A longitudinal study on the stability and predictors of flourishing among emerging adults

Depósito de investigación de la Universidad de Sevilla https://idus.us.es/ ©Canadian Psychological Association, [2022]. This paper is not the copy of record and may not exactly replicate the authoritative document published in the APA journal. The final article is available, upon publication, at: https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 1 A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults Abstract Flourishing is a concept that combines hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Flourishing is advantageous for both individuals themselves and the society in which they live. The present study analyses the stability, predictors and correlates of flourishing during the initial years of emerging adulthood, along with gender differences. The sample comprised 400 emerging adults (268 women) who completed a questionnaire at two time points: wave 1 (mean age= 20.31; SD= 2.04) and, three years later: wave 2 (mean age= 23.66; SD= 2.08). The results indicate that flourishing is stable during this time period and that emerging adult women flourish more than their male counterparts. This high level of stability notwithstanding, the results indicate that having a romantic partner and enjoying social support from parents, friends and one's partner foster flourishing and cause it to increase over the course of this period. The findings reveal how important it is for young people to feel supported, since although they are engaged in a search for autonomy and independence, they continue to need social support. Keywords: flourishing, emerging adulthood, developmental task, social support, gender differences, longitudinal Study. This work was supported by a grant from the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Agencia Estatal de Investigación (Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, EDU2013-45687-R), Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, Agencia Estatal de Investigación (Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, Spanish State Research Agency) and European Regional Development Fund (RTI2018-097405-B-I00). This work was approved by the Coordinating Committee for the Ethics of Biomedical Research in Andalusia (Spain). We are also grateful to Tenured Associate Professor Carlos Camacho for his statistics advice. De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 2 De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 3 The concept of well-being refers to people's subjective perceptions regarding the quality of their lives (Ryff & Singer, 2000). The scientific literature has traditionally made a conceptual distinction between hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Hedonic well-being encompasses subjective or emotional well-being, the components of which are happiness, satisfaction with life and the balance between positive and negative affect (Diener 1984). Psychological well-being and social wellbeing together comprise eudaimonic well-being and include a wide variety of components such as meaning, engagement, purpose in life, positive relations and personal growth (Keyes, 2002; Ryan et al., 2008; Ryff, 1989). The concept of flourishing combines both types of well-being and is understood as the search for an authentic life aimed at achieving the highest possible levels of both hedonic (i.e., feeling good) and eudaimonic well-being (i.e., functioning effectively) (Huppert & So, 2013; Keyes & Annas, 2009). Many studies support the idea that a flourishing life is associated with a broad range of advantageous outcomes for individuals in terms of physical health, satisfaction with life, self-esteem, vitality, academic performance, productivity at work and psychosocial functioning (Huta & Ryan, 2010; Keyes, 2007; Keyes et al., 2012; Lamers et al., 2011; Peterson et al., 2005; Schotanus-Dijkstra et al., 2016; Vella-Brodrick et al., 2009). These findings have led to the conclusion that flourishing is not just beneficial to the individual concerned, but also contributes to the well-being of society in general (Keyes & Annas, 2009; Vanderweele et al., 2019), which is why understanding its evolution and identifying its predictors may help enhance individual flourishing and lead, ultimately, to greater social well-being. Emerging adulthood, the life stage which occurs between the ages of 18 and 29 years (Arnett, 2000), is a transition period that is considered crucial in the determination of people's health and well-being pathways (Chen et al., 2019). Previous research has shown that emerging adults are particularly at risk of certain difficulties, including mental health problems, injury and alcohol and drug abuse (Gandhi et al., 2018; Merikangas et al., 2009; O’Connor et al., 2011; Tanner et al., 2007). These risks may challenge the flourishing of emerging adults (Nelson & Padilla-Walker, 2013) in different domains, principally educational attainment, the establishment of professional and personal trajectories, vitality, life satisfaction and physical health (Coffey et a., 2016; Tanner et al., 2007). Emerging adulthood also involves a delay in the assumption