocal mic oscope.
Composi e Machining P ocess
The samples p oduced by p essing we e subjec ed o machining in o de o assess
hei machinabili y and he condi ion o he su ace a e p ocessing. Machining ma e ials
wi h a he e ogeneous s uc u e is a big challenge o machining. The main di icul ies
when p ocessing composi e ma e ials a e unsa is ac o y su ace quali y and di icul ies
ela ed o he co ec selec ion o ools and pa ame e s. Du ing machining, i is possible o
damage he su aces, as issues ypical o he machining o he e ogeneous ma e ials exis
ha a e no p esen when machining me al and non-me al ma e ials. The p ocessing was
pe o med on a DMG MORI CMX50U (DMG MORI, Famo Pleszew, Poland) nume ically
con olled milling machine. The machined ma e ials, composi e blank pla es, we e ixed
in a ice dedica ed o mul i-axis machining using claw jaws—see Figu e 4a). When moun -
ing, pa icula a en ion was paid o he clamping o ce o he jaws, which did no exceed
20 kN, in o de o educe he occu ence o in e nal s esses in he ma e ial du ing p o-
cessing. A solid ca bide milling cu e (GARANT—Ho man G oup, Munich
Ge many) wi h a diame e o 16 mm wi h unequal spacing helix angle 50 deg (Figu e 4b)
wi h i e blades was used o machining. The ool [33] wi h DLC (diamond like ca bon)
coa ing is used o machining b ass, aluminum and also polyme ma e ials (ma e ials gi -
ing sho o long chipping du ing machining). P ocessing pa ame e s we e adop ed: eed
Figu e 3. Keyence VHX 7000 con ocal mic oscope.
Composi e Machining P ocess
The samples p oduced by p essing we e subjec ed o machining in o de o assess
hei machinabili y and he condi ion o he su ace a e p ocessing. Machining ma e ials
wi h a he e ogeneous s uc u e is a big challenge o machining. The main di icul ies
when p ocessing composi e ma e ials a e unsa is ac o y su ace quali y and di icul ies
ela ed o he co ec selec ion o ools and pa ame e s. Du ing machining, i is possible o
damage he su aces, as issues ypical o he machining o he e ogeneous ma e ials exis
ha a e no p esen when machining me al and non-me al ma e ials. The p ocessing was
pe o med on a DMG MORI CMX50U (DMG MORI, Famo Pleszew, Poland) nume ically
con olled milling machine. The machined ma e ials, composi e blank pla es, we e ixed in
a ice dedica ed o mul i-axis machining using claw jaws—see Figu e 4a). When moun ing,
pa icula a en ion was paid o he clamping o ce o he jaws, which did no exceed 20 kN,
in o de o educe he occu ence o in e nal s esses in he ma e ial du ing p ocessing.
A solid ca bide milling cu e (GARANT—Ho man G oup, Munich Ge many) wi h a
diame e o 16 mm wi h unequal spacing helix angle 50 deg (Figu e 4b) wi h i e blades
was used o machining. The ool [
33
] wi h DLC (diamond like ca bon) coa ing is used o
machining b ass, aluminum and also polyme ma e ials (ma e ials gi ing sho o long
chipping du ing machining). P ocessing pa ame e s we e adop ed: eed a e pe oo h
z = 0.05 mm/ oo h, cu ing speed Vc = 550 m/min, cu ing dep h ap = 25 mm, cu ing
con ac wid h ae = 1 mm.
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 6 o 16
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 17
a e pe oo h z = 0.05 mm/ oo h, cu ing speed Vc = 550 m/min, cu ing dep h ap = 25
mm, cu ing con ac wid h ae = 1 mm.
Figu e 4. Composi e p ocessing, (a) sample moun ing, (b) pa ame e s o he ool used in he p ocess.
Tool shank acco ding o DIN 6535 HA wi h h5 ole ance. A ool holde was used,
made in acco dance wi h ISO 7388-1, ype ER32 SK40 A100, main aining a o a ional ac-
cu acy o ≤ 3 µm and balancing accu acy o G 2.5 a a o a ional speed o 25,000 min−1.
3. Tes Resul s and Analysis
Figu es 5–7 show he esul s o he esea ch on he dependence o he conse a i e
modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle on he empe a u e o he ac ylic–
phenolic esin and he composi e o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h aluminum chips and
ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h b ass chips.
Figu e 5. The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he esin empe a u e: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a a equency o 10Hz—2, 4.
Figu e 4.
