Olympism in School and Competitive Anxiety: Its Influence on Participants and Their Perceptions

Abstract Anxiety is one of the most widespread mental health disorders worldwide. It is prevalent throughout the life cycle and appears in multiple contexts, such as sports.In line with the idea of sport as a means of promoting integral health, the Andalusian Olympic Foundation promotes Olympic values through the “Olympism in School” programme. This programme, developed in two phases – theoretical and practical (including a “Mini Olympics”) – aims to improve the psychological development of participants through sporting competition. In order to demonstrate whether the management of factors such as competitive anxiety was achieved through this programme, 153 children aged 10-13 completed a socio-demographic data questionnaire and the SAS-2 questionnaire after participating in sporting events. The results showed that the participants endured intermediate levels of competitive anxiety (with greater weight given to the worry factor) and that the anxiety was greater in children not used to competition or who did not usually enjoy it. These findings indicate that competition is a factor related to anxiety in children and that strategies for managing the impact of the competitive context are necessary to enable enjoyment and healthy participation. Keywords: Competition, Physical Education, Somatic Anxiety, Worry, Distraction Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 https://doi.org/10.2478/pcssr-2024-0012 Olympism in School and Competitive Anxiety: Its Influence on Participants and Their Perceptions Alejandro Lara-Bocanegra*1A-E , M. Rocío Bohórquez2A-E *Correspondence: Alejandro Lara-Bocanegra, C/Pirotecnia s/n, 41013, Sevilla, Spain; email: [email protected] Authors’ contribution: A) conception and design of the study B) acquisition of data C) analysis and interpretation of data D) manuscript preparation E) obtaining funding Received: 21.08.2024 Accepted: 14.01.2024 1Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad de Sevilla. Sevilla, Spain. 2Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Education Sciences, Universidad de Sevilla. Sevilla, Spain. Introduction Olympism in School There is some interest in Olympic education in the scientific literature, and a number of authors have conducted studies on the topic. For Brownlee (2000), Olympic education is an integrative concept in which the values of Olympism (e.g. tolerance, individual development, respect, cultural and personal identity, etc.) are combined with the philosophy of the Olympic movement. An important aspect would be to differentiate between Olympism and Olympic values, which, due to their particular idiosyncrasy, are closely related (Olympic Charter, 2020). Based on the Olympic Charter (2020), Olympism can be understood as a movement in which sport is associated with culture and education and, based on essential values, promotes a lifestyle associated with effort, setting a good example, social responsibility and respect for the fundamental ethical principles. However, Olympic education cannot be reduced to academic knowledge alone, but goes beyond that (Peneva, 2009). For other authors, this construct is complex, with great possibilities and great ignorance on the part of the educational community (González-Mármol et al., 2015; Hood and Kirkpatrick, 2010; Molina, 2011). 58 Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 As stated in the Olympic Charter (2020), the values of Olympism must be transmitted, so various organisations are responsible for this function. At the national level, the Spanish Olympic Committee is in charge of these functions. As stated in the Olympic Charter (2020), National Committees must promote the principles and values of Olympism in their respective countries, supporting Olympic education programmes at all levels of primary and secondary education. At the regional level, Andalusia has the Andalusian Olympic Foundation, which, as stated in Article 5 of Chapter I of its Statutes, is responsible for “developing and promoting the Olympic Movement in Andalusia under the principles of the Olympic Charter, uniting culture, education and sport, seeking the integral development of society and contributing to a better and more peaceful world” (Andalusian Olympic Foundation, 2022). From the Andalusian Olympic Foundation, Olympic education has been integrated into schools through its Olympism in the School programme (Arévalo and Sotoca, 2014; Andalusian Olympic Foundation, 2022). Specifically, this programme aims to introduce students from schools (state, subsidised and/or private) into the world of Olympism through the celebration of an Olympic Week at their own schools, where participants must apply the Olympic values