of adult roles that enables young people to explore their own identity and the world around them from an adult perspective, but without the serious consequences that full adulthood entails, since they do not yet have any major responsibilities (Arnett, 2000, 2015). Consequently, despite the risks outlined above, emerging adulthood is generally a stage in which young people flourish (Padilla-Walker, & Nelson, 2017). The few longitudinal studies De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 4 that have been carried out previously with this population have shown that, among emerging adult university students (in their freshman, sophomore and final years), wellbeing tends to increase (Walker, 2009), or at least remain stable (Coffey et al., 2016). This last finding coincides with those reported by authors focusing on adulthood, who found that well-being remains stable during adulthood, including emerging adulthood (Diener & Suh, 1998; Lucas & Gohm, 2000; Pinquart, 2001). The present study aims to analyzed the flourishing of emerging adults, the changes that may occur during this stage and the predictors of these changes. Gender is a key variable that determines both our view of ourselves and how we relate to others. The results reported by studies analyzing the association between gender and flourishing con población adulta, incluida la adultez emergente, are inconclusive (Batz & Tay, 2018), with some finding that women flourish more than men (Shotanus-Dijkstra et al., 2016; Tong & Wang, 2017), others finding that men flourish significantly more than women (Keyes 2007; Keyes & Simoes, 2012) and others finding no gender differences in this sense (Li et al., 2013; Martín-Carbonell et al., 2021). These inconsistent results highlight the importance of continuing to accumulate evidence regarding the role of gender in flourishing. As well as determining whether or not flourishing changes over the course of emerging adulthood and the possible role played by gender in this, it is also important to explore what other variables may explain flourishing among young people. For example, successes and difficulties accomplishing the developmental tasks (Havighurst, 1972) inherent to this stage may explain some of the differences observed in flourishing, as well as the changes that take place during this period. The developmental tasks of emerging adulthood coincide with what are often referred to as the "markers of adulthood". These are achievements which mark the entry of young people into the adult world. The most frequently considered markers are attaining financial independence, establishing a stable romantic relationship, moving out of the family home and becoming a parent (Baggio et al., 2017; Scharf et al., 2004; Schulenberg & Zarrett, 2006). Consistently with Havirghurst's theory (1972), we expect emerging adults who perceive themselves as adults and who feel they are fulfilling the roles that society expects of them to feel better able to cope with the demands of their environment and consequently, to have higher levels of flourishing. Reliable evidence has been reported indicating that higher levels of positive development and well-being among emerging adults are associated with positive relationships with family and friends (O'Connor et al., 2011). Although social support plays a key role in individual well-being throughout the entire life cycle, it is particularly important to the flourishing of young people during emerging adulthood (Ciarrochi et al., 2017; Holliman et al., 2021; Lee & Goldstein, 2016; Taylor, 2011; Thomas et al., 2017). In this sense, it is important to highlight the fact that the De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 5 establishment of a stable romantic relationship is one of the developmental tasks of emerging adulthood. Indeed, social support from one's romantic partner has been linked to young people's health and well-being (Lee et al., 2018). Although flourishing is viewed as the focal point for research in the field of positive psychology (Dodge et al., 2012; Huppert & So, 2013; Schotanus-Dijkstra et al., 2015), few studies have sought to analyze the prevalence of flourishing among the general non-clinical population with no particular problems (Schotanus-Dijkstra et al., 2016), and fewer still have focused on flourishing during emerging adulthood (Chen et al., 2019) from a longitudinal perspective. The aim of the present study is to provide data on flourishing and its precursors throughout emerging adulthood, in order to enable greater insight into the evolution of this variable across the period and determine how gender, the accomplishment of developmental tasks and social support are associated with it during the early and middle years of this stage. The study has three specific aims. Firstly, to analyze the stability of flourishing during the early and middle years of emerging adulthood; secondly, to explore possible gender differences in flourishing; and thirdly, to determine the possible effect of social support and the accomplishment of the developmental tasks inherent to the stage on flourishing during the middle years of emerging adulthood, and to chart any changes in