Composi e p ocessing, (
a
) sample moun ing, (
b
) pa ame e s o he ool used in he p ocess.
Tool shank acco ding o DIN 6535 HA wi h h5 ole ance. A ool holde was used, made
in acco dance wi h ISO 7388-1, ype ER32 SK40 A100, main aining a o a ional accu acy o
≤3µm and balancing accu acy o G 2.5 a a o a ional speed o 25,000 min−1.
3. Tes Resul s and Analysis
Figu es 5–7show he esul s o he esea ch on he dependence o he conse a i e
modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle on he empe a u e o he ac ylic–
phenolic esin and he composi e o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h aluminum chips and
ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h b ass chips.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 17
a e pe oo h z = 0.05 mm/ oo h, cu ing speed Vc = 550 m/min, cu ing dep h ap = 25
mm, cu ing con ac wid h ae = 1 mm.
Figu e 4. Composi e p ocessing, (a) sample moun ing, (b) pa ame e s o he ool used in he p ocess.
Tool shank acco ding o DIN 6535 HA wi h h5 ole ance. A ool holde was used,
made in acco dance wi h ISO 7388-1, ype ER32 SK40 A100, main aining a o a ional ac-
cu acy o ≤ 3 µm and balancing accu acy o G 2.5 a a o a ional speed o 25,000 min−1.
3. Tes Resul s and Analysis
Figu es 5–7 show he esul s o he esea ch on he dependence o he conse a i e
modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle on he empe a u e o he ac ylic–
phenolic esin and he composi e o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h aluminum chips and
ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h b ass chips.
Figu e 5. The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he esin empe a u e: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a a equency o 10Hz—2, 4.
Figu e 5.
The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he esin empe a u e: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a a equency o 10Hz—2, 4.
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 7 o 16
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 17
Figu e 6. The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he empe a u e o he composi e o esin wi h aluminum chips: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a
a equency o 10 Hz—2, 4.
Figu e 7. The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he empe a u e o he esin composi e wi h b ass chips: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a a e-
quency o 10 Hz—2, 4.
The p esen ed esea ch shows ha adding aluminum o b ass chips as a ille allows
he ob ainmen o composi es wi h sa is ac o y he momechanical p ope ies. Fo he
es ed samples, i was no ed ha he alues o he conse a i e modulus o he illed ma-
e ials inc eased. In he case o composi es wi h b ass ille , signi ican changes we e ec-
o ded in he en i e ange o he cu e. The analysis o he eco ded alues o he conse a-
i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle shows signi ican di e ences
o he composi e wi h b ass chips compa ed o he composi es wi h aluminum chips. In
he case o he composi e wi h aluminum chips, changes in he conse a i e modulus
we e eco ded in he glass ansi ion phase and he elas ic de o ma ion phase a di e en
equencies. In con as , o composi es wi h b ass, changes we e eco ded in he en i e
ange o he cou se o he conse a i e modulus as a unc ion o empe a u e wi h he use
Figu e 6.
The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he empe a u e o he composi e o esin wi h aluminum chips: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a a
equency o 10 Hz—2, 4.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 17
Figu e 6. The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he empe a u e o he composi e o esin wi h aluminum chips: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a
a equency o 10 Hz—2, 4.
Figu e 7. The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he empe a u e o he esin composi e wi h b ass chips: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a a e-
quency o 10 Hz—2, 4.
The p esen ed esea ch shows ha adding aluminum o b ass chips as a ille allows
he ob ainmen o composi es wi h sa is ac o y he momechanical p ope ies. Fo he
es ed samples, i was no ed ha he alues o he conse a i e modulus o he illed ma-
e ials inc eased. In he case o composi es wi h b ass ille , signi ican changes we e ec-
o ded in he en i e ange o he cu e. The analysis o he eco ded alues o he conse a-
i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle shows signi ican di e ences
o he composi e wi h b ass chips compa ed o he composi es wi h aluminum chips. In
he case o he composi e wi h aluminum chips, changes in he conse a i e modulus
we e eco ded in he glass ansi ion phase and he elas ic de o ma ion phase a di e en
equencies. In con as , o composi es wi h b ass, changes we e eco ded in he en i e
ange o he cou se o he conse a i e modulus as a unc ion o empe a u e wi h he use
Figu e 7.
The dependence o he conse a i e modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle
on he empe a u e o he esin composi e wi h b ass chips: a a equency o 1 Hz—1, 3; a a equency
o 10 Hz—2, 4.