of team performance, justice, self-realisation, respect for opponents, etc., as well as compliance with rules and achievement of collective and personal goals (Andalusian Olympic Foundation, 2022). As already explained by Arévalo and Sotoca (2014), the programme itself has two phases: the first is more theoretical and involves analysis and development of theoretical materials provided by the Andalusian Olympic Foundation; all schools that wish to participate do so. In the second phase, with a practical orientation, schools send a dossier reporting all activities at their centre to promote Olympic education and a video recording showing the degree of implementation and development of Olympism in the school. After receiving all materials, the Andalusian Olympic Foundation evaluates what was received and selects 14 schools from different Andalusian localities to participate in a “Mini Olympics”. This competition takes place over seven days, during which the selected schools participate in a multi-sport competition (mini-tennis, mini-basketball, wrestling, rowing ergometer, boccia, tag rugby and track’athlon). All sports modalities are counted to generate a general classification after the last test. Schools must select a team from their schools (10–12 individuals), who may belong to any cycle of primary education. As stated by the Andalusian Olympic Foundation (2022), a total of 235 Andalusian schools participated in its 2021 edition, with more than 55 000 students; only 14 schools were included. It is a consolidated programme with great potential for action. Olympic sport and Olympism have competition as their central component. However, competition cannot always be associated with positive values or adaptation; it can be detrimental to participants when not designed well or adjsuted to the ages and characteristics of the target population. These characteristics include a higher risk of injuries, frustration, and competitive anxiety. Competitive Anxiety There are an increasing number of mental health problems in the world, with anxiety being one of the most prominent (Eime et al., 2013; Nixdorf et al., 2016; Pluhar et al., 2019). As various authors have pointed out (Glover and Fritsch, 2018; Sabiston et al., 2016), anxiety is an endemic illness, with prevalence data ranging from 5–10% in children and up to 25% in adolescents. In this context, physical activity has been shown to be a useful tool in the prevention and management of anxiety disorders (Eime et al., 2013; Nixdorf et al., 2016). However, sports practice can also have an impact on the development of psychological disorders in childhood and adolescence, such as eating disorders (Díaz-Ceballos, 2005; Pustivšek et al., 2020), or anxiety disorders (García-Ceberino et al., 2022; Ortega-Vila et al., 2020; Pluhar et al., 2019; Wang, 2023). Conceptualisation Anumber of authors have attempted to approach the construct of anxiety, being defined by some as the emotional state characterised by apprehension and tension (Martens, 1977; Spielberger, 1966). Rice et al. (2019) reported that anxiety is characterised by emotional responses linked to fear, mistrust, dread, etc. in response to a real or perceived threat. In addition, Spielberger (1971) stated that the level of anxiety experienced by a subject at a given moment does not depend solely on the stressful situation itself, but will be linked to the subject’s perception of the danger or harm of the situation. In the field of sports and competition, anxiety can be conceptualised as a trait (linked to the athlete’s personality) or as a state (characterised by feelings associated with the activation of the organism depending on the moment in which it is found) (Martens et al., 1990). Thus, Morris et al. (1981) defined competitive anxiety as the set of negative expectations and cognitive concerns about oneself, the situation at hand, or possible consequences. Likewise, anxiety cannot be understood as a unidimensional construct, as it represents a clear physical component (somatic anxiety) and a thinking component (cognitive anxiety) (Pérez-Cáceres et al., 2021; Pulido et al., 2019; Weinberg and Gould, 1995). The competitive anxiety model of Martens et al. (1990), a reference model in the conceptualisation and analysis of child and youth competitive anxiety, differentiates between somatic and cognitive anxiety. Somatic anxiety is the set of psychological and affective elements of the experience of anxiety that develop from one’s own level of activation and are manifested through Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 59 bodily symptoms linked to the autonomic nervous system (e.g., sweating, tachycardia, tremors, etc.) (Arnau et al., 2018; Pérez-Cáceres et al.; 2021; Rodríguez-Gómez and Granero-Gallegos, 2004). As