Promoting electro mobility in Spain. Public measures and main data (2007–2012)

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Transportation Research Part D journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trd Promoting electro mobility in Spain. Public measures and main data (2007–2012) José M. Cansino a,b , Rocio Yñiguez a,⁎ a Universidad de Sevilla, Spain b Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Chile ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Electric vehicle CO 2 emissions Low carbon transport ABSTRACT This paper offers systematic and innovative information to the usage of electrical vehicles (EVs) in Spain between 2007 and 2012. Five different EV categories are analyzed. The data is broken down by provinces and regions. Likewise, the study analyzes the evolution of EV use as well as the percentage of EVs in each category with regards to the total number of vehicles in a given category, with the percentage of EVs per 10,000 habitants. In addition to this, the paper provides detailed information about the legislation promoting the use of EVs, both in the European Union (EU) and in Spain. The article includes an assessment of the promotional measured used for EVs for their growth rate. Finally, the authors provide a number of recommendations about the type of efforts to be undertaken by the authorities of Spain and the EU to increase the use of EVs. In Spain, the development of the electrical vehicle stock has increased annually for each of the categories. Nevertheless, the relationship with the total number of vehicles, EVs have failed to reach 1% in any of the categories. The ratio number of EVs per 10,000 inhabitants has increased in each of the provinces, with more than twenty provinces (44%) having a ratio that surpassed 1 EV/10,000 inhabitants in 2012. 1. Introduction Electric vehicles (EVs) could reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) while at the same time eliminate other pollutants from the atmosphere (Siang and Wei, 2013; Perujo and Ciuffo,2010; Sioshansi et al., 2010; Camus et al., 2011). Hannan et al., (2014) offer a recent and useful review of these alternative vehicles. Electric vehicles can help reduce GHG emissions, improving the air quality in cities and, thus the health of their populations because they only emit natural byproducts and not exhaust fumes (Mierio et al., 2006; Ma et al., 2012; Hannan et al., 2014) so for climate change, local air pollutants in congested inner-cities, and noise some advantageous effects can be observed for EVs (Jochem et al., 2016). However, some authors have criticized this finding (Sioshansi and Miller, 2011; Ji et al, 2012). In areas such as the European Union (EU27), EVs could also contribute to reducing its external dependency upon fossil fuels. Spain is a clear case of this dependency with a 99.7% of its fossil fuel being imported in 2012 (Cores, 2013). These arguments support part of the energy and environmental decisions made by the EU27. The Europe 2020 strategy for a smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, in its Flagship Initiatives “Resource efficient Europe”and “Innovation Union”, aims at tackling social challenges such as climate change, energy and resource scarcity, while enhancing competitiveness and meeting energy https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2018.01.022 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Av. Ramón y Cajal n°1, 41001 Seville, Spain. E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Yñiguez). Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 Available online 20 February 2018 1361-9209/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. T security with a more efficient use of resources and energy (European Commission Communication, 2010). In line with this strategy, the White Paper “Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area –Towards a Competitive and Resource Efficient Transport System” called for breaking the oil dependence of transportation and set a 60% GHG emission-reduction target from transport by 2050 (European Commission, 2010). Together with this, in EU27, promotional strategy for electric mobility is included in the European Green Cars' Initiative, which is part of the European Economic Recovery Plan. Both initiatives emphasize the importance of the cooperation between public and private organizations (European Commission Communication, 2008). Thus, there is an important set of measure to promote the use of EV but researchers face two challenges. The first is the dispersion of current legal initiative focused on promoting the use of EVs. The second is a lack of detailed stat about the number of EVs. This article focuses on the case of Spain. There are two objectives, with the first being to offer an overview of the current legal framework promoting the use of EVs, both in the European Union, but more specifically in Spain. The second objective offers detailed information for the period 2007–2012. The starting-date coincides with the sales of these vehicles on the general market, and concludes with the last available data when the research was performed. The database differentiates five EVS categories, 52 provinces and 17 regions. To the best of our knowledge, there are no official statistics providing such information as this article offers. The data also considers population density information. The article offers interesting information, not only for research, but also for the electric vehicle industry and for policy makers. The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2summarizes legal EU28 and Spanish frameworks. Section 3shows data. The discussion and concluding remarks are provided in Section 4. 2. Legal framework and support policy measures for EVs Today the legal EU framework 1 for EV’s is supported by the three following pillars. i. The Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC (European Parliament and of the Council, 2009a), the Fuel Quality Directive 2009/ 30/EC (European Parliament and of the Council, 2009c), the Clean Vehicle Directive 2009/33/EC (European Parliament and of the Council, 2009b), the Regulations setting CO 2 standards for passenger cars (Regulation N° 443/2009; European Parliament and of the Council, 2009e) and light commercial vehicles (Regulation N° 510/2011; European Parliament and of the Council, 2011) are all key EU legislation regarding the promotion of sustainable, low-carbon fuels and low CO 2 emission vehicles. ii. Directive 2009/28/EC by the European Parliament and the Council dated 23/04/2009 for the promotion of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC12 set a target of 10% market share of renewables in transport fuels. iii. The Commission Communication on a European alternative fuels strategy (European Commission Communication, 2013). This document evaluates the main alternative fuel options available to substitute crude oil whilst contributing to reduce GHG emissions from transportation, and suggests a comprehensive list of measures to promote the market development of alternative fuels in Europe, complementing other policies for reducing fossil fuel consumption and GHG emissions from transport. The main alternative fuel options are electricity, hydrogen, biofuels, natural gas (in the forms of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), or Gas- To-Liquid (GTL), and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). Together with EU’s legal instruments, Member States (MS) have put in force measures related to the use of EVs. A specific legal framework to promote the use of EVs in Spain is supported by the three documents indicated below: i. Royal Decree 648/2011 provides aid for domestic users to purchase EVs (Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio, 2011b). This consists of a bonus up to 25% of the sales price of the vehicle before tax, with a maximum of 6000 euros per unit. This norm is part of the 2010–2012 Action Plan to demonstrate the technical and power feasibility of electric mobility in urban areas between 2010 and 2014. Its aim is to introduce 2000 EVs into the Spanish automobile fleet, as well as to install > 500 charging points for these vehicles in various cities. ii. In addition to the document mentioned above, Royal Decree 647/2011 (Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio, 2011a) regulates the load operator defined by Law 54/1997 of the Electricity Sector (Jefatura del Estado, 1997), as a consumer qualified to sell electricity to recharge consumer vehicles. Load Operators are considered necessary for the quick development of EVs as an industrial product that combines the features of innovative technology that is able to generate a new sector with growth potential and, at the same time, a savings instrument that is energy and environmental efficient. In this Decree, a super-valley rate for recharging EVs in a specific time tracts is also introduced. iii. In the Royal Decree 294/2013, the direct grants for the purchase of EVs during 2013 are regulated, under the Comprehensive Strategy for the promotion of EVs in Spain between 2010 and 2014 (Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio, 2013). This document is an updated version of Royal Decree 648/2011, but with changes with regards to the amount of the subsidy, which offers up to 5500 euros per vehicles, full electric power operated, with a driving autonomy > 90 km. 1 Table A.1 of Appendix A offers more detailed information relevant to the EU legal framework. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 326 Similarity with others low carbon energy strategies (Cansino et al., 2010, 2011, 2012) public policies play a key role accelerating the market penetration of EVs, particularly due to the high initial investment costs. Depending on the objectives and time horizon, public policy can put different measures in place in order to promote electro mobility. In accordance with Proffand Kilian (2012) three types of policy measures are considered: Indirect technology support (e.g. tax incentives), direct technology support (e.g. grants) and public purchasing incentives (including tax exemptions). In the field of direct technology support, all five major EU MSs support research activities. Together with such a policy measures, non-financial incentives might be taken into account such as regulation and –mainly at local levelsthe use of high occupancy lanes in the cities. In this sense, Germany, France, UK, Italy and Spain offer infrastructure support for EVs through the use of these types of lanes. For the case of Spain Tables 1–3detailed policy measured in force for the period under consideration. Tables 2 and 3 show tax exemptions in order to promote electro mobility. The two relevant taxes are the tax on vehicles’ ownership (Table 2)andthespecial(Table 3). Tax on ownership it’s a local tax and most important city councils decided to reduce it for fuel efficient vehicles by 75%. As representative tax Table 2 considers the one applied in Madrid. Table 1 Policy measures to promote EV in Spain not included in taxes. Source: . Financial incentives Several local governments grant tax incentives of 2000–7000 Euro for the purchase of EVs and other ecofriendly vehicles Research financing €140 million for industrialization support and R&D; €173 million to priority R & D lines Infrastructure The government initiated ‘Movele program’(2008–2011, investments ca. €10 million) targeted the ramp up of infrastructure and dispersion of EVs in Barcelona, Madrid, and Seville Amount of charging points to be achieved by 2014: 62,000 in homes, 263,000 for company fleets, 12,150 public parking and 6200 public road-side charging points. €35 million investment in electric grid related communication systems Financial support of public authorities For municipalities with ≥50,000 inhabitants (=145 cities) 20% subvention for the purchase of EVs (€6000 max/ unit), i.e. €240 million in sum Consumer perception Private consumer interest in EVs is currently low, due to high purchasing cost, low vehicle autonomy, recharging models and battery issues. Fleets are seen as an initial market driver. One handicap of Spain is that all car producers have their decision-making headquarters outside of Spain Table 2 Tax on vehicle’s owership. Source: Own elaboration from ACEA (2014). Minimun amount €Representative taxes applied €Representative amount for Evs € Private cars < 8 HP 12.62 22 5.5 8–11.99 HP 34.08 65 16.25 12–15.99 HP 71.94 140 35 > 19.99 HP 112 224 56 Buses and coaches < 21 seats 83.3 158 39.5 21–50 seats 118.64 231 57.75 > 50 seats 148.3 296 74 Commercial vehicles Lorries < 999 kg 42.28 79 19.75 1000–2999 kg 83.3 162 40.5 3000–9999 Kg 118.64 237 59.25 Tractive units > 9999 kg 148.3 296 74 < 16 HP 17.67 35 8.75 16–25 HP 27.77 54 13.5 > 25 HP 83.3 166 41.5 Motorcycles < 125 cc 4.42 8 2 125–250 cc 7.57 13 3.25 250–500 cc 15.15 30 7.5 500–1000 cc 30.29 59 14.75 > 1000 cc 60.58 121 30.25 J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 327 Spanish Special tax on vehicle is applied on the first definitive registration in Spain of motor vehicles. It was amended to take into account CO2 emissions level of the vehicle measured in grams per kilometer with fixe taxable brackets varying from ≤120 g/km (the relevant rate for EVs) to ≥200 g/200 (Table 3). Taxes rates can be modify by regional governments. That is what happens in Extremadura, Andalucia, Cataluña, Asturias and Murcia regions. 3. Data for Spain EV is understood as a vehicle that complies with the definition provided in Directive 2007/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council dated 5 September 2007 (European Parliament and of the Council, 2007). This Directive establishes a framework for the approval of motor vehicles and their trailers, as well as the systems, components and separate technical units intended for such vehicles. These have a maximum design speed exceeding 25 km/h, equipped with one or more traction motor(s) operated by electric power and not permanently connected to the grid; it also covers all of their high voltage components and systems which are galvanically connected to the high voltage bus of the electric power train. Due to the fact that there is no detailed statistics information of EVs in Spain, this paper has elaborated these statistics. Four categories of EVs have been considered. These are electric trucks and vans, electric buses, electric cars, electric motorcycles and other EVs. Data refers to the 2007–2012 period. The beginning of the time series is the first year that EVs were offered to costumer in a standard scale. 2012 is the last year for accessible data. Table 4 shows the EVs in circulation in Spain between 2007 and 2012. The distribution throughout the country is provided for each of the 52 provinces and the 17 regions found in Spain. The data show very uneven results for the number of EVs in circulation in 2012. 59.5% of all EVs are concentrated in 5.76% of the provinces. This later percentage corresponds to the provinces of Barcelona, Valencia and Madrid. At the regional level, 70% of all EVs in circulation in 2012—the last year included in this study—are concentrated in three of the 17 regions, which are Catalonia, the Community of Valencia and Madrid. Graph 1 shows the development of the number of EVs on the highway for each of the years studied in Spain and for all of the categories. The tendency has always been upwards, and this is especially true in the last year. Nevertheless, the growth rate has been different depending on the category of the vehicle. Appendix B offers detailed information, disaggregated by EV categories, provinces and regions in absolute terms (Tables B1–B5). In 2012, the degree of concentration in the geographic distribution of the number of electric vans in circulation in Spain is very high. 68% of all electric vans in circulation that year correspond to only two of the 52 provinces—Barcelona and Madrid. Likewise, 74.3% of all EVs on the highway were found in two of the 17 regions for the period included in this study (Table B1.). For most provinces in Spain, the low numbers of electric buses is noteworthy for each of the years considered. In 41 provinces (78.8%), there were no electric buses in circulation in 2012. Electric buses were, for the most part, found in the provinces of Barcelona and Madrid, where 92% of all such vehicles found in Spain were in circulation in 2012 (Table B2). With regards to the number of electric cars on the highways for 2007–2012, we observed that in 2012, there was an increase in the number of such vehicles, with a total of 2161; of these, 63% were found in only three provinces (Barcelona, Madrid and Seville). This is 5.7% of the total number of provinces in Spain. Consequently, the distribution concentration is very high, the same as in the case of other vehicle types analyzed. (Table B3). Upon analyzing the data for electro motorcycles on the road between 2007 and 2012, it interesting to note that 40% are found in 50% of the provinces. This indicates a distribution that is less uneven than for the rest of EVs analyzed. (Table B4). The data for other EV types on the highway between 2007 and 2012, as well as the growth rate seen for these vehicles in 2012 in Table 3 Special tax. Source: AEAT (n.d.). CO 2 emissions (g/km) Rate Peninsula and Baleares islands Canary Islands Ceuta and Melilla cities ≤120 0% 0% 0% > 120 < 160 4.75% 3.75% 0% ≥160 < 200 9.75% 8.75% 0% ≥200 * 14.75% 13.75% 0% Others ** 12% 11% 0% * Also taxable vehicles which should have presented their CO 2 emissions, but have not been proven. ** Vehicles not included in previous epigraphs and ships, boats, light aircrafts, airplanes and others airships. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 328 Table 4 Total EVs in cumulative and absolute terms (2007–2012). Source: National Traffic Department. 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Variation rate Almeria 7 12 12 17 21 36 414.3% Cadiz 22 24 27 37 42 99 350.0% Cordoba 24 28 33 36 42 82 241.7% Granada 16 28 40 54 73 99 518.7% Huelva 7 5 9 14 16 23 228.6% Jaen 15 17 20 22 27 184 1126.7% Malaga 35 46 65 75 97 156 345.7% Seville 37 46 56 87 141 365 886.5% Andalusia 163 206 262 342 459 1044 540.5% Huesca 6 8 8 12 14 31 416.7% Teruel 4 4 5 6 6 11 175.0% Saragossa 141 * 206 * 220 * 233 * 257 * 314 * 122.7% Aragon 151 218 233 251 277 356 135.7% Cantabria 20 28 46 70 94 122 510% Avila 0 1 1 1 2 12 1100% Burgos 11 15 17 25 24 43 290.9% Leon 7 8 11 19 25 45 542.9% Palencia 1 1 4 5 5 15 1400.0% Salamanca 5 10 13 18 25 34 580.0% Segovia 5 6 8 8 10 13 160% Soria 0 0 0 4 5 9 55.6% Valladolid 26 29 34 45 54 88 238.5% Zamora 1 1 2 4 4 9 800% Castile & Leon 56 71 90 129 154 268 378.6% Albacete 2 3 4 4 5 15 650% Ciudad Real 6 8 11 13 17 24 300% Cuenca 4 4 5 5 11 12 200% Guadalajara 5 6 6 10 11 17 240% Toledo 14 17 20 22 42 93 564.3% Castile-La Mancha 31 38 46 54 86 161 419.4% Barcelona 2245 * 2431 * 2790 * 3054 * 3187 * 3663 * 63.2% Girona 77 77 92 108 132 199 158.4% Lleida 34 35 48 54 70 97 185.3% Tarragona 40 54 67 107 130 169 322.5% Catalonia 2396 # 2597 # 2997 # 3323 # 3519 # 4128 # 72.3% Ceuta 0 0 0 0 0 0 Community of Madrid 471 *# 667 *# 728 *# 921 *# 1236 *# 1999 # 324.4% Alicante 77 107 134 * 168 * 205 * 280 * 263.6% Castellon 62 80 80 95 109 110 77.4% Valencia 909 * 1006 * 1075 * 1163 * 1257 * 1732 * 90.5% Community of Valencia 1048 # 1193 # 1289 # 1426 # 1571 # 2122 # 102.4% Badajoz 3 5 5 14 21 45 1400% Caceres 4 6 7 10 12 21 425% Extremadura 7 11 12 24 33 66 842.8% A Coruña 15 22 30 34 47 61 306.7% Lugo 4 8 10 15 15 21 425% Orense 5 7 9 18 23 36 620% Pontevedra 39 41 46 52 101 120 207.7% Galicia 63 78 95 119 186 238 277.8% Balearic Islands 165 * 181 * 189 * 219 * 245 * 364 * 120.6% Las Palmas 85 103 122 127 151 194 128.2% Santa Cruz de Tenerife 28 39 56 59 71 96 242.9% Canary Islands 113 142 178 186 222 290 156.6% La Rioja 39 51 57 69 73 81 107.7% Melilla 2 2 2 4 4 8 300% Navarre 112 * 150 * 167 * 177 * 180 * 204 82.1% Alava 10 15 18 22 44 52 420% Guipuzcoa 40 46 55 72 99 148 270% Biscay 80 89 117 129 143 196 145% Basque Country 130 150 190 223 286 396 204.6% Principality of Asturias 22 29 50 55 67 78 254.5% Region of Murcia 16 33 52 114 192 * 500 * 3025% TOTAL 5005 5845 6683 7706 8884 12,425 148.3% * Above average by province. # Above average by regions. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 329 comparison with 2007, shows that in 2012, the number of these vehicles rose to 6442; of these almost 75% were found in only 7.6% of the provinces of Spain. This indicates a very uneven distribution. On the other hand, the variation percentage for such EVs in 2012, when compared to 2007, is considerable in many provinces of Spain, with the average being 120.56%, surpass this number in 12 provinces of Spain (Table B5). A comparison in relative terms allows for a better designed analysis. Upon analyzing in relative terms, Table 5 shows the percentage of EVs over the total number of vehicles registered in each of the years analyzed. In no case does it reach 1%, but it is noteworthy to see the high growth rate using this ratio in 2012 in comparison with 2007, in which case, the average is 368%. 37% of the provinces in Spain are above this average, which show a distribution that is somewhat less uneven than when considering absolute terms. Appendix B offers detailed data, disaggregated by categories of EVs, provinces and regions in relative terms (Tables B6–B10). The percentage of electric vans over the total number of registered vehicles in each of the years analyzed, and as was the case for the total number of EVs, in this case, the 1% mark was not reached. However, the growth rate for 2012 when compared to 2007 has increased, with an average of 369.63%. 25% of the provinces in Spain are above this average, which indicates a slightly less uneven distribution than the previous category (Table B6). As was the case for the total number of electric vehicles and electric vans, the percentage of electric buses based on the total number of vehicles registered in each year analyzed, as well as the variation rate in 2012 with regards to 2007, also fails to reach the 1% mark. In many provinces, it was observed that the variation rate for this indicator was zero. This indicates the difficult penetration for such vehicles in considerable number of provinces in Spain—specifically in 35 provinces. This represents 67% of the total. However, the provinces with the two most important capital cities of Spain presented a very high growth rate: 425.49% in Barcelona and 332.11% in Madrid (Table B7). In terms of the percentage for electric cars of the total number of vehicles registered, as well as the variation rate in 2012 with regards to 2007, the 1% mark was not reached. In many provinces, the variation rate of this indicator was zero, which indicated the penetration difficulties this type of vehicle has in a number of Spanish provinces. Specifically, in 30 provinces; this represents 57% of the total. In the rest of the provinces, the important differences presented for this ratio reflect an uneven penetration of electric vehicles with regards to the general number of automobiles (Table B8). With regards to the number of electric motorbikes of all such vehicles registered in the years analyzed, as well as the variation rate in 2012 in comparison to 2007, fails to reach the 1% mark. Although the variation rate is very high in many of the provinces studied, with an average for the province of 1236.22%, with 27% of the provinces above this average (Table B9). On the other hand, the percentage of other electric vehicles over the total for this type of vehicles registered for each of the years analyzed, as well as the variation rate for 2012 with regards to 2007, does reach a value above 1% in various years for several provinces, reaching 8.34% in the province of Valencia in 2012. The average percentage at the provincial level is 94.2%, with 28.8% of the provinces being above the average (Table B10). Table 6 shows that the ratio for the number of electric vehicles per 10,000 inhabitants has increased in almost all provinces Graf 1: EV Stock Trend (2007-2012) Graf 1. EV Stock Trend (2007–2012). J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 330 Table 5 Total EVs in relative terms (2007–2012). Source: National Traffic Department. 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Variation Rate Almeria 0.002% 0.003% 0.003% 0.004% 0.004% 0.01% 400% * Cadiz 0.003% 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 233.3% Cordoba 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 100% Granada 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 566.7% * Huelva 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 400% * Jaen 0.004% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.04% 900% * Malaga 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 233.3% Seville 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.03% 900% * Andalusia 0.003% 0.004% 0.005% 0.006% 0.009% 0.019% 533.3% # Huesca 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 400% * Teruel 0.003% 0.004% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 233.3% Saragossa 0.02% 0.03% 0.04% 0.04% 0.04% 0.06% 200% Aragon 0.018% 0.026% 0.028% 0.030% 0.033% 0.043% 138.9% Cantabria 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Avila 0.00% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.01% 900% * Burgos 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 100% Leon 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 400% * Palencia 0.001% 0.001% 0.003% 0.004% 0.004% 0.01% 900% * Salamanca 0.002% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 400% * Segovia 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 150.0% Soria 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.