Comparison of housing affordability in Czech and Polish regions

Review of Economic Perspectives – Národohospodářský obzor Vol. 24, Issue 1, 2024, pp. 17–36, DOI: 10.2478/revecp-2024-0002 © 2024 by the authors; licensee Review of Economic Perspectives / Národohospodářský obzor, Masaryk University, Faculty of Economics and Administration, Brno, Czech Republic. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, Attribution – Non Commercial – No Derivatives. Comparison of Housing Affordability in Czech and Polish Regions David Slavata, 1 Eva Ardielli, 2 Marta Maciejasz 3 Abstract: Great differences are observed in the way of living, the quality of living, and the type of property ownership in individual countries of the world. However, housing affordability is currently a significant issue in every developed country. At the same time, it is also an important factor of economic development on both the national and regional level. The paper is focused on the comparison of housing affordability in the Czech and Polish regions. The presented research combines four different commonly used indicators of housing affordability (financial and physical) into a newly defined index and applies it to the Czech Republic and Poland regions for the period 2020-2022. The aim is the comparison of Czech and Polish regions according to the selected housing indicators and calculated standard housing affordability index SAI, which is a newly created index compiled by the authors. The result of the research is a calculation of housing availability in a total of 30 Czech and Polish regions and a comparison of the development of housing availability in 2020 and 2022 in these regions. The result of the research is the finding that the availability of housing in the Czech regions is on average lower than in the Polish regions and, in addition, that the availability has decreased compared to 2020 in both the Czech and Polish regions by 2022. Keywords: affordability, Czech Republic, housing, ownership, Poland, real estate market, regions JEL Classification: R30, P50 Received: 2 August 2022 / Accepted: 5 April 2024 / Sent for Publication: 22 April 2024 Introduction Housing affordability is an important aspect of socioeconomic development in any society and is considered a topical issue today (Baker, Mason and Bentley, 2015; Wetzstein, 2017; Ryšavý, 2021; Mulliner and Maliene, 2016; Kašík and Slavata, 2018; 1 VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, Faculty of Economics, Department of Public Economics, Sokolská třída 33, 70200 Ostrava, Czech Republic, [email protected] 2 VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, Faculty of Economics, Department of Public Economics, Sokolská třída 33, 70200 Ostrava, Czech Republic, [email protected] 3 Opole University, Faculty of Economics, Ozimska 46a, 45-058 Opole, Poland, mar- [email protected] Review of Economic Perspectives 18 Ardielli and Janasová, 2012). Housing affordability broadly refers to housing costs, both for renters and owner occupants, relative to the disposable income of a given individuals or households, mainly as a percentage (Bieri, 2014, CECODHAS, 2012). The most common notion of affordable housing implies that households that spend more than 30% of their gross income to obtain adequate and appropriate housing have an affordability problem, see Paris (2007). According to the definition of Eurostat (Eurostat, 2021), a household is considered “overburdened” when the total housing costs represent more than 40 % of disposable income, where housing costs include mortgage or housing loans interest payments for owners and rent payments for tenants. For example, in 2020, 7.8 % of the EU population spent 40 % or more of their household disposable income on housing (Eurostat, 2020b). Over the past two decades, housing affordability has become one of the most pressing challenges, especially in cities, where house prices have often outpaced national averages (OECD, 2021). Despite constant efforts by governments to meet the increasing need for housing, many lowand middle-income households are being forced out of cities (Czischke and van Bortel, 2018). The paper is focused on the calculation of housing affordability in the Czech and Polish regions. The aim is to compare the Czech and Polish regions according to the selected housing indicators and the calculated housing standard affordability index SAI. The affordability of housing in the Czech Republic has long been one of the worst compared to European countries. The Czech Republic also leaves the United Kingdom behind, even though nominal real estate prices are the most expensive here. This follows from the scientific study “Property Index - Overview of European Residential Markets”, see Deloitte (2021). The property index analyses factors shaping the residential real estate markets in Europe and compares residential property prices in selected European countries and cities. This index has been monitored annually for the past ten years. The analysis in the presented paper will be made with regard to regional differences with a distinction into regions. In addition to the regions of the Czech Republic, the regions of Poland were selected for comparison. While the Czech Republic was evaluated as the worst among European countries in terms of the availability of new housing, a new apartment in the Czech Republic costs in 2021 12.2 of the average gross annual salary, in Poland it was only 7.6 of the average gross annual salary. The paper is focusing the issue at the regional level and is comparing the housing affordability in a total of thirty Czech and Polish regions. The Czech and Polish regions were selected for comparison due to the similarity of the housing markets in terms of cultural, historical, and socioeconomic aspects, as well as due to the good availability of data on housing in both countries. Characteristics of the Housing Market in the Czech Republic and Poland Despite the historical and socioeconomic similarities of both countries, the situation on the housing market differs in many respects in the Czech Republic and Poland, see Eurostat (2020b), GUS (2023), Rynio (2021), Malesa (2022) or Ardielli and Ardielli (2018). The size of the construction sector measured by the gross value added (GVA) generated by this economic activity (as a share of total GVA) was 7.2 % in Poland in 2020. The value in the Czech Republic reached only 5.7 %. Investment in housing was in Poland 1.9 % of GDP in 2020, while in the Czech Republic it reached a value 4.8 % of GDP. Looking at the trend of house prices between 2010 and 2020, there has been a Volume 24, Issue 1, 2024 19 steady upward trend in both countries since 2013. However, in the Czech Republic, the growth was more significant. The housing costs compared to the EU average differ significantly between EU countries. The Czech Republic and Poland reach below average values. The Czech Republic reaches a value of 27 % lower than the EU average, Poland even by 60% in 2020. With house prices and rents rising, the cost of housing can be a burden. This can be measured by the housing cost overburden rate, which shows the share of the population living in a household where total housing costs represent more than 40 % of disposable income. In the EU in 2020, 12.3 % of the population in cities lived in such a household, while the corresponding rate for rural areas was 7.0 %. The highest housing cost overburden rates in cities were observed in the Czech Republic (10.2 %) than Poland (5.4%), while in rural areas they were 3.6 % in the Czech Republic and 4.4 % in Poland, see Eurostat (2020b). Another way to see whether housing is affordable is by the share of housing cost in total disposable income. On average in the EU in 2020, 20.1 % of disposable income was dedicated to housing costs. The Czech Republic is below this average with a value of 19.3 %, also Poland with 17.1 %. Specifics of Housing in the Czech Republic As shown by the above statistics, there is a problem for many Czech households with access to affordable housing (Eurostat, 2020b). Real estate prices in the Czech Republic are growing faster than household disposable income (OECD, 2021). This applies especially to Czech cities, where real estate prices often rise faster than the national average (Hromada, Čermáková and Piecha, 2022), (Deloitte, 2021). Although rising real estate prices can be beneficial for a large part of their Czech owners, it is increasingly difficult for new entrants to the housing market, especially young people (Ryšavý, 2021). Due to the fact that rental prices are also rising and their offer is relatively limited, the market of private rental housing offers few alternatives for people who are struggling to find affordable housing. Owned housing is currently the predominant type of property ownership in the Czech Republic (79% of households vs. 70 % of the EU countries average). The private rental housing market is relatively limited (21% of households vs. 30 % of the OECD average) see Eurostat (2020b). In the conditions of the Czech Republic, a real estate bubble has been discussed in recent years. Czech real estate prices are inflated by about 20 % - 30 %. In 2022, real estate continues to rise in price and its price has risen to such a value that it is no longer worthwhile to buy real estate for investment. An