for cognitive anxiety, it is considered as the mental component of anxiety caused by negative expectations about a situation or self-evaluation (Martens et al., 1990; Pérez-Cáceres et al., 2021; Ramis et al., 2010). Based on this model, Smith et al. (1990) proposed a differentiation within the cognitive component: worry and distraction. Worry refers to concern about possible negative consequences of poor performance and distraction, while distraction is associated with athletes’ difficulty in focusing on key aspects of a task, which prevents them from having clarity of thought during competition (Grossbard et al., 2009). Competitive Anxiety and Main Study Variables At a sports level, Borges et al. (2020) indicate that competition represents a challenge, which can be a source of activation or the origin of alterations for the athlete. In this sense, there are various variables that affect the perceptions of athletes in one way or another (e.g. sex, age, competitive level, etc.), and have an impact on their degree of anxiety (Anshel, 1995; Rice et al., 2019; Ruiz-Juan et al., 2016). Thus, the most widely addressed variables related to competitive anxiety are: age (Bohórquez and Checa, 2017; Ramis et al., 2015), gender (Grossbard et al., 2009; Parnabas, 2015; Pulido et al., 2019), and type of activity practised (Bohórquez and Checa, 2017; Núñez et al., 2020; Ramis et al., 2013), as well as other variables such as competitive level, group cohesion, and resilience (Arnau et al., 2018; Bohórquez and Checa, 2017; Pérez-Cáceres et al., 2021; Pulido et al., 2019; Ramis et al., 2015). Similarly, the scientific community has also taken account of the influence of sports and competitive practice of relatives, and athletes’ tastes and/or competitive experience and their interaction with competitive anxiety (Bohórquez and Checa, 2017). Thus, the importance of competitive anxiety for children has been examined, leadoing to an increase in the number of studies linked to this theme (Arnau et al., 2018; Bohórquez and Checa, 2017; Bois et al., 2009; Borges et al., 2020; García-Mas et al., 2011; Grossbard et al., 2007; Grossbard et al., 2009; Pérez-Cáceres et al., 2021; Pluhar et al., 2019; Ramis et al., 2013). High levels of competitive anxiety are presented as a predictor of abandoning sports practice and are associated with low performance and less enjoyment (Gould et al., 1985; Scanlan et al., 2005; Smith and Smoll, 1991). Furthermore, competitive anxiety can act as a block to or debilitating element in performance, acting at a motor, physiological and cognitive level, with the latter being associated with concern for performance (Borges et al., 2020; Ponseti et al., 2016). The higher values of competitive anxiety found in male athletes are linked to a higher level of demand and, as a consequence, a higher level of performance (Borges et al., 2020), which may be linked to greater experience at competitive levels. Pluhar et al. (2019) indicate that young athletes in individual sports activities demonstrate higher levels of anxiety and depression than those in collective sports. In the case of family sports practice, Bohórquez and Checa (2017) stated that it does not influence the competitive anxiety of minors, although it could be linked to family expectations and their sports practice. However, minors’ sports practice depends on the support provided by parents, which may be linked to their own sports practices (Barber et al., 1999). In addition, Bois et al. (2009) indicated that family practices at the level of support-un- derstanding or pressure would influence subjects’ anxiety. While the relationship between competitive sports practice and experiencing anxiety in childhood and adolescence has been studied, there is currently no information available about the relationship between competitive sports practice in school sports and competitive anxiety. Thus, it is necessary to explore the influence that this competition may have on participants’ competitive anxiety depending on the influence of family members’ sports practice (mother, father and siblings), family members’ competitive habits (mother, father and siblings), and the affinity with competitive contexts and the competitive experience of young athletes. Research Problem As Gómez-Mármol et al. (2019) point out, there are few studies in Spain that address Olympism from an educational perspective. Therefore, focusing on the influence of this type of action on the subjects involved would be key in developing effective programmes that do not negatively affect their participants. In accordance with this aim, Arévalo and Sotoca (2014) focused on analysing teachers’ perceptions in the Olympism in School programme, but attending to the perceptions of teachers and focusing closely on the