% Valladolid 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Zamora 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.003% 0.003% 0.01% 900% * Castile & Leon 0.003% 0.004% 0.005% 0.008% 0.009% 0.015% 400% # Albacete 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.001% 0.002% 0.01% 900% * Ciudad Real 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 400% * Cuenca 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.01% 0.01% 233.3% Guadalajara 0.003% 0.004% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 233.3% Toledo 0.003% 0.004% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 566.7% * Castile-La Mancha 0.002% 0.003% 0.003% 0.004% 0.006% 0.011% 450% # Barcelona 0.06% 0.07% 0.08% 0.09% 0.09% 0.10% 66.7% Girona 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Lleida 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Tarragona 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Catalonia 0.049% 0.052% 0.060% 0.066% 0.070% 0.082% 67.3% Ceuta 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Community of Madrid 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 0.05% 400.0% *,# Alicante 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 100% Castellon 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 0.03% 50% Valencia 0.05% 0.06% 0.06% 0.07% 0.08% 0.1% 100% Community of Valencia 0.032% 0.035% 0.039% 0.043% 0.047% 0.064% 100% Badajoz 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 900% * Caceres 0.001% 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 900% * Extremadura 0.001% 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.009% 800% # A Coruña 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 400% * Lugo 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 400% * Orense 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 400% * Pontevedra 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 100% Galicia 0.004% 0.004% 0.005% 0.006% 0.010% 0.012% 200% Balearic Islands 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 0.04% 100% Las Palmas 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Santa Cruz de Tenerife 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 150% Canary Islands 0.008% 0.010% 0.012% 0.013% 0.015% 0.019% 137.5% La Rioja 0.02% 0.03% 0.03% 0.04% 0.04% 0.04% 100% Melilla 0.004% 0.004% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 150% Navarre 0.03% 0.04% 0.04% 0.04% 0.04% 0.05% 66.7% Alava 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Guipuzcoa 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Biscay 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.03% 200% Basque Country 0.010% 0.012% 0.015% 0.017% 0.022% 0.030% 200% Principality of Asturias 0.003% 0.004% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 0.01% 233.3% Region of Murcia 0.002% 0.003% 0.01% 0.01% 0.02% 0.05% 2400% *,# * Above average by province. # Above average by REGIONS. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 331 Table 6 Total EVs per 10,000 inhabitants (2007–2012). Source: National Traffic Department and National Institute of Statistics. 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Variation Rate Almeria 0.11 0.18 0.18 0.24 0.30 0.51 372.2% Cadiz 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.30 0.34 0.80 336.3% Cordoba 0.30 0.35 0.41 0.45 0.52 1.02 236.4% Granada 0.18 0.31 0.44 0.59 0.79 1.07 492.7% Huelva 0.14 0.10 0.18 0.27 0.31 0.44 212.7% Jaen 0.23 0.25 0.30 0.33 0.40 2.75 1116.6% Malaga 0.23 0.29 0.41 0.47 0.60 0.95 312.2% Seville 0.20 0.25 0.29 0.45 0.73 1.88 840.8% Andalusia 0.20 0.25 0.32 0.41 0.54 1.24 510.9% Huesca 0.27 0.36 0.35 0.53 0.61 1.36 399.6% Teruel 0.28 0.27 0.34 0.41 0.41 0.77 175.6% Saragossa * 1.51 2.16 2.27 2.39 2.64 3.21 112.3% Aragon 1.16 1.64 1.73 1.86 2.06 2.64 126.5% Cantabria 0.35 0.48 0.78 1.18 1.58 2.05 488.4% Avila 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.70 no data Burgos 0.30 0.40 0.45 0.67 0.64 1.15 281.5% Leon 0.14 0.16 0.22 0.38 0.50 0.91 546.7% Palencia 0.06 0.06 0.23 0.29 0.29 0.88 1422.6% Salamanca 0.14 0.28 0.37 0.51 0.71 0.97 581.5% Segovia 0.31 0.37 0.49 0.49 0.61 0.79 153% Soria 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.53 0.95 no data Valladolid 0.50 0.55 0.64 0.84 1.01 1.65 230.5% Zamora 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.21 0.21 0.47 826.4% Castile&Leon 0.22 0.28 0.35 0.50 0.60 1.05 375.3% Albacete 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.37 630% Ciudad Real 0.12 0.15 0.21 0.25 0.32 0.45 284.8% Cuenca 0.19 0.19 0.23 0.23 0.50 0.55 190.8% Guadalajara 0.22 0.25 0.24 0.40 0.43 0.66 193.5% Toledo 0.22 0.25 0.29 0.32 0.59 1.31 497.4% Castile-La Mancha 0.16 0.19 0.22 0.26 0.41 0.76 384% Barcelona * 4.21 4.49 5.08 5.54 5.76 6.60 56.7% Girona 1.09 1.05 1.23 1.43 1.74 2.61 139.6% Lleida 0.82 0.82 1.10 1.23 1.58 2.19 166.6% Tarragona 0.53 0.68 0.83 1.32 1.60 2.08 293.2% Catalonia * 3.32 3.53 4.01 4.42 4.67 5.45 64.1% Ceuta 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 no data Community of Madrid * 0.77 1.06 1.14 1.43 1.90 3.08 297.2% Alicante 0.42 0.57 0.70 0.87 1.06 1.44 241.4% Castellon 1.08 1.34 1.33 1.57 1.80 1.82 68.2% Valencia * 3.66 3.96 4.17 4.51 4.87 6.71 83.6% Community of Valencia * 2.15 2.37 2.53 2.79 3.07 4.14 92.8% Badajoz 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.20 0.30 0.65 1365.3% Caceres 0.10 0.15 0.17 0.24 0.29 0.51 422.4% Extremadura 0.06 0.10 0.11 0.22 0.30 0.60 827.4% A Coruña 0.13 0.19 0.26 0.30 0.41 0.53 302.7% Lugo 0.11 0.23 0.28 0.42 0.43 0.60 434.4% Orense 0.15 0.21 0.27 0.54 0.69 1.09 634.5% Pontevedra 0.41 0.43 0.48 0.54 1.05 1.25 204.2% Galicia 0.23 0.28 0.34 0.43 0.67 0.86 276.6% Balearic Islands 1.60 1.69 1.73 1.98 2.20 3.25 103.1% Las Palmas 0.82 0.96 1.13 1.16 1.38 1.76 116.1% Santa Cruz de Tenerife 0.28 0.39 0.55 0.57 0.69 0.94 231.5% Canary Islands 0.56 0.68 0.85 0.88 1.04 1.37 145.4% La Rioja 1.26 1.61 1.77 2.14 2.26 2.50 98.3% Melilla 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.12 0.25 281.9% Navarre * 1.85 2.42 2.65 2.78 2.80 3.16 71.2% Alava 0.33 0.48 0.57 0.69 1.38 1.61 392.4% Guipuzcoa 0.58 0.66 0.78 1.02 1.40 2.08 261.1% Biscay 0.70 0.78 1.02 1.12 1.24 1.69 141.4% Basque Country 0.61 0.70 0.87 1.02 1.31 1.81 197.5% Principality of Asturias 0.20 0.27 0.46 0.51 0.62 0.72 253.7% Region of Murcia * 0.11 0.23 0.36 0.78 1.31 3.39 2850.5% * Above 3 Total EVs per 10,000 inhabitants by 2012. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 332 in the five-year period studied; there are more than twenty provinces (44%) in 2012 with a ration of > 1 EV per 10,000 inhabitants. Provinces with more than two and three electric vehicles per 10,000 inhabitants decreased respectively to 12 (23%) and 6 (11.5%) for the same year. Valencia (6.71) and Barcelona (6.60) surpassed the ratio of six EVs per 10,000 inhabitants for the last year of the study. Madrid—the capital of Spain—registershalfofallEVsper10,000inhabitants, compared to the two aforementioned cities. 