The p esen ed esea ch shows ha adding aluminum o b ass chips as a ille allows
he ob ainmen o composi es wi h sa is ac o y he momechanical p ope ies. Fo he es ed
samples, i was no ed ha he alues o he conse a i e modulus o he illed ma e ials
inc eased. In he case o composi es wi h b ass ille , signi ican changes we e eco ded
in he en i e ange o he cu e. The analysis o he eco ded alues o he conse a i e
modulus and he angen o he mechanical loss angle shows signi ican di e ences o
he composi e wi h b ass chips compa ed o he composi es wi h aluminum chips. In
he case o he composi e wi h aluminum chips, changes in he conse a i e modulus
we e eco ded in he glass ansi ion phase and he elas ic de o ma ion phase a di e en
equencies. In con as , o composi es wi h b ass, changes we e eco ded in he en i e
ange o he cou se o he conse a i e modulus as a unc ion o empe a u e wi h he use
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 8 o 16
o di e en equencies. Fo he sample wi h aluminum chips and he addi ion o 5% esin
in he glass ansi ion phase, he alues o he conse a i e modulus we e lowe by app ox.
10,000
÷
12,000 MPa compa ed o he composi e wi h b ass chips. In he ield o high-elas ic
de o ma ions, an inc ease in he alue o he conse a i e modulus o composi es wi h
b ass chips was eco ded simila ly, while i was abou hal lowe han in he glass ansi ion
phase, whe eas he high-elas ic de o ma ion phase shi ed owa ds highe empe a u e
alues. Changes in he alue o he angen o he mechanical loss angle and i s maximum
may indica e he s i ness o he ma e ial and p ope ies such as ha dness and oughness,
which a ec he machining p ocess. The maximum alue o he angen o he mechanical
loss angle was eco ded o he ac ylic–phenolic esin a he empe a u e o 151.5
◦
C a he
equency o 1 Hz, and o he ma e ial wi h he addi ion o aluminum chips, o 108
◦
C, an
inc ease in he maximum alue was eco ded. In he case o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h he
addi ion o b ass chips, he maximum alue o he angen o he mechanical loss angle
was shi ed owa ds a much highe empe a u e o 241.5
◦
C. The mac oscopic image o he
ea ed su aces o he es specimens made on he Keyence mic oscope a 50
×
and 100
×
magni ica ion is shown in Figu es 8–10.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 17
o di e en equencies. Fo he sample wi h aluminum chips and he addi ion o 5% esin
in he glass ansi ion phase, he alues o he conse a i e modulus we e lowe by ap-
p ox. 10,000÷12,000 MPa compa ed o he composi e wi h b ass chips. In he ield o high-
elas ic de o ma ions, an inc ease in he alue o he conse a i e modulus o composi es
wi h b ass chips was eco ded simila ly, while i was abou hal lowe han in he glass
ansi ion phase, whe eas he high-elas ic de o ma ion phase shi ed owa ds highe em-
pe a u e alues. Changes in he alue o he angen o he mechanical loss angle and i s
maximum may indica e he s i ness o he ma e ial and p ope ies such as ha dness and
oughness, which a ec he machining p ocess. The maximum alue o he angen o he
mechanical loss angle was eco ded o he ac ylic–phenolic esin a he empe a u e o
151.5 °C a he equency o 1 Hz, and o he ma e ial wi h he addi ion o aluminum
chips, o 108 °C, an inc ease in he maximum alue was eco ded. In he case o ac ylic–
phenolic esin wi h he addi ion o b ass chips, he maximum alue o he angen o he
mechanical loss angle was shi ed owa ds a much highe empe a u e o 241.5 °C. The
mac oscopic image o he ea ed su aces o he es specimens made on he Keyence mi-
c oscope a 50× and 100× magni ica ion is shown in Figu es 8–10.
Figu e 8. Ac ylic–phenolic esin: (a) magni ica ion 50×, (b) magni ica ion 100×.
Figu e 9. Composi e o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h aluminum chips: (a) magni ica ion 50×, (b) mag-
ni ica ion 100×.
Figu e 8. Ac ylic–phenolic esin: (a) magni ica ion 50×, (b) magni ica ion 100×.