more theoretical and conceptual part of the programme. However, there is a lack research related to the practical part of this programme and its relationship to the anxiety its participants might perceive in the Mini Olympics competition; as representatives of their schools, they could feel a responsibility and expectations that are far removed from the pricnipal aim of this type of programme. After participating in the organisation of some of the tests of the Mini Olympics in Andalusia, the first author of this paper was able to verify first-hand that participants (often novices in competition) showed signs of nervousness and frustration, which gave the event a charater far removed from the original spirit intended (a fun environment, personal and group growth, and values linked to Olympism). Therefore, after consulting the existing literature, a research gap was detected on this theme 60 Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 and a need to determine whether the programme itself was moving away from its primary sense or whether it required some type of modification. It was also evident that there is controversy regarding the experience/demand of competitive activities and the action of family sports practices in relation to competitive anxiety perceived by children. This subject requires greater in-depth analysis, and this paper can help shed light on these aspects. Research Objectives and Hypotheses After reflecting on all of the reasons above, the main objective of this work is to determine the influence of the Mini Olympics phase of the Olympism in School programme of the Andalusian Olympic Foundation on competitive anxiety as perceived by participants. The previous main objective suggests two specific objectives: – Detect competitive anxiety among Mini Olympics participants based on family sports practice and attendance at competitions (father, mother or siblings). – Detect competitive anxiety among Mini Olympics participants based on their taste and competitive experience. Based on the stated objectives, the following research hypotheses are formulated: H1 Mini Olympics participants will perceive intermediate levels of competitive anxiety. H2 Those participants in the Mini Olympics whose parents play sports will perceive more competitive anxiety than those whose relatives are not involved in sports. H3 Those participants in the Mini Olympics whose parents compete will perceive more competitive anxiety than those whose relatives are not involved in competitive activity. H4 Those participants in the Mini Olympics who do not like to compete will perceive more competitive anxiety than those who declare the aim to enjoy competitive activity. H5 Those participants in the Mini Olympics without previous competitive experience will perceive more competitive anxiety than those who have competed before Methodology Participants This study involves students selected for the Mini Olympics phase of the Olympism in School programme of the Andalusian Olympic Foundation. Following the rules of this competition, 14 schools participate with a representation of 10–12 subjects per school, so the total sample universe is 140–168 subjects. The sample selection was carried out through a non-probabilistic convenience sampling, and a total sample of 153 subjects (91.07% of Table 1. Main sociodemographic data. N % Gender Boys 82 53.6 Girls 71 46.4 Do your relatives play sports? (Mother) Yes 69 45.1 No 84 54.9 Do your relatives play sports? (Father) Yes 80 52.3 No 73 47.7 Do your relatives play sports? (Siblings) Yes 87 56.9 No 66 43.1 Do your relatives compete? (Mother) Yes 7 4.6 No 146 95.4 Do your relatives compete? (Father) Yes 14 9.2 No 139 90.8 Do your relatives compete? (Siblings) Yes 60 39.2 No 93 60.8 Do you like to compete? Yes 134 87.6 No 19 12.4 Do you usually compete? Yes 83 54.2 No 70 45.8 Note: N, Sample; Min., Minimum; Max., Maximum; M, Mean; SD, Standard Deviation. Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 61 the sample universe) was collected. Concerning the age of the subjects, the rules indicate that students from any cycle of primary education can participate. However, on this occasion, the schools selected only students from grades 5 and 6 (10–12 years old) (Table 1). More specific data can also be found in Table 1 in relation to the competitive practice of participants’ relatives, as well as in relation to previously exposed data. Data collection was carried out during the 2021 edition of the Andalusian Olympic Foundation’s Mini Olympics (2021). Instruments For the evaluation of the main study variables, a structured questionnaire battery was constructed composed of different scales. Specifically, we used: – Sociodemographic data questionnaire: To obtain sociodemographic data from participants