important aspect in terms of housing affordability was the period of the corona crisis in 2020 and 2021 (Rogers and Power, 2020). Conditions in the Czech market led to further increases in prices in real estate (Ryšavý, 2021). However, demand for real estate has grown. It was reinforced by low mortgage interest rates, the perception of real estate as a safe form of investment, the abolition of real estate acquisition tax, and other factors. The economic condition of Czech households deteriorated during the lockdown and the prolongation of the pandemic (Klimovsky, Nemec, and Bouckaert, 2021). To prevent people from starting to leave their homes, the Czech government has taken a number of emergency measures in the context of the ongoing covid-19 pandemic. For Review of Economic Perspectives 20 example, it introduced mortgage deferrals, one of the most common support measures in OECD countries, which have helped alleviate urgent housing affordability problems. The pandemic to date has had a very different impact on the owner-occupied and rental segments. In terms of the owner-occupied segment, the pandemic has triggered even stronger demand, which in combination with limited supply and favourable financing conditions sent average transaction prices to a new record high in almost every larger city. (Deloitte, 2021) When the tourism industry came to a halt, the short-stay segment practically collapsed, which meant that owners of such dwellings were willing to compromise and offered these units for regular longer-term rental at a discount. Due to this, the overall asking rental level in the Czech capital Prague decreased by some 10 % during the course of 2020. The overall impact of the covid crisis on housing affordability is not yet known, but it is clear that the pandemic has reinforced the need to address existing problems in the area, such as insufficient housing supply and increased housing insecurity in many households (OECD, 2021), (Hromada and Cermakova, 2021). Specifics of Housing in Poland Poles live mainly in detached houses – 50.2% and then in flats – 44.3% (Eurostat, 2020a), which is not so common in the EU. The average distribution of the population by type of dwelling in the EU is 35.8 and 46.2% respectively. 17% live in semidetached or terraced houses and 0.9% in other types of housing (Eurostat, 2020a). This sounds quite positive for Poland considering the quality of living. There is also one of the highest ratios of housing ownership, because 72.5% inhabitants live in owneroccupied houses, without a mortgage or housing loan, and only 13.1% in owneroccupied, with a mortgage or housing loan. Tenants are only 14.4%. These data can be confronted with overcrowding rate, which describes percentage of the population living in an overcrowded household, i.e., a household that does not have at its disposal a minimum number of rooms available, depending on the size of the household, family situation, and the ages of its members. In Poland, this ratio is pretty high – 36.9%, while an average in EU is 17.5%. This shows that Pole-owned houses do not guarantee good housing conditions. This also corresponds to the level of housing costs, which often make up the largest component of expenditure for many households. Increases in housing costs can potentially lead to other expenditures being deferred or cancelled. In Poland the housing cost overburden rate is quite low – 4.9% compared with the average for the EU 7.8% and very low while looking at Greece (33.3%), Bulgaria (14.4%) or Denmark (14.1%). The housing cost overburden rate, analysed by tenure status, is high only for tenants who rent at market prices. Its value is 26.4%, while for the EU it is 25.1% (Eurostat, 2018). In Poland, the severe housing deprivation rate is one of the highest within the EU (Sikora-Fernandez, 2018). Only Romania, Latvia, and Bulgaria note higher values. When comparing 2019 and 2020, a constant level is observed at 7.9% (Eurostat, 2020b). This means that almost 8% of the population do not have access to housing. Moreover, there is also a part of the population unable to keep home adequately warm. In 2017-2020 this share was 6; 5.1; 4.2 and 3.2% respectively (Eurostat, 2020b). Positive changes were observed, but the current energy situation will probably vary this trend. Concluding this description of housing conditions in Poland, it can be stated that housing conditions in Poland are satisfactory from quantitative point of view but leave much Volume 24, Issue 1, 2024 21 to be desired from qualitative point of view (Ulman and Ćwiek, 2020). Although citizens have their own properties, they are not large enough to provide all households’ members