this sense since the early part of the period. In relation to the first aim, our hypothesis is that flourishing will remain stable between the two time points analyzed (Coffey et al., 2016; Diener et al., 2006). In terms of the second aim, and due to the disparity of research findings to date, we are unable to formulate a clear hypothesis. Finally, we expect social support and the accomplishment of the developmental tasks inherent to emerging adulthood to foster flourishing at both time points studied, and to predict a possible increase in its level. Method Sample The study involved the longitudinal monitoring of a group of young emerging adults. The sample comprised 400 emerging adults, 268 women (67%) and 132 men. During the first wave of data collection (W1), participants were aged between 18 and 28 years (M= 20.31 and SD=2.04). Three years later (W2), they were aged between 21 and 32 years (M= 23.66; SD= 2.08). In W1, INCLUIR NIVEL ESTUDIOS Y CON QUIEN VIVEN participants reported low (18.5 %), medium (69.7 %) and high (11.8 %) family income levels, while in W2, the percentages were as follows: low (22 %), medium (59.5 %) and high (18.5 %). Procedure In W1, data were collected from 1502 students from the University of [removed for blind review] and the University of [removed for blind review]. Subjects were De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 6 recruited by considering the representative distribution of the different subject areas (MECD 2016): Arts and Humanities (8.5% in our sample, 9.5% Spanish university), Social Sciences and Legal Studies (32.2%), Engineering and Architecture (23.5%), Health Sciences (29.2%), and Sciences (6.7%). In the spring of 2015, specially trained members of the research team collected data in the university classroom setting en papel. Participants were informed of the purpose of the study and were assured of the anonymity and confidentiality of their answers. Participation was voluntary. Every student present in the classroom when fieldwork was underway agreed to participate and all were asked to voluntarily leave their contact details (e-mail or telephone number). Of the 1502 students in the original sample, 902 left contact details (e-mail or telephone number). Three years later, we contacted them again to ask them to complete another online survey. Of those contacted, 34 asked to withdraw and 451 did not answer (telephone numbers not belonging to them or e-mails that were either undelivered or unanswered). A total of 417 completed questionnaires were received during the second wave of the study (W2), of which 17 were eliminated due to acquiescence, low response rates or duplicated responses, resulting in a final sample of 400 participants. The research study complies with the Ethical Principles of the Helsinki Declaration. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of [removed for blind review]”. Attrition Analysis In general, no major differences were observed between participants who remained in the study and those who did not. The data indicated that, among those remaining in the study in W2, there were more women than would be expected due to chance χ²= 10.76; p= .001, although the effect size was small (Cramer's V = .08). This group also contained a higher proportion than would be expected by chance of participants who had a romantic partner in W1 (χ²= 6.87; p= .009, Cramer’s V= .068), again with a small effect size. Moreover, participants who remained in the study in W2 reported in W1 less perceived social support from friends t (601.99)= 2.58 p= .010, Cohen's d= .015 and family t (641.70)= 2.48, p= .013, Cohen's d= .015 than those who left, both with a negligible effect size. No differences were observed between participants who remained in the study and those who did not in terms of income level (χ²= 4.62; p= .099); employment situation (χ²= .003; p= .960); living independently (χ²= 3.33; p= .068); flourishing level t (1.500)= .53; p= .597 and perceived social support from their romantic partner t (801)= .15; p= .881. De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 7 Instruments Sociodemographic variables Information was collected regarding gender (male or female) and perceived level of family income. Perceived family income was measured using an ad hoc three-point scale ranging from 1 (low: perception of serious financial difficulties) to 3 (high, perception of having a high enough income to live comfortably). The markers of adulthood To measure the markers of emerging adulthood, participants were asked whether they had or were looking for a job, whether they had a romantic partner and whether they had moved out of the family home. Responses were dichotomized into two levels for analysis. Employment: “0 Unemployed/Not looking for a job” and “1 Employed/ Looking for a job”; Partner: “0 Single” and “1 Partner”; Having moved out of the family home: “0 Living with family or in a student residence and “1 Living independently”. Participants were not asked about being parents since, although this is considered one of the developmental tasks of this stage in many cultures, in Spain most people start having children after the age of 30, well beyond the age