in this study, an ad hoc questionnaire was designed that included questions related to sex, age, habitual sports practice, sport practised, competitive experience (external to educational centre and in Physical Education classes) and family sports practice (father, mother or siblings). – SAS-2 Competitive Anxiety Questionnaire (Ramis et al., 2010). This questionnaire is used to evaluate athletes’ competitive anxiety. It is composed of 15 items divided into three dimensions: somatic anxiety, worry and distraction. A four-point Likert scale is used, where 1 means ‘nothing’ and 4 ‘a lot’. The values of each dimension are obtained by adding the scores obtained in the different items that make up each dimension, leading to total obtain values between 5 and 20. Obtaining low/high values in the sums of each dimension means that there is low/high somatic anxiety, worry and/or distraction. This questionnaire is validated and has demonstrated its reliability in the field of sports through the works of several authors (Bohórquez and Checa, 2017; Ramis et al., 2010) Procedure As previously mentioned, after taking part in several editions of the Mini Olympics and having different experiences with the participants, the event organizers and the Andalusian Tennis Federation (in charge of one of the activities) agreed to the development of this study. After their approval, we contacted the different schools and physical education teachers responsible for the students selected to participate in the Mini Olympics, to present the proposal and ask for their permission and that of the parents/guardians/legal guardians of the students themselves. On the first day of the Mini Olympics, specifically before the start of the mini-tennis test, after approval by all involved parties and the corresponding informed consent process was completed and accepted, we administered a questionnaire to all participants. This took place in the presence of responsible physical education teachers and the author of this study, in order to resolve any possible doubts that existed. The questionnaire was administered on paper, and a pencil/pen was provided for its completion. The instructions indicated that participation was completely voluntary, that the questionnaire should be completed individually, and that anonymity and confidentiality of the data would be guaranteed at all times. The data were collected on May17, 2021. This research followed the ethical guidelines set out in the Ethical Principles and Standards for Developmental Scientists of the Society for Research in Child Development; in the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct of the American Psychological Association, and in the Declaration of Helsinki. Data Analysis The current study followed a descriptive survey model, which is a quantitative research method. After the data were collected, the databases were cleaned up and the data were dumped into SPSS (IBM, 2017), relevant information regarding the sociodemographic data was obtained through frequency analysis. Likewise, through a descriptive analysis of three variables that make up competitive anxiety (somatic anxiety, worry and distraction), values were determined in relation the to competitive anxiety levels of Mini Olympics participants. Subsequently, normality tests were carried out to determine the distribution of the sample, and a non-normal distribution was obtained. Therefore, we opted for non-parametric mean comparison analysis for independent groups U of Mann-Whitney to determine influence of family sports practice (mother, father and siblings), competitive habits relatives (mother, father and siblings), taste for competition and competitive experience of participants on competitive anxiety levels (somatic anxiety worry distraction) of participants using a significance level of p < .05. Results Competitive anxiety levels represent average values of around 10.80 points out of 20. If we attend to the three variables that make up the competitive anxiety construct, worry represents the highest values M = 13.87 SD ± 3.82, followed by somatic anxiety M = 10.17 SD ± 3.84, and lastly distraction M = 8.35 SD ± 2.70. Table 2 presents descriptive statistics obtained from Mini Olympics participants in this study. In this way, it can be asserted that participants in the Mini Olympics manifest a medium level of competitive anxiety, with higher values of participants’ worry and representing statistically significant values in terms of competitive experience and its direct impact on participants’ distraction. 