good conditions for living. And there is still a group of people who cannot afford housing at all or need to rent at market prices that are too high for them (Willmann and Maciejasz, 2020). Material and Methods The aim of this paper is the comparison of Czech and Polish regions according to the selected housing indicators and the evaluation of the level of housing affordability by using the calculated housing affordability index SAI. The comparison is made at the level of the highest regional administrative units in the Czech Republic and Poland. Two hypotheses were established as part of the presented research. Hypothesis H1 is as follows: Housing availability in Czech regions is on average lower than in Polish regions. Hypothesis H2 is as follows: Housing availability is on average decreasing in the Czech and Polish regions in the period 2020-2022. H1 is based on the claim that the availability of housing in the Czech Republic is one of the worst in European countries (Deloitte, 2021). H2 is based on the claim that the availability of housing in European countries has been decreasing in recent years (OECD, 2021). On the basis of these two presented hypotheses, it will be verified whether similar tendencies as at the state level are also observed in selected period in the regions. The Czech Republic is divided into 14 self-governing regions and 6,253 municipalities. The territory outside Prague is divided into 76 districts. The regions of the Czech Republic are higher-level territorial self-governing units of the Czech Republic. The administrative division of Poland is also based on three levels of subdivision. The territory of Poland is divided into voivodeships (provinces); these are further divided into powiats (counties or districts), and these are divided into gminas (communes or municipalities). Poland currently has 16 voivodeships, 380 powiats (including 66 cities with powiat status), and 2,478 gminas. The analysis is carried out in a total of 30 regions of the Czech Republic and Poland. Model and Data There are several approaches to measuring housing affordability (Anacker, 2019 or Czischke and van Bortel, 2018). The main stream compares the affordability of financial housing. It simply compares ratios of numbers of financial indexes. The most used indicator is the income to price ratio or the income to rent ratio (Bieri, 2014). The second stream of measuring housing affordability compares physical affordability. Generally, it answers the question how many flats are built or how many flats there are in the economy (URI, 2022). To use separate indicators of housing affordability, it may not provide the objective view for the problem. In the market economy, the financial and physical indicators are influenced by each other. Usually, as a rule, if the financial indicators show a high level of financial affordability, the level of physical affordability is low. The bodies can easily get the credits, but there is the problem of shortage of flats for sale. Such a problem was typical for the COVID period in the Czech Republic. From that point of view, it is complicate to present objective situation on the field of housing Review of Economic Perspectives 22 affordability. We will try to develop a new methodology in the field of housing affordability which will provide a complex and more impartial view. The new evaluation methodology presented in this paper more complexly assesses housing affordability. It includes four basic indicators, financial and physical. The indicators are IR (income to rent), IP (income to price), FS (flats for sale per 1000 inhabitants) and FR (flats for rent per 1000 inhabitants). Individual indicators are compared with each other when plotted on the axes, where the inner surface defines the level of housing affordability. The mutual interaction between indicators is clearly shown in Figure 1. We have decided not to use the weighted average formula, because it is highly complicated to decide which separate indicator is more preferable than the other. However, it may be the subject of further research. Figure 1 - The methodology of linking housing affordability indicators FR IR FS IP Source: Own methodology The indicators are set in a logical way. The higher the value of the indicator, the better the affordability of the housing. The surface between the indicators (SAI) expresses a complex level of housing affordability in the region. The larger area bounded by indicators indicates better the level of housing affordability. The calculation of SAI (Standard Affordability Index) is made according to the formula (1): 𝑆𝐴𝐼 = (𝐹𝑅∗𝐹𝑆)+(𝐹𝑆∗𝐼𝑃)+(𝐼𝑃∗𝐼𝑅)+(𝐼𝑅∗𝐹𝑅) 2 (1) where FR……….. Flats for rent per 