range of our sample. Flourishing We used the Spanish version (De la Fuente et al., 2017) of the Flourishing Scale (Diener et al., 2010). This scale comprises eight items (e.g., “I lead a purposeful and meaningful life”) measured rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). Se calculó el sumatorio. Puntuaciones más altas implican mayor nivel de florecimiento. A total alpha of .81 was obtained in W1, and in W2 this value was .84. Social Support We used the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (Zimet et al., 1988). This scale comprises three 4-item subscales, rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). Se calcularon las puntuaciones medias, el rango de las puntuaciones va de 4 a 28. Assesses social support from friends, (α = .90 in W1 and α =.90 in W2), e.g., “My friends really try to help me”; social support from family (α =.89 in W1 and α =.92 in W2), e.g., “I can count on my family when things go wrong”; and social support from a "special person". Our research team replaced the "special person" subscale with one measuring social support from a romantic partner (α = .92 in W1 and α =.90 in W2), e.g., “I can talk about my problems with my partner”. De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 8 Data Analysis The IBM SPSS Statistics 22 program was used for the data analysis. First, we calculated the means and standard deviations (continuous variables), and the frequencies and percentages (categorical variables), of all the variables included in the study. Next, we analyzed the absolute and relative stability of the flourishing variable. To calculate the absolute stability, we first determined whether changes had occurred in participants' mean flourishing level across the two time periods analyzed (Absolute Stability) (Caspi & Roberts, 1999; Jones & Peskin, 2010), using the repeated measures Student's t test. To determine to what extent participants had maintained their relative flourishing position, or whether important fluctuations existed in the occupation of different positions within the sample itself, we calculated the correlations between the two measurement times (Relative Stability) (Alder & Scher, 1994). To analyze whether coping with the developmental tasks inherent to emerging adulthood was associated with flourishing, we conducted means comparisons (Student's t tests for independent groups) between the variables markers of adulthood and flourishing in W2. To determine the relationship between flourishing and social support from family, friends and romantic partner, we then correlated these variables in W2. Finally, to explore the role played by different explanatory variables in flourishing in W2, we calculated different regression equation models. In the first model, we included developmental tasks at the same measurement time as flourishing; in the second one, in order to establish causal relations, we added the social support variables in W1. In model 3, we analyzed the predictive role of these variables at the same measurement time; and in model 4, we used an autoregressive model in which flourishing in W1 was included as a predictor of flourishing in W2. This method allows us to conclude that the variables which form part of the autoregressive model not only are the cause of flourishing in W2, but also help explain the changes which occurred in this variable between the two time points measured. Results The repeated measures means comparison performed to assess absolute stability revealed that flourishing remained stable throughout the period studied, with no significant differences being observed three years after the first wave of data collection (M = 46.54, SD= 5.69 in W1 and M= 46.13, SD= 6.34 in W2 (t= 1.40; p= .162). The relative stability of flourishing was also high throughout the study period, as shown by the large Pearson correlation coefficient (Cohen, 1988) between W1 and W2 (r= .53; p< .001). The data also revealed that women (M= 47.09/46.67 in W1 and W2, respectively) scored higher for flourishing than men (M= 45.42/ 45.02) in both W1 (t = - 2.62, p= .009) and W2 (t = -2.46; p= .014). Furthermore, those with a low income level scored lower for flourishing than those with a medium or high one (Table 1). De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 15 One of the principal contributions made by this study is the confirmation, with longitudinal data, of the role played by social support in predicting flourishing and changes in this variable between the early and middle years of emerging adulthood. Indeed, the regression equation revealed that social support from family and friends at the start of emerging adulthood predicts flourishing levels three years later, and that concurrent social support levels explain the changes observed in flourishing between W1 and W2. This is particularly important if we take into consideration the fact that, as stated earlier, flourishing is a very stable variable that undergoes few changes. In other words, social support is important enough to explain the little change observed. Many previous studies have associated perceived social support from family and friends with health outcomes, quality of life and even