62 Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 Regarding somatic anxiety (Table 3), the highest values are manifested in participants who do not like to compete (M = 11.53; SD ± 3.98) and the lowest in subjects whose mothers compete (M = 9; SD ± 2.83). As for worry, the highest values are those related to participants whose siblings regularly compete (M = 14.50; SD ± 3.99), while the lowest are indicated by subjects who do not like to compete (M = 12.95; SD ± 4.71). On the other hand, distraction represents the highest values in subjects without competitive experience (M = 8.99; SD ± 2.82) and the lowest in those who do have it (M = 7.82; SD ± 2.49). In order to determine the influence of family sports practice (mother, father and siblings), competitive habits of relatives (mother, father and siblings), taste for com- Table 2. Competitive anxiety levels ofMini Olympics participants’ tennis modality. N Mín. Máx. M SD Skewness Kurtosis Value SE Value SE Before or while I play or compete… Somatic anxiety … I feel my body is tense 153 1.00 4.00 2.33 0.91 0.10 0.20 -0.81 0.39 … I feel a knot in my stomach 153 1.00 4.00 2.02 0.99 0.62 0.20 -0.68 0.39 … I feel my muscles trembling 153 1.00 4.00 1.90 1.01 0.83 0.20 -0.46 0.39 … I have an upset stomach 153 1.00 4.00 1.80 0.95 1.17 0.20 0.51 0.39 … I feel my muscles tense because I’m nervous 153 1.00 4.00 2.12 0.96 0.42 0.20 -0.81 0.39 TOTAL 153 5.00 20.00 10.17 3.84 0.71 0.20 -0.23 0.39 Worry … I’m worried about not playing or competing well 153 1.00 4.00 2.79 1.03 -0.19 0.20 -1.22 0.39 … I’m worried about disappointing others (teammates, coaches, parents, etc.) 153 1.00 4.00 2.88 1.04 -0.39 0.20 -1.12 0.39 … I’m worried about not competing or playing as well as I can 153 1.00 4.00 2.75 1.01 -0.17 0.20 -1.13 0.39 … I’m worried about competing or playing badly 153 1.00 4.00 2.61 1.10 -0.12 0.20 -1.31 0.39 … I’m worried about screwing up during the game or competition 153 1.00 4.00 2.84 1.01 -0.25 0.20 -1.16 0.39 TOTAL 153 5.00 20.00 13.87 3.82 -0.03 0.20 -0.93 0.39 Distraction …I have trouble concentrating on the game or competition 153 1.00 4.00 1.78 0.64 0.22 0.20 -0.63 0.39 … I have trouble focusing on what I’m supposed to do 153 1.00 4.00 1.73 0.89 1.13 0.20 0.51 0.39 … I lose concentration in the game or competition 153 1.00 4.00 1.52 0.72 1.24 0.20 0.89 0.39 … I can’t think clearly during the game or competition 153 1.00 4.00 1.61 0.83 1.24 0.20 0.82 0.39 … I have trouble concentrating on what my coach has asked me to do 153 1.00 4.00 1.71 0.87 1.17 0.20 0.70 0.39 TOTAL 153 5.00 20.00 8.35 2.70 0.90 0.20 0.43 0.39 Note: N, Sample; Min., Minimum; Max., Maximum; M, Mean; SD, Standard Deviation; SE, Standard Error. Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 63 petition, and competitive experience of participants on their competitive anxiety (somatic anxiety, worry and distraction), Mann-Whitney U mean contrast tests for independent groups were used (Table 3). The results indicate that sports practice, relatives’ competitive habits and taste for competition did not influence any of the three compo - nents of competitive anxiety. However, mother’s sports practice (U = 2408, p = .071) and taste for competition (U = 951.50, p = .074) represented results close to significance, so they should be taken into account in relation to their influence on somatic anxiety and, therefore, on competitive anxiety. Nevertheless, previous competitive experience of Mini Olympics participants did generate statistically significant differences in terms of distraction (U = 2086.50, p = .004), without affecting somatic anxiety or worry; specifically, those participants with previous competitive experience had less distraction than those without competition experience. Discussion The objective of this work was to determine the influence of the Mini Olympics phase of the Olympism in School programme of the Andalusian Olympic Foundation on competitive anxiety perceived by participants. In this sense, the literature reveals that analysis of competitive anxiety in childhood is a current and popular topic of investigation (Arnau et al., 2018; Bois et al., 2009; Bohórquez and Checa, 2017; Borges et al., 2020; García-Mas et al., 2011; Grossbard et al., 2007; Grossbard et al., 2009; Pérez- Cáceres et al., 2021; Pluhar et al., 2019; Ramis et al., 2013). Firstly, Hypothesis 1 indicated that participants will perceive intermediate levels of competitive anxiety. The results obtained in this work indicate that Mini Olympics participants manifest intermediate values in competitive anxiety, obtaining the highest values in worry, followed by somatic anxiety and distraction. These results are consistent with the scientific literature, as several authors indicate the predominance of worry over somatic anxiety and distraction (Núñez et al., 2020; Pulido et al., 2019; Ramis et al., 2013). Other authors also highlight the relevance of worry over the other two components of competitive anxiety, but emphasise the prevalence of somatic