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 17
o di e en equencies. Fo he sample wi h aluminum chips and he addi ion o 5% esin
in he glass ansi ion phase, he alues o he conse a i e modulus we e lowe by ap-
p ox. 10,000÷12,000 MPa compa ed o he composi e wi h b ass chips. In he ield o high-
elas ic de o ma ions, an inc ease in he alue o he conse a i e modulus o composi es
wi h b ass chips was eco ded simila ly, while i was abou hal lowe han in he glass
ansi ion phase, whe eas he high-elas ic de o ma ion phase shi ed owa ds highe em-
pe a u e alues. Changes in he alue o he angen o he mechanical loss angle and i s
maximum may indica e he s i ness o he ma e ial and p ope ies such as ha dness and
oughness, which a ec he machining p ocess. The maximum alue o he angen o he
mechanical loss angle was eco ded o he ac ylic–phenolic esin a he empe a u e o
151.5 °C a he equency o 1 Hz, and o he ma e ial wi h he addi ion o aluminum
chips, o 108 °C, an inc ease in he maximum alue was eco ded. In he case o ac ylic–
phenolic esin wi h he addi ion o b ass chips, he maximum alue o he angen o he
mechanical loss angle was shi ed owa ds a much highe empe a u e o 241.5 °C. The
mac oscopic image o he ea ed su aces o he es specimens made on he Keyence mi-
c oscope a 50× and 100× magni ica ion is shown in Figu es 8–10.
Figu e 8. Ac ylic–phenolic esin: (a) magni ica ion 50×, (b) magni ica ion 100×.
Figu e 9. Composi e o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h aluminum chips: (a) magni ica ion 50×, (b) mag-
ni ica ion 100×.
Figu e 9.
Composi e o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h aluminum chips: (
a
) magni ica ion 50
×
, (
b
) mag-
ni ica ion 100×.
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 9 o 16
Polyme s 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 17
Figu e 10. Composi e o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h b ass chips: (a) magni ica ion 50×, (b) magni i-
ca ion 100×.
The su ace o he sample made o esin is cha ac e ized by an une en, ough su ace,
and i con ains many poin ed p o usions and s eep dep essions. Such an image o he
su ace esul s om he s uc u e o c oss-linked ac ylic–phenolic esin. The p ocessing o
his ma e ial causes i o c umble, which c ea es a la ge numbe o small ca i ies wi h
sha p edges. The lack o ma e ial capable o ca ying loads and dissipa ing hem esul s
in he endency o mo e s ongly in eg a ed agmen s o de ach om he es o he ma-
e ial on he con ac lines wi h weake c oss-linking. Samples made o a composi e o esin
wi h aluminum chips and a composi e wi h b ass chips a e cha ac e ized by an une en,
ough su ace con aining many smoo hly ending p o usions and dep essions. A signi i-
can ela ionship was eco ded be ween he ype o ille and he une enness o he su -
ace. The cha ac e is ics o he composi e ma e ial indica e a ce ain lakiness in he s uc-
u e o he su ace. Such an image o he su ace esul s om he s uc u e o he polyme
and he ille used. The use o b ass in his composi e signi ican ly changed he geome y
o he su ace. The su ace isible on he base esin sample changed o he mo e o med
side a e he machining p ocess. The ille in he polyme ma ix ans e s he loads
deepe in o he composi e, causing hem o dispe se. Howe e , he use o a ille signi i-
can ly in luenced he smoo hness o he su ace. In he case o composi es wi h a ille in
he o m o aluminum chips, he con exi ies on he plane do no occu e enly o e he
en i e su ace, bu only in a ce ain a ea. Such beha io o he composi e esul s om he
p esence o such a ype o ille in hese places, which means ha he c ack line, possibly
o med du ing he loads, may un in hese places. In e ms o he homogenei y o he
su ace, a high egula i y was obse ed when using he ille in he o m o b ass chips.
In gene al, bo h na u al-un ea ed and manu ac u ed su aces ha e he o iginal
shape o o m wi h a ying deg ees o s uc u e, wa iness and oughness, conside ing
hem bo h as 2D as well as 3D. All su ace ea u es will con ain bo h con olled and un-
con olled cha ac e is ics. I he goal is o de e mine he su ace h ee-dimensional ex u e
o a su ace, he esul s can also be igo ously linked o he co esponding pa ame e s
de ined in he inc easingly widesp ead ISO 25178 s anda d [34]. In he p oduc ion o in-
dus ial machining, he analysis o da a ela ed o gene ally accep ed s anda ds may make
he ob ained esul s iden i y mo e o he echnological p oblems o he p ocess i sel . In
he nex s age o he esea ch, he p ocessed samples—(a) 100% esin, (b) 5% esin, 95%
b ass, (c) 5% esin, 95% aluminum—we e analyzed on he ea ed su aces on a labo a o y
con ac p o ilog aphome e Taylo Hobson, Talysu 120. A measu ing blade wi h a 2 µm
ip was used o he measu emen . The measu emen a ea was de e mined andomly in
he ange o 9 × 7 mm, he esolu ion o he measu ing blade’s pass was assumed e e y 5
Figu e 10.