an increase in life expectancy during adulthood (Helgeson, 2003; Helsen et al., 2000; Martinez-Hernandez et al., 2016; Uchino, 2006). As Taylor (2011) states, social support generates well-being through physiological, neuroendocrine and immunological mechanisms. In this sense, social support triggers an increase in oxytocin, which is directly related to feelings of well-being. Social support also reduces stress, thereby avoiding the associated negative immunological and physiological consequences (Lee & Goldstein, 2016; Lee et al., 2018). The role of social support from one's romantic partner is slightly more controversial. The correlation or cross product analysis indicated that it is not so much that social support from one's romantic partner predicts flourishing, but rather that people who flourish are more likely to perceive social support from their partner three years later. Indeed, social support from one's partner in W1 did not form part of the explanatory model of flourishing in W2, although having a romantic partner at that time did. When concurrent variables were included, the results revealed that, as with social support from family and friends, the flourishing levels in W2 of those who felt supported by their romantic partners at that moment had increased in comparison with W1. Although further research is required in this sense, it is plausible to hypothesize that these data may be explained in developmental terms. As stated earlier, emerging adulthood is a period of change and instability (Arnett, 2000, 2015). In the original theory, these changes refer to changes in romantic partner (as well as others such as changes in residence or job). Emerging adulthood is therefore a period in which young people must balance their plans for their future professional and romantic lives, with couples often breaking up due to the incompatibility of these interests (Shulman & Connolly, 2013). Since this balance is achieved gradually over the course of emerging adulthood, romantic partners are more likely to be important elements in young people’s lives at the age of 23.5 years (the mean age of participants in our study in W2), and may even have become attachment figures. It is therefore in W2 that partners become figures whose social support is more clearly associated with flourishing. This hypothesis needs to be confirmed in future studies. De la Fuente, R., Sánchez-Queija, I., Parra, A. (2022). A Longitudinal Study on the Stability and Predictors of Flourishing among Emerging Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 55(3), 210- 219. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000327 16 Limitations Despite its strengths, the study also has some limitations that should be taken into consideration. Firstly, the sample was comprised exclusively of university students. It is therefore unclear to what extent the results can be generalized to non universitygoing emerging adults. Although the number of young people attending university has increased significantly over recent years (Arnett 2015), many emerging adults are not students; these young people are underrepresented in research into emerging adulthood (Arnett 2000). Future research should therefore take this into account and make a concerted effort to recruit non-university participants. Finally, our sample group contained a high percentage of women, which should also be taken into consideration when drawing conclusions. Conclusions The results of the present study expand our knowledge of flourishing among emerging adults in several different ways. Firstly, they indicate that flourishing remains stable across the early and middle years of emerging adulthood, despite the fact that this stage is considered to be one of changes, shifts and difficulties for young people. Our results also reveal a gender gap in flourishing, with women having higher levels than men. During the transition to adulthood, flourishing is associated with the successful accomplishment of the developmental tasks inherent to this stage, particularly those of becoming financially independent and finding a stable romantic partner. Finally, our results demonstrate that young people's development during emerging adulthood is inextricably linked to their relationships with their friends, family and partner, which influence their pathways and opportunities in life (Aquilino, 2006). Young people flourish more if they perceive social support from their friends, family and/or partner. As in previous developmental stages, social support from family and friends is important for flourishing in the early years of emerging adulthood also. However, it is only later than support from one's partner begins to have the same degree of influence. The present study provides data on flourishing during emerging adulthood from a longitudinal perspective, an outlook that enables us to explore human development from a much more complex time-related viewpoint than the snapshot image provided by cross-cutting research. Moreover, the study focuses on emerging adulthood, a stage that has emerged only recently (Arnett, 2000) and which is still largely unexplored. 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