anxiety over distraction (Arnau et al., 2018; Borges et al., 2020; Bohórquez and Checa, 2017). Thus, Hypothesis 1 is partially accepted. The relevance of worry could be linked to the sense of belonging participants may feel towards their schools and their team, being motivated by that worry, by external evaluation of achievements obtained and/or a self-evaluation linked to performance, and not to task. Subsequently, it was hypothesised that there would be differences in competitive anxiety of participants based on sports practice (Hypothesis 2), competitive habits of Table 3. Influence of family sports practice, relatives’ competitive habits, competitive experience and taste for competition of participants VS competitive anxiety (somatic anxiety, worry and distraction). Somatic Anxiety Worry Distraction M DT U p M DT U p M DT U p Do your relatives play sports? (Mother) Yes 9.51 3.52 2408 0.071 13.51 3,82 2656 0.373 8.04 2.45 2603 0.275 No 10.71 4.02 14.17 3,81 8.61 2.88 Do your relatives play sports? (Father) Yes 9.96 3.91 2650 0.394 13.51 3,57 2542,5 0.211 8.21 2.46 2810.5 0.796 No 10.4 3.77 14.26 4,06 8.51 2.94 Do your relatives play sports? (Siblings) Yes 10.32 3.98 2485 0.878 14.06 3,8 2248 0.265 8.24 2.82 2288.5 0.34 No 9.97 3.67 13.62 3,88 8.5 2.53 Do your relatives compete? Mother) Yes 92.83 439 0.528 13.57 2,94 487 0.833 8.29 2.14 494 0.881 No 10.23 3.88 13.88 3,86 8.36 2.73 Do your relatives compete? (Father) Yes 10.79 3.17 805.5 0.311 13.43 2,21 899 0.668 8.07 1.94 965.5 0.997 No 10.11 3.91 13.91 3,94 8.38 2.77 Do your relatives compete? (Siblings) Yes 10.38 4.17 2517 0.99 14.5 3,99 2087,5 0.79 8.27 3 2296 0.36 No 10.03 3.63 13.46 3,66 8.41 2.5 Do you like to compete? Yes 9.98 3.8 951.5 0.074 14 3,68 1116,5 0.385 8.34 2.71 1214 0.742 No 11.53 3.98 12.95 4,71 8.47 2.67 Do you usually compete? Yes 10.22 4.1 2821 0.875 14.04 3,85 2745,5 0.661 7.82 2.49 2086.5 0.004 No 10.11 3.53 13.67 3,8 8.99 2.82 Note: M, Mean; SD, Standard Deviation; U, Mann-Whitney U; p, significance 64 Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 their family (mother, father and siblings) (Hypothesis 3), and taste for competition (Hypothesis 4). The results obtained in this study indicate that the null hypotheses must be maintained in both cases and, therefore, we must reject Hypotheses 3, 4 and 5. In none of the three cases were statistically significant differences obtained in any of the components of competitive anxiety (somatic anxiety, worry and distraction). The results are corroborated by those revealed in the literature and that are in the same line of enquiry (Bohórquez and Checa, 2017), although Bois et al. (2009) indicated that the presence of parents during competition was understood as a factor eliciting anxiety. Likewise, parental support can be linked to sports practice and/or their competitive experience, which could cause a perception of negative parental support (competitive anxiety in childhood) and/or positive (positive emotions in competition/training) (Atkins et al., 2015; Bohórquez and Checa, 2017; Hellstedt, 1990). However, although the results have not shown statistically significant differences, mother’s sports practice (U = 2408, p = .071) and taste for competition (U = 951.50, p = .074) represented values close to significance in the somatic anxiety component. Linking this with all previous research, sports practice should continue to be encouraged among the population and, in this case, that of women should be promoted, as it has an impact on the competitive anxiety of their children. In addition, these results indicate that schools should perhaps attend to criteria linked to taste for competition in their selection of athletes in order to avoid exposure to anxiety and/or to create programmes/projects that provide tools for its control and for promoting healthy mental habits in the student population. Finally, Hypothesis 5 indicated that there would be differences in competitive anxiety of participants based on their previous competitive experience. The results obtained in this study showed that there were statistically significant differences in terms of distraction based on previous competitive experience, without obtaining significant values on somatic anxiety or worry. Therefore, Hypothesis 5 will only be accepted for the distraction component. However, as has been extensively shown throughout this work, competitive anxiety is composed of three components, so it would be inappropriate to extrapolate these results to the whole construct. In this way, the results are in line with those found by various authors (Arnau et al., 2018; Jones, 1995; Pozo, 2007), who indicated that experience in competition did not affect competitive anxiety, being influenced by acquired competitive level and interpretation