1000 inhabitants FS………… Flats for sale per 1000 inhabitants Volume 24, Issue 1, 2024 23 IP………….. Income to price ratio IR………….. Income to rent ratio The calculation of FR, FR, IP and IR ratio is summarised in following formulas (2), (3), (4) and (5): 𝐹𝑅 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐹𝑟 𝐼𝑛ℎ (2) where Fr………….. Flats for rent in the housing market Inh. ………… Population of region 𝐹𝑆 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐹𝑠 𝐼𝑛ℎ (3) where Fs………….. Flats for sale in the housing market Inh. ………… Population of region 𝐼𝑃 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐼 𝑃 (4) where P……………… Average flat price per m2 I……………… Average year personal income 𝐼𝑅 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐼 𝑅 (5) where R…………… Average year rent per 67 m2 flat I…………… Average year personal income The above indicators will be compared in the presented research of 30 Czech and Polish regions. The advantage of our methodology is seen in its simplicity and complexity. It transfers all the separate indicators of housing affordability into the one separate indicator (SAI). On the other hand, disadvantages of the presented indicator (SAI) can be seen in the possible omission of some other significant separate indicator or in the current impossibility to determine the weights of separate indicators (it may be the orientation of further research). As the main source of data describing the Czech real estate market, the analytical portal on the Internet www.trzniceny.cz was used (Trzniceny, 2022). Data describing the Polish real estate market were obtained from the portal www.otodom.pl (Otodom, 2022). The data included information about flat prices, rent prices, and share of flats for sale. Review of Economic Perspectives 24 The other needed data were obtained from the official national statistical offices www.czso.cz (CZSO, 2022) and www.stat.gov.pl. (STAT.GOV, 2022). Especially the information describing the level of salaries in the Czech and Polish regions. The analysis corresponds to the situation in the real estate market as of June 2022. Research Results The basic data on the housing market for 2020 and 2022 based on regions are shown in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2. By comparing the regional data, the highest prices of flats are indicated in the region Prague. Both the price of flats and the rents are higher in Prague. In Prague, there are even the highest number of flats offered on the housing market for sale and for rent. In Prague there is the highest level of average year salary. The lowest price of flats is indicated in the Usti region (33 000 CZK/m2). The lowest level of flats for sale is seen in the Highlands region (248). The same number of flats for rent is indicated in the Highlands region (121). The lowest rent is indicated in the Moravian – Silesian region (170 CZK/m2/month). The lowest year salary is indicated in Karlovy vary region (39 1260 CZK). The basic data of the Polish housing market from the point of regions are shown also in Appendix 1. When comparing the regional data, the highest prices for flats are indicated in the Masovia region (75 141 CZK). Both the price of flats and the rents (346 CZK) are higher in the Masovia region. In the Masovia region there are even the highest number of flats offered on the housing market for sale (14 496) and for rent (3 394). In Masovia region there is the highest level of average year salary (46 6432 CZK). The lowest prices of flats are indicated in the Opole region (30 543 CZK/m2). The lowest level of flats for sale is also observed in the Opole region (851). The lowest number of flats to rent is indicated in the Podlaski region (149). The lowest rent is indicated in the Warmia-Masuria region (167 CZK/m2/month). The lowest year salary is indicated in Holy Cross Province (34 4785 CZK). CZK exchange rate is calculated to 28th June 2022. In Table 1, the basic housing indicators in the Czech Republic (year (2022) are shown including the SAI result value for the regions in the Czech Republic. The values show the lowest housing affordability in the South Moravian region with a value of SAI of 9.54. On the other hand, the region with the highest value of SAI is indicated in Usti region. Housing affordability is the highest there. It is surprising that the Prague region is not the region with the lowest housing affordability. The value of SAI is 14.68. Housing affordability in Prague is fourth best in the Czech Republic according to the SAI indicator. The average SAI value for the Czech regions is 15.62. Volume 24, Issue 1, 2024 25 Table 1 – Affordability index SAI in the Czech regions (June 2022) Region Flats for