4. Discussion and concluding remarks By the end of 2012, there were 12,425 EVs on the highways of Spain. This is a 148.3% increase when compared to 2007. The total number of EVs includes four different categories: electric trucks and vans, electric bus, electric cars, electric motorcycles and other EVs. The data shows a very high concentration in the use of EVs in three provinces only—Barcelona, Valencia and Madrid. This result is foreseeable, as it coincided with major population concentrations. The development of certain EVs for public services, such as public clean-up, is being promoted by initiatives such as the CLIMA Project by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and the Environment, which in turn is backed by the European Union’s LIFE Program (European Parliament and of the Council, 2014). This conclusion is coherent with the results of other researchers (González-Limón et al., 2013). Nonetheless, in 2012, the average percentage of EVs of all vehicles on the highway was about 0.02% in Spain. This is far cry from the 10% mark established by some European countries for 2020: for example, Ireland (Brady and O‘Mahony, 2011). The total number of electric automobiles registered in 2012 (12,425) surpassed the objective of the 2010–2012 Action Plan for the higher Comprehensive Plan to push EVs in Spain for the 2010–2014 period. The aim of which is to introduce 2000 EVs into the Spanish automobile fleet. However, the promotional efforts and the incentives will have to be intensified if Spain wants to significantly contribute to the European objective of having 8–9 million Electrical Vehicle on the road by 2020 (European Commission, 2011). Between 2012 and 2014, EVs enjoyed a greater growth rate (40%); well above the statistics registered for the two previous years (15%). This important growth rate is due to the measures that promote the use of EVs, as established in Royal Decree 648/2011. Once the statistics for 2013 are accessible, the impact of the promotional measure of Royal Decree 294/2013 can be evaluated. This measure is a subsidy for EVs purchased prior to the end of October 2013. Spain will have to make great efforts to promote EVs, so that these vehicles contribute significantly to achieve the objective of 10% market share of renewables in transport fuels (Directive 2001/77/EC, 2009/28/EC and 2003/30/EC12, see European Parliament and of the Council, 2001, 2009a, 2003). On the other hand, the technological developments to provide EVs with greater kilometer coverage without recharging will be an important incentive for possible users of these vehicles. In this regard, the work of private Spanish firms in the electric sector is important. A number of companies have backed this technology and have participated in various European R+D+i standardization projects such as Green eMotion, 2014] or Euroelectric/Grupo Berlin, 2014. At EU level, the Commission will work to present proposals to modernize and decarbonize the transportation sector, thereby contributing to increased competitiveness. This can be done through a mix of measures; for example, infrastructure measures such as early deployment of grid infrastructures for electrical mobility, intelligent traffic management, better logistics, pursuing the reduction of CO 2 emissions for road vehicles. The same holds true for the aviation and maritime sectors including the launch of a major European “green”car initiative to help promote new technologies including electric and hybrid cars through a mix of research, setting common standards and developing the necessary infrastructure support (European Commission, 2011). Major growth in the number of EVs registered in 2012 over 2011—established in 40%—could be explained by the effects of the promotional policy to purchase EVs, as indicated in Royal Decree 648/2011. This decree established that to take advantage of the subsidy, an EV had to be registered before the May eleventh deadline in 2012. Once all of the data for EVs registered in 2013 has been published, the effects of Royal Decree 294/2013 will have to be analyzed. This Royal Decree grants a subsidy to purchase EVs, which in turn must be registered before the end of October 2013. The support measures to EVs adopted by local or national governments of countries in different continents such as: USA, China, France, Germany, UK, Norway or Spain contribute to the use of this type of vehicle and also to raise social awareness for a global change of mobility model in big cities. In fact, Bjerkan et al., 2016 showed relationship between incentives measures and kind of transport systems. In summary, electricity is a clean fuel that is particularly attractive for deployment of EVs and electric two-wheelers in urban agglomerations which can contribute to improving air quality and reducing noise. Member States should ensure that recharging points for EVs are built with sufficient coverage, at least twice the number of vehicles, and 10% of them publicly accessible, focusing specifically on urban agglomerations. Private EV owners depend, tolarge extent, on access to recharging points in collective parking lots, such as in apartment blocks, offices and business locations. Regulatory provisions should be set up by public authorities, assisting citizens by ensuring that the appropriate infrastructure with sufficient EVs recharging points is provided by site developers and managers (Al-Alawi and Bradley, 2013). Any case, literature shows high misunderstanding by citizens on political measures in force J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 333 Table B6 Registrations of electric trucks and vans in relative terms in the period 2007–2012. Source: National Traffic Department. 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Variation Rate Almeria 0.000% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.000% −100.0% Cadiz 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.000% 0.001% 0.0% Cordoba 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Granada 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.002% 0.002% 100.0% Huelva 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% Jaen 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% Malaga 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.002% 100.0% Seville 0.001% 0.002% 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.007% 600.0% * Andalusia 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% Huesca 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.013% 333.3% Teruel 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.004% Saragossa 0.004% 0.025% 0.025% 0.027% 0.029% 0.026% 550.0% * Aragon 0.003% 0.014% 0.014% 0.016% 0.016% 0.019% 533.3% Cantabria 0.002% 0.002% 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.007% 250.0% Avila 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.004% Burgos 0.000% 0.000% 0.005% 0.005% 0.005% 0.008% 60.0% Leon 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Palencia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.011% Salamanca 0.008% 0.008% 0.005% 0.005% 0.006% 0.020% 150.0% Segovia 0.005% 0.005% 0.005% 0.004% 0.004% 0.005% 0.0% Soria 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.020% 0.021% 0.028% 40.0% Valladolid 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.024% Zamora 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Castile & Leon 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.003% 0.003% 0.010% 900.0% Albacete 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Ciudad Real 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Cuenca 0.000% 0.000% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.0% Guadalajara 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.003% 0.003% 0.0% Toledo 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% 100.0% Castile-La Mancha 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% Barcelona 0.014% 0.015% 0.055% 0.070% 0.077% 0.089% 535.7% * Girona 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.003% 0.003% 0.020% 1900.0% * Lleida 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.0% Tarragona 0.002% 0.003% 0.002% 0.025% 0.025% 0.028% 1300.0% * Catalonia 0.010% 0.011% 0.036% 0.049% 0.054% 0.064% 540.0% Ceuta 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Community of Madrid 0.004% 0.006% 0.010% 0.017% 0.022% 0.032% 700.0% * Alicante 0.004% 0.003% 0.004% 0.006% 0.007% 0.009% 125.0% Castellon 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.004% 0.004% 300.0% Valencia 0.002% 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.003% 0.005% 150.0% Community of Valencia 0.002% 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.005% 0.006% 200.0% Badajoz 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Caceres 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% 0.006% 200.0% Extremadura 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.004% 300.0% A Coruña 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% Lugo 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% 0.002% 0.005% 150.0% Orense 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.010% 0.010% 0.013% 30.0% Pontevedra 0.002% 0.002% 0.002% 0.002% 0.004% 0.006% 200.0% Galicia 0.001% 0.001% 0.100% 0.003% 0.004% 0.006% 500.0% Balearic Islands 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 0.003% 0.007% 600.0% * Las Palmas 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.006% 500.0% * Santa Cruz de Tenerife 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.002% 100.0% Canary Islands 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.004% 300.0% La Rioja 0.000% 0.002% 0.002% 0.002% 0.005% 0.017% 750.0% * Melilla 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Navarre 0.001% 0.001% 0.004% 0.004% 0.007% 0.007% 600.0% * Alava 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.003% 0.0% Guipuzcoa 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.011% 0.017% 1600.0% * Biscay 0.007% 0.009% 0.010% 0.012% 0.014% 0.029% 314.3% Basque Country 0.004% 0.005% 0.006% 0.007% 0.011% 0.020% 400.0% Principality of Asturias 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.003% 0.004% 0.007% 600.0% * Region of Murcia 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.003% 0.011% 0.013% 1200.0% * * Above average by province. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 340 Table B7 Registrations of electric bus in relative terms in the period 2007–2012. Source: National Traffic Department. 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Variation Rate Almeria 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Cadiz 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Cordoba 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.424% Granada 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Huelva 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Jaen 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Malaga 0.000% 0.000% 0.065% 0.064% 0.063% 0.061% −6.2% Seville 0.096% 0.095% 0.190% 0.193% 0.196% 0.200% 108.3% * Andalusia 0.023% 0.024% 0.059% 0.059% 0.059% 0.095% 313.0% # Huesca 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Teruel 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Saragossa 0.000% 0.251% 0.259% 0.264% 0.268% 0.269% 7.2% Aragon 0.000% 0.174% 0.178% 0.179% 0.182% 0.187% 7.5% Cantabria 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Avila 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Burgos 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Leon 0.141% 0.130% 0.127% 0.140% 0.140% 0.143% 1.4% Palencia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Salamanca 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Segovia 0.370% 0.369% 0.366% 0.361% 0.361% 0.355% −4.1% Soria 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Valladolid 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Zamora 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Castile & Leon 0.060% 0.059% 0.058% 0.059% 0.058% 0.060% 0.0% Albacete 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Ciudad Real 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Cuenca 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Guadalajara 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Toledo 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Castile-La Mancha 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Barcelona 0.051% 0.049% 0.048% 0.131% 0.262% 0.268% 425.5% * Girona 0.000% 0.000% 0.101% 0.099% 0.096% 0.095% −5.9% Lleida 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Tarragona 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Catalonia 0.037% 0.035% 0.046% 0.105% 0.196% 0.199% 437.8% # Ceuta 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Community of Madrid 0.109% 0.203% 0.201% 0.229% 0.239% 0.471% 332.1% * , # Alicante 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Castellon 0.210% 0.802% 0.813% 0.815% 0.808% 0.833% 296.7% * Valencia 0.194% 0.197% 0.080% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% −100.0% Community of Valencia 0.129% 0.194% 0.131% 0.087% 0.087% 0.090% −30.3% Badajoz 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Caceres 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Extremadura 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% A Coruña 0.000% 0.054% 0.054% 0.055% 0.056% 0.057% 5.6% Lugo 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Orense 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Pontevedra 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.076% 0.077% 1.3% Galicia 0.000% 0.021% 0.021% 0.021% 0.041% 0.043% 104.7% # Balearic Islands 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Las Palmas 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Santa Cruz de Tenerife 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.035% 0.036% 2.8% Canary Islands 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.018% 0.019% 5.6% La Rioja 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Melilla 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Navarre 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.107% 0.111% 3.7% Alava 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Guipuzcoa 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Biscay 0.062% 0.062% 0.061% 0.060% 0.173% 0.173% 179.0% # Basque Country 0.034% 0.034% 0.033% 0.033% 0.095% 0.095% 179.4% # Principality of Asturias 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Region of Murcia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% * Above average by province. # Above average by REGIONS. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 341 Table B8 Registrations of electric cars in relative terms in the period 2007–2012. Source: National Traffic Department. 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Variation Rate Almeria 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Cadiz 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.006% Cordoba 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.009% Granada 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.001% 0.0% Huelva 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Jaen 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Malaga 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% Seville 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.003% 0.025% 733.3% * Andalusia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.008% 700.0% # Huesca 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.005% 400.0% Teruel 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Saragossa 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.003% 200.0% Aragon 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.003% 200.0% Cantabria 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 0.002% 100.0% Avila 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.001% 0.0% Burgos 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% Leon 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.0% Palencia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% Salamanca 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Segovia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Soria 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.004% Valladolid 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% 0.002% 0.0% Zamora 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.0% Castile & Leon 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% Albacete 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Ciudad Real 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Cuenca 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Guadalajara 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Toledo 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.004% 0.014% 250.0% Castile-La Mancha 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% 0.005% 150.0% Barcelona 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 0.004% 0.009% 800.0% * Girona 0.000% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.003% 0.005% 400.0% Lleida 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.003% Tarragona 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% Catalonia 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 0.004% 0.008% 700.0% # Ceuta 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Community of Madrid 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.007% 0.012% 1100.0% *,# Alicante 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Castellon 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 0.002% 100.0% Valencia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.003% 200.0% Community of Valencia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% Badajoz 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Caceres 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% Extremadura 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% A Coruña 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.001% 0.0% Lugo 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Orense 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% Pontevedra 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.007% 0.007% 0.0% Galicia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.003% 0.003% 0.0% Balearic Islands 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 0.003% 200.0% Las Palmas 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.003% 200.0% Santa Cruz de Tenerife 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% Canary Islands 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% La Rioja 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% Melilla 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Navarre 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.005% 400.0% # Alava 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.013% 0.017% 1600.0% * Guipuzcoa 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.002% 0.002% 0.004% 100.0% Biscay 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.002% 0.005% 400.0% Basque Country 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.004% 0.006% 500.0% # Principality of Asturias 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% 0.001% 0.002% 100.0% Region of Murcia 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.001% * Above average by province. # Above average by region. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 342 Table B9 Registrations of electric motorcycles in relative terms in the period 2007–2012. Source: National Traffic Department. 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Variation Rate Almeria 0.000% 0.006% 0.008% 0.016% 0.026% 0.060% 900.0% Cadiz 0.002% 0.003% 0.006% 0.019% 0.024% 0.051% 2450.0 * Cordoba 0.016% 0.015% 0.017% 0.021% 0.031% 0.040% 150.0% Granada 0.004% 0.010% 0.024% 0.038% 0.056% 0.085% 2025.0% * Huelva 0.000% 0.000% 0.005% 0.005% 0.009% 0.027% 440.0% Jaen 0.008% 0.007% 0.007% 0.010% 0.016% 0.501% 6162.5% * Malaga 0.004% 0.006% 0.013% 0.016% 0.025% 0.057% 1325.0% * Seville 0.010% 0.011% 0.014% 0.036% 0.054% 0.070% 600.0% Andalusia 0.006% 0.008% 0.013% 0.024% 0.035% 0.087% 1350.0% Huesca 0.010% 0.010% 0.009% 0.026% 0.034% 0.091% 810.0% Teruel 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.045% Saragossa 0.000% 0.018% 0.024% 0.037% 0.074% 0.105% 483.3% Aragon 0.002% 0.014% 0.019% 0.031% 0.059% 0.096% 4700.0% Cantabria 0.016% 0.021% 0.074% 0.138% 0.186% 0.252% 1475.0% * Avila 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.120% Burgos 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.039% 0.037% 0.113% 189.7% Leon 0.000% 0.005% 0.020% 0.043% 0.050% 0.132% 2540.0% * Palencia 0.000% 0.000% 0.017% 0.031% 0.029% 0.113% 564.7% Salamanca 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.008% 0.043% 0.056% 600.0% Segovia 0.000% 0.017% 0.032% 0.030% 0.043% 0.084% 394.1% Soria 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.025% 0.049% 96.0% Valladolid 0.010% 0.014% 0.026% 0.037% 0.048% 0.129% 1190.0% Zamora 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.026% 0.025% 0.084% 223.1% Castile & Leon 0.002% 0.006% 0.013% 0.029% 0.039% 0.107% 5250.0% # Albacete 0.000% 0.000% 0.005% 0.005% 0.009% 0.050% 900.0% Ciudad Real 0.000% 0.000% 0.005% 0.005% 0.019% 0.041% 720.0% Cuenca 0.025% 0.023% 0.021% 0.021% 0.080% 0.089% 256.0% Guadalajara 0.000% 0.018% 0.017% 0.047% 0.046% 0.074% 311.1% Toledo 0.022% 0.024% 0.027% 0.036% 0.042% 0.087% 295.5% Castile-La Mancha 0.009% 0.012% 0.015% 0.022% 0.034% 0.067% 644.4% Barcelona 0.009% 0.015% 0.027% 0.049% 0.058% 0.103% 1044.4% Girona 0.003% 0.006% 0.019% 0.030% 0.051% 0.095% 3066.7% * Lleida 0.000% 0.000% 0.012% 0.023% 0.042% 0.120% 900.0% Tarragona 0.010% 0.013% 0.016% 0.021% 0.035% 0.068% 580.0% Catalonia 0.008% 0.013% 0.024% 0.043% 0.055% 0.100% 1150.0% Ceuta 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Community of Madrid 0.013% 0.039% 0.034% 0.062% 0.088% 0.261% 1907.7% * Alicante 0.006% 0.010% 0.024% 0.044% 0.068% 0.111% 1750.0% * Castellon 0.010% 0.019% 0.022% 0.030% 0.045% 0.061% 510.0% Valencia 0.010% 0.012% 0.019% 0.040% 0.056% 0.095% 850.0% Community of Valencia 0.008% 0.012% 0.021% 0.041% 0.059% 0.097% 1112.5% Badajoz 0.009% 0.008% 0.008% 0.041% 0.054% 0.124% 1277.8% * Caceres 0.015% 0.014% 0.013% 0.024% 0.029% 0.051% 240.0% Extremadura 0.012% 0.010% 0.010% 0.035% 0.045% 0.096% 700.0% A Coruña 0.009% 0.010% 0.020% 0.028% 0.043% 0.067% 644.4% Lugo 0.017% 0.016% 0.015% 0.021% 0.020% 0.033% 94.2% Orense 0.000% 0.009% 0.008% 0.008% 0.036% 0.084% 833.3% Pontevedra 0.005% 0.004% 0.006% 0.015% 0.038% 0.068% 1260.0% * Galicia 0.007% 0.008% 0.012% 0.019% 0.038% 0.065% 828.6% Balearic Islands 0.169% 0.163% 0.160% 0.179% 0.186% 0.279% 65.1% Las Palmas 0.002% 0.002% 0.006% 0.010% 0.035% 0.076% 3700.0% * Santa Cruz de Tenerife 0.005% 0.004% 0.030% 0.031% 0.044% 0.074% 1380.0% * Canary Islands 0.004% 0.003% 0.018% 0.020% 0.040% 0.075% 1775.0% La Rioja 0.000% 0.009% 0.033% 0.039% 0.038% 0.081% 800.0% Melilla 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% Navarre 0.000% 0.000% 0.011% 0.032% 0.027% 0.063% 472.7% Alava 0.000% 0.009% 0.018% 0.033% 0.063% 0.076% 744.4% Guipuzcoa 0.000% 0.000% 0.009% 0.015% 0.041% 0.102% 1033.3% Biscay 0.006% 0.013% 0.027% 0.037% 0.044% 0.095% 1483.3% * Basque Country 0.002% 0.007% 0.018% 0.027% 0.045% 0.096% 4700.0% # Principality of Asturias 0.015% 0.021% 0.036% 0.038% 0.049% 0.060% 300. 0% Region of Murcia 0.000% 0.005% 0.020% 0.084% 0.149% 0.470% 9300.0% *# * Above average by province. # Above average by region. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 343 Table B10 Registrations of other EVs in relative terms in the period 2007–2012. Source: National Traffic Department. 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Variation Rate Almeria 0.10% 0.12% 0.11% 0.13% 0.13% 0.16% 60.0% Cadiz 0.20% 0.21% 0.23% 0.23% 0.25% 0.27% 35.0% Cordoba 0.25% 0.30% 0.35% 0.35% 0.35% 0.34% 36.0% Granada 0.14% 0.23% 0.24% 0.24% 0.25% 0.26% 85.7% Huelva 0.15% 0.10% 0.17% 0.26% 0.25% 0.25% 66.7% Jaen 0.15% 0.17% 0.21% 0.21% 0.23% 0.21% 40.0% Malaga 0.20% 0.27% 0.35% 0.40% 0.43% 0.54% 170.0% * Seville 0.16% 0.20% 0.23% 0.26% 0.28% 0.35% 118.7% * Andalusia 0.17% 0.21% 0.25% 0.27% 0.28% 0.32% 83.7% # Huesca 0.07% 0.11% 0.11% 0.15% 0.14% 0.16% 128.6% * Teruel 0.17% 0.16% 0.19% 0.22% 0.20% 0.20% 17.6% Saragossa 1.38% 1.66% 1.75% 1.77% 1.76% 2.07% 50.0% Aragon 0.85% 1.04% 1.09% 1.10% 1.08% 1.24% 45.1% Cantabria 0.24% 0.32% 0.35% 0.34% 0.40% 0.44% 83.3% *,# Avila 0.00% 0.03% 0.03% 0.03% 0.03% 0.03% 0.0% Burgos 0.19% 0.25% 0.25% 0.29% 0.27% 0.30% 57.9% Leon 0.07% 0.07% 0.06% 0.11% 0.15% 0.16% 128.6% * Palencia 0.04% 0.04% 0.12% 0.11% 0.11% 0.10% 150.0% Salamanca 0.06% 0.20% 0.30% 0.39% 0.42% 0.40% 566.7% * Segovia 0.11% 0.11% 0.14% 0.13% 0.16% 0.15% 36.4% Soria 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.05% 0.05% 0.04% −20.0% Valladolid 0.47% 0.49% 0.53% 0.69% 0.68% 0.70% 48.9% Zamora 0.00% 0.00% 0.04% 0.03% 0.03% 0.03% −25.0% Castile & Leon 0.14% 0.17% 0.19% 0.24% 0.24% 0.25% 80.2% Albacete 0.05% 0.08% 0.07% 0.07% 0.07% 0.06% 20.0% Ciudad Real 0.12% 0.15% 0.18% 0.21% 0.21% 0.20% 66.7% Cuenca 0.06% 0.05% 0.05% 0.05% 0.04% 0.04% –33.3% Guadalajara 0.13% 0.11% 0.10% 0.10% 0.10% 0.13% 0.0% Toledo 0.08% 0.10% 0.13% 0.12% 0.15% 0.16% 100.0% * Castile-La Mancha 0.09% 0.10% 0.12% 0.12% 0.13% 0.13% 46.6% Barcelona 4.52% 4.75% 4.95% 5.06% 5.10% 5.38% 19.1% Girona 0.74% 0.71% 0.73% 0.78% 0.77% 0.80% 8.1% Lleida 0.48% 0.47% 0.60% 0.62% 0.71% 0.67% 39.6% Tarragona 0.31% 0.41% 0.52% 0.65% 0.79% 0.89% 187.1% # Catalonia 3.06% 3.21% 3.35% 3.43% 3.44% 3.60% 17.6% Ceuta 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% Community of Madrid 0.82% 1.04% 1.18% 1.32% 1.39% 1.51% 84.1% # Alicante 0.48% 0.68% 0.78% 0.85% 0.88% 0.97% 102.1% * Castellon 1.01% 1.19% 1.19% 1.38% 1.45% 1.38% 36.6% Valencia 4.38% 4.82% 5.30% 5.71% 6.12% 8.34% 90.4% Community of Valencia 2.58% 2.90% 3.18% 3.44% 3.66% 4.81% 86.5% # Badajoz 0.01% 0.04% 0.04% 0.04% 0.07% 0.07% 600.0% * Caceres 0.03% 0.06% 0.07% 0.08% 0.08% 0.08% 166.7% * Extremadura 0.02% 0.05% 0.06% 0.06% 0.08% 0.07% 217.4% * A Coruña 0.13% 0.18% 0.22% 0.21% 0.20% 0.19% 46.1% Lugo 0.05% 0.13% 0.16% 0.21% 0.20% 0.23% 360.0% Orense 0.14% 0.16% 0.21% 0.32% 0.32% 0.33% 135.7% Pontevedra 0.31% 0.32% 0.35% 0.36% 0.35% 0.32% 3.3% Galicia 0.19% 0.22% 0.26% 0.28% 0.27% 0.26% 37.2% Balearic Islands 0.22% 0.37% 0.42% 0.44% 0.48% 0.52% 136.4% * Las Palmas 0.79% 0.95% 1.12% 1.16% 1.23% 1.31% 65.8% Santa Cruz de Tenerife 0.25% 0.37% 0.42% 0.44% 0.47% 0.52% 108.0% Canary Islands 0.53% 0.68% 0.79% 0.82% 0.86% 0.93% 75.1% La Rioja 0.99% 1.20% 1.27% 1.49% 1.50% 1.35% 36.4% Melilla 0.37% 0.34% 0.33% 0.63% 0.63% 1.23% 232.4% * Navarre 1.26% 1.61% 1.71% 1.74% 1.69% 1.71% 35.7% Alava 0.26% 0.36% 0.34% 0.33% 0.32% 0.34% 30.8% Guipúzcoa 0.68% 0.72% 0.78% 0.88% 0.93% 1.04% 52.9% Biscay 0.70% 0.69% 0.89% 0.89% 0.90% 0.90% 28.6% Basque Country 0.62% 0.64% 0.75% 0.77% 0.78% 0.83% 33.8% Principality of Asturias 0.12% 0.15% 0.25% 0.25% 0.26% 0.26% 116.7% *# Region of Murcia 0.14% 0.24% 0.30% 0.32% 0.36% 0.38% 171.4% *# * Above average by province. # Above average by region. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 344 References ACEA Tax guide, 2014. Available at http://www.acea.be/publications/article/acea-tax-guide (accessed January, 20 th, 2016). AEAT. Spanish Tax Agency. Available at http://www.agenciatributaria.es (accessed January, 20 th, 2016). Al-Alawi, B.M., Bradley, T.H., 2013. Review of hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and electric vehicle market modeling Studies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 21, 190–203. Bjerkan, K.Y., Nørbech, T.E., Nordtomme, M.E., 2016. Incentives for promoting Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) adoption in Norway. Transp. Res. Part D 43, 169–180. Brady, J., O'Mahony, M., 2011. The potential impacts of electric vehicles on climate change and urban air quality. Transp. Res. Part D 16, 188–193. Camus, C., Farias, T., Esteves, J., 2011. Potential impacts assessment of plug-in electric vehicles on the Portuguese energy market. Energy Policy 39 (10), 5883–5897. Cansino, J.M., Pablo-Romero, M.P., Román, R., Yñiguez, R., 2010. Tax incentives to promote green electricity: an overview of EU-27 countries. Energy Policy 38 (10), 6000–6008. Cansino, J.M., Pablo-Romero, M.P., Román, R., Yñiguez, R., 2011. Promoting renewable energy sources for heating and cooling in EU-27 countries. Energy Policy 39 (6), 3803–3812. Cansino, J.M., del P Pablo-Romero, M., Román, R., Yñiguez, R., 2012. Promotion of biofuel consumption in the transport sector: an EU-27 perspective. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16 (8), 6013–6021. Cores, 2013. Informe Estadístico Anual-2012, available at http://www.cores.es/sites/default/files/archivos/publicaciones/informe-est-2012-julio-2013.pdf (Accessed February, 2 th, 2016). European Commission, Communication to the European Council, 2008. A European Economic Recovery Plan, COM (2008) 800, Brussels. European Commission Communication, A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, COM (2010) 2020 final, 2010, Brussels. European Commission, White Paper Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area –Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system, COM (2011) 144 final, 2011,Brussels. European Commission Communication, Clean Power for Transport: A European alternative fuels strategy, COM (2013) 17 final, 2013, Brussels. European Parliament and of the Council, Directive 2001/77/on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market, 2001,OJ L 283, 27.10.2001, P. 33. European Parliament and Of The Council, Directive 2003/30/on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport, 2003,OJL123,15.5.2003, p.42. European Parliament and of the Council, Directive 2003/54/EC of 26 June 2003, concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity and repealing Directive 96/92/EC, 2003,OJ L176, 15.7.2003, P.37. European Parliament and of the Council, Directive 2007/46/EC of 5 September 2007, establishing a framework for the approval of motor vehicles and their trailers, and of systems, components and separate technical units intended for such vehicles, OJ L 263, 9.10.2007, P.1. European Parliament and of The Council, 2009a, Directive 2009/28/Ec on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC,2009, OJL140, 5.6.2009, p.16. European Parliament and of The Council, 2009b, Directive 2009/30/EC, amending Directive 98/70/EC as regards the specification of petrol, diesel and gas-oil and introducing a mechanism to monitor and reduce greenhouse gas emissions and amending Council Directive 1999/32/EC as regards the specification of fuel used by inland waterway vessels and repealing Directive 93/12/EEC, 2009,OJL 140,5.6.2009, p.8. European Parliament and of The Council, 2009c, Directive 2009/33/EC, on the promotion of clean and energy-efficient road transport vehicles, 2009, OJL140, 15.5. 2009, p.5. European Parliament and of the Council, 2009d, Directive 2009/72/ECof 13 July 2009 concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity and repealing Directive 2003/54/EC, 2009,OJ L 211, 14.8.2009, P.55. European Parliament and of the Council, 2009e, Regulation (EC) No 443/2009 of the of 23 April 2009, setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of the Community's integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles,2009, OJ L 140, 5.6.2009, p.1. European Parliament and of The Council Regulation (EU) No 510/2011 of 11 May 2011, on setting emission performance standards for new light commercial vehicles as part of the Union's integrated approach to reduce CO 2 emissions from light-duty vehicles,2011, OJ L 145, 31.5.2011, p.1. European Parliament and of the Council, on the establishment of a Program for the Environment and Climate Action (LIFE) OJEU, L 347/185.12.2014. González-Limón, J.M., Pablo-Romero, M.P., Sánchez-Braza, A., 2013. Understanding local adoption of tax credits to promote solar-thermal energy: Spanish municipalities’case. Energy 62, 277–284. Green eMotion Project in http://www.greenemotion-project.eu/about-us/index.php, (accessed January, 20 th, 2016). Hannan, M.A., Azidina, F.A., Mohamed, A., 2014. Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 29, 135–150. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.097. Jefatura del Estado, ley 54/1997, de 27 de noviembre del sector eléctrico,1997, BOE n°285 de 28.11.1997, p. 35097. Ji, S., Cherry, C.R., Bechle, M.J., Wu, Y., Marshall, J.D., 2012. Electric vehicles in China: emissions and health impacts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 2018–2024. Jochem, P., Doll, C., Fichtner, W., 2016. External costs of electric vehicles. Transp. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 42, 60–76. Krause, R.M., Carley, S.R., Lane, B.W., Graham, J.D., 2013. Perception and reality: public knowledge of plug-in electric vehicles in 21 U.S. cities. Energy Policy. 63, 433–440. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.09.018. Ma, H., Balthasar, F., Tait, N., Riera-Palou, X., Harrison, A., 2012. A new comparison between the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of battery electric vehicles and internal combustion vehicles. Energy Policy 44, 160–173. Mierlo, J.V., Maggeto, G., Lataire, P., 2006. Which energy source for road transport in the future? A comparison of battery, hybrid and fuel cell vehicles. Energy Convers. Manage. 47 (17), 2748–2760. Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio, Real Decreto 648/2011, de 9 de mayo, por el que se regula la concesión directa de subvenciones para la adquisición de EVs durante 2011, en el marco del Plan de acción 2010-2012 del Plan integral de impulso al EVs en España 2010-2014,BOE n° 111, 10.5.2011. Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio, Real Decreto 647/2011, de 9 de mayo, por el que se regula la actividad de gestor de cargas del sistema para la realización de servicios de recarga energética .BOE n°122, 23.5.2011. Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio, Real Decreto 294/2013, de 26 de abril, por el que se regula la concesión directa de subvenciones para la adquisición de EVs en 2013, en el marco de la Estrategia integral para el impulso del EVs en España 2010-2014. BOE n° 101, 27.4.2013, p.32072. Nunes, P., Farias, T., Rito, M.C., 2015. Enabling solar electricity with electric vehicles smart charging. Energy. 87 (1), 10–20. Perujo, A., Ciuffo, B.A., 2010. New comparison between the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of battery electric vehicles and internal combustion vehicles. Energy Policy 38, 4549–4561. Proff, H., Kilian, D. (Eds.), 2012. Competitiveness of the EU automotive industry in electric vehicles. University of Duisburg-Essen. Siang, F.T., Chee Wei, T., 2013. A review of energy sources and energy management system in electric vehicles. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 20 (April), 82–102. Sioshansi, R., Fagiani, R., Marano, V., 2010. Cost and emissions impacts of plug-in hybrid vehicles on the Ohio power system. Energy Policy 38, 6703–6712. Sioshansi, R., Miller, J., 2011. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles can be clean and economical in dirty power systems. Energy Policy 39, 6151–6161. J.M. Cansino, R. Yñiguez Transportation Research Part D 59 (2018) 325–345 345