thereof. However, Núñez et al. (2020) found that it is possible that years of experience influence the perception of anxiety and performance. Likewise, other authors indicated in previous studies on adults that greater competitive experience would influence competitive anxiety values by reducing them (Hammermeister and Burton, 1995; Mellalieu et al., 2004). As Borges et al. (2020) have shown, early experiences in competition are of vital importance, as they could define ways of coping with competitive stress and condition its interpretation and motivation towards competition. Conclusions The analysis of competitive anxiety perceptions of Mini Olympics participants has shown that they perceive intermediate levels of competitive anxiety (with greater weight given to the worry factor), and that this was greater in children who were not used to competition or who did not usually enjoy it. Family sports and competitive practice, as well as taste for competition, do not influence competitive anxiety of Mini Olympics participants, although mother’s sports practice and taste for competition are very close to being determinant. As for competitive experience, the values obtained in terms of distraction were significant. Therefore, it is very important that the organisers of Mini Olympics take into account the profile of participants and the possible psychological burden that could be induced in them, and that mental health levels could be counterproductive to their aims. In addition, it is of vital importance to develop intervention programmes on competitive anxiety of participants, so that they are prepared for their participation and enjoyment. Limitations and Future Lines of Research Although this work is not without its limitations, they can be understood as opportunities for growth and are specified in future research lines. The first limitation concerns data analysis exclusively linked to family sports practice and own sports tastes/experience. These results could entail a bias of information, since there are other factors that affect competitive anxiety that have not been analysed in this work (e.g. influence of teachers, gender, etc.). Thus, in future work linking MiniOlympics and competitive anxiety, the influence of teachers should also be addressed and a more detailed analysis should be carried out based on gender. One could also understand as a possible limitation the lack of an analysis that included the differences by gender. This fact is seen as an opportunity and a possible future line of research. Another limitation of this work is linked to the analysis of competitive anxiety in the tennis sports modality, since the literature has shown that individual sports represent higher levels of competitive anxiety than athletes from collective modalities (Pluhar et al., 2019). For this reason Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research, 2024, 103, 57–67 65 and because Mini Olympics consist of both individual and collective sports, the results of this work cannot be understood as definitive and should not be generalised. In future works, a broader study should be developed in which the competitive anxiety of Mini Olympics participants is analysed in different tests and thus be able to carry out a deeper and more exhaustive analysis. Finally, as a future line of work, the need for the development of an intervention programme for control and training on competitive anxiety in Mini Olympics participants is evident. It has been shown that many participants never participated in competitive activities before the development of the Mini Olympics, so representing their educational centre and their lack of competitive experience could entail great anxiety for them. Therefore, implementing an intervention programme on competitive anxiety could generate benefits on competitive anxiety shown by participants. Acknowledgments The first author of this work has been supported by a predoctoral and postdoctoral contract for the development of the University of Seville’s own I + D + I programme in areas of special attention – VI Plan Propio de Investigacion ´ y Transferencia de la Universidad de Sevilla (VI-PPITUS). References Andalusian Olympic Foundation (2022). Olympism in School. Retrieved June 29, 2022, from https://www.fundacionandaluciaolimpica.org/olimpismo-en-la-escuela/ Anshel, M. H. (1995). Anxiety. In T. Morris and J. Summers (Eds.), Sport Psychology: Theory, Applications and Issues (pp. 29–62). Brisbane, CA: John Wiley and Sons. Arévalo, M., & Sotoca, P. (2014). El Movimiento Olímpico en el entorno escolar: valoración de un proyecto educativo [The Olympic Movement in the school environment: assessment of an educational project]. Citius, Altius, Fortius: Humanismo, Sociedad y Deporte: Investigaciones y ensayos, 7(