rent/1000 inh. Flats for sale/1000 inh. IP IR (FRxFS)/2 (FSxIP)/2 (IPxIR)/2 (IRxFR)/2 SAI Prague 1.50 2.99 4.60 1.83 2.24 6.87 4.20 1.37 14.68 SouthMoravian region 0.59 1.09 5.43 2.08 0.32 2.96 5.64 0.62 9.54 Karlovy Vary region 0.54 2.82 7.45 2.72 0.76 10.53 10.13 0.73 22.14 Central Bohemian Region 0.27 0.97 6.27 2.48 0.13 3.03 7.78 0.34 11.29 Pilsen region 0.44 0.91 7.39 2.76 0.20 3.35 10.21 0.61 14.38 Liberec region 0.53 1.35 7.07 2.41 0.35 4.76 8.52 0.63 14.27 South Bohemian region 0.38 1.11 7.11 2.67 0.21 3.94 9.50 0.51 14.16 Highlands region 0.24 0.49 7.79 2.57 0.06 1.92 10.00 0.31 12.29 Hradec Kralove region 0.43 0.93 6.42 2.46 0.20 2.99 7.90 0.53 11.62 Pardubice region 0.31 0.92 6.66 2.50 0.14 3.06 8.32 0.39 11.91 Zlín Region 0.34 0.65 7.27 2.38 0.11 2.37 8.64 0.40 11.52 Olomouc region 0.62 0.90 7.69 2.53 0.28 3.46 9.73 0.78 14.25 MoravianSilesian Region 0.90 1.31 9.53 2.98 0.59 6.26 14.21 1.35 22.41 Ústi Region 0.95 2.00 12.71 3.02 0.95 12.71 19.17 1.43 34.25 Source: CZSO (2022), Trzniceny (2022), own calculations In Table 2, the basic housing indicators in the Czech Republic (year (2020) are shown. 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Volume 24, Issue 1, 2024 35 Appendix 1 – Czech ad Polish market basic data (June 2022) Region Population Price per m2 in CZK Flats for sale Month Rent per m2 in CZK Flats for Rent Gross Year Salary in CZK Prague 1275406 126500 3808 396 1912 581976 South-Moravian region 1184568 82100 1291 267 702 446052 Karlovy Vary region 283210 52500 800 179 152 391260 Central Bohemian Region 1386824 71900 1341 226 378 450984 Pilsen region 578707 58000 525 193 256 428724 Liberec region 437570 58100 589 212 230 410880 South Bohemian region 637047 57400 706 190 243 408156 Highlands region 504025 53500 248 202 121 416916 Hradec Kralove region 542583 65100 506 211 232 417756 Pardubice region 514518 60000 473 199 160 399600 Zlín Region 572432 55000 373 209 193 399624 Olomouc region 622930 52600 561 199 384 404640 Moravian-Silesian Region 1177989 42800 1548 170 1065 407772 Usti Region 798898 33000 1598 173 756 419448 Lesser Poland 3410901 57394 6762 283 1415 402433 Masovia 5423168 75141 14496 346 3394 466432 Pomerania 2343928 68218 7046 316 574 407992 Podlaskie 1178353 42296 1413 238 149 369009 Greater Poland 3498733 47819 4016 226 1064 358826 Holy Cross Province 1233961 37040 1104 215 1819 344785 West Pomerania 1696193 43231 4155 269 2167 375743 Lublin 2108270 43725 2303 264 1923 359447 Kuyavia-Pomerania 2072373 36235 5341 226 2483 360173 Subcarpathia 2127164 43426 1361 209 1989 346907 Warmia-Masuria 1422737 33150 1460 167 1800 346755 Lower Silesia 2900163 45815 9385 321 2970 426967 Opole 982626 30543 851 200 1780 372229 Lubusz 1011592 31454 1401 223 1838 356199 Łódź 2454779 42532 3216 244 2201 385475 Silesia 4517635 35311 8330 238 1679 404234 Source: CZSO (2022), Trzniceny (2022), Otodom (2022), STAT.GOV (2022), own calculations Review of Economic Perspectives 36 Appendix 2 – Czech ad Polish market basic data (June 2020) Region Population Price per m2 in CZK Flats for sale Month Rent per m2 in CZK Flats for Rent Gross Year Salary in CZK Prague 1275406 104400 4806 317 8806 510636 South-Moravian region 1184568 56400 1210 226 1388 394752 Karlovy Vary region 283210 37700 984 160 254 359544 Central Bohemian Region 1386824 48500 1468 208 765 418800 Pilsen region 578707 36400 664 172 628 397848 Liberec region 437570 34600 435 180 272 380436 South Bohemian region 637047 37800 572 164 379 371820 Highlands region 504025 36200 268 163 212 373764 Hradec Kralove region 542583 42500 498 180 262 383100 Pardubice region 514518 33400 340 184 232 367908 Zlín Region 572432 38400 418 177 311 365100 Olomouc region 622930 35600 926 179 559 369408 Moravian-Silesian Region 1177989 26000 924 151 1067 369720 Usti Region 798898 18000 1025 150 713 377160 Lesser Poland 3410901 52500 6024 244,11 5390 395475 Masovia 5423168 64700 14936 399,59 10216 461963 Pomerania 2343928 59000 6944 244,3 3198 394460 Podlaskie 1178353 38100 1283 208,91 277 353132 Greater Poland 3498733 45000 3490 234,23 2320 360649 Holy Cross Province 1233961 33500 891 192,31 183 345487 West Pomerania 1696193 40100 3875 216,21 931 365196 Lublin 2108270 39800 1684 209,26 514 346991 Kuyavia-Pomerania 2072373 35900 5294 201,2 1316 346262 Subcarpathia 2127164 39500 1077 184,12 519 333718 Warmia-Masuria 1422737 34300 1046 208,93 159 330586 Lower Silesia 2900163 45500 9343 240,38 4077 409756 Opole 982626 27700 921 179,76 189 357268 Lubusz 1011592 26800 1486 190,45 335 348717 Łódź 2454779 39000 2529 207,04 1081 374928 Silesia 4517635 27900 6362 206,23 2594 402849 Source: CZSO (2020), Trzniceny (2020), Otodom (2020), STAT.GOV (2020), own calculations