Composi e o ac ylic–phenolic esin wi h b ass chips: (
a
) magni ica ion 50
×
, (
b
) magni i-
ca ion 100×.
The su ace o he sample made o esin is cha ac e ized by an une en, ough su ace,
and i con ains many poin ed p o usions and s eep dep essions. Such an image o he
su ace esul s om he s uc u e o c oss-linked ac ylic–phenolic esin. The p ocessing
o his ma e ial causes i o c umble, which c ea es a la ge numbe o small ca i ies wi h
sha p edges. The lack o ma e ial capable o ca ying loads and dissipa ing hem esul s in
he endency o mo e s ongly in eg a ed agmen s o de ach om he es o he ma e ial
on he con ac lines wi h weake c oss-linking. Samples made o a composi e o esin wi h
aluminum chips and a composi e wi h b ass chips a e cha ac e ized by an une en, ough
su ace con aining many smoo hly ending p o usions and dep essions. A signi ican
ela ionship was eco ded be ween he ype o ille and he une enness o he su ace.
The cha ac e is ics o he composi e ma e ial indica e a ce ain lakiness in he s uc u e
o he su ace. Such an image o he su ace esul s om he s uc u e o he polyme and
he ille used. The use o b ass in his composi e signi ican ly changed he geome y o
he su ace. The su ace isible on he base esin sample changed o he mo e o med side
a e he machining p ocess. The ille in he polyme ma ix ans e s he loads deepe
in o he composi e, causing hem o dispe se. Howe e , he use o a ille signi ican ly
in luenced he smoo hness o he su ace. In he case o composi es wi h a ille in he o m
o aluminum chips, he con exi ies on he plane do no occu e enly o e he en i e su ace,
bu only in a ce ain a ea. Such beha io o he composi e esul s om he p esence o such
a ype o ille in hese places, which means ha he c ack line, possibly o med du ing he
loads, may un in hese places. In e ms o he homogenei y o he su ace, a high egula i y
was obse ed when using he ille in he o m o b ass chips.
In gene al, bo h na u al-un ea ed and manu ac u ed su aces ha e he o iginal shape
o o m wi h a ying deg ees o s uc u e, wa iness and oughness, conside ing hem bo h
as 2D as well as 3D. All su ace ea u es will con ain bo h con olled and uncon olled
cha ac e is ics. I he goal is o de e mine he su ace h ee-dimensional ex u e o a
su ace, he esul s can also be igo ously linked o he co esponding pa ame e s de ined
in he inc easingly widesp ead ISO 25178 s anda d [
34
]. In he p oduc ion o indus ial
machining, he analysis o da a ela ed o gene ally accep ed s anda ds may make he
ob ained esul s iden i y mo e o he echnological p oblems o he p ocess i sel . In he
nex s age o he esea ch, he p ocessed samples—(a) 100% esin, (b) 5% esin, 95% b ass,
(c) 5% esin, 95% aluminum—we e analyzed on he ea ed su aces on a labo a o y con ac
p o ilog aphome e Taylo Hobson, Talysu 120. A measu ing blade wi h a 2
µ
m ip
was used o he measu emen . The measu emen a ea was de e mined andomly in he
ange o 9
×
7 mm, he esolu ion o he measu ing blade’s pass was assumed e e y 5
µ
m
in he machining di ec ion ( ool blade ope a ion). Measu emen ime o 1 sample was
Polyme s 2022,14, 3501 16 o 16
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Anis, A.; Elnou , A.Y.; Alam, M.A.; Al-Zah ani, S.M.; AlFayez, F.; Bashi , Z. Aluminum-Filled Amo phous-PET, a Composi e
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Bishay, I.K.; Abd-El-Messieh, S.L.; Mansou , S.H. Elec ical, mechanical and he mal p ope ies o poly inyl chlo ide composi es
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Sehajpal, S.B.; Sood, V.K. E ec o me al ille s on some physical p ope ies o ac ylic esin. J. P os he . Den .
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Akh a , M.W.; Lee, Y.S.; Yoo, D.J.; Kim, J.S. Alumina-g aphene hyb id illed epoxy composi e: Quan i a i e alida ion and
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Abdulka eem, S.A.; Amosa, M.K.; Adeniyi, A.G.; Magaji, M.M.; Ajibola, R.A. E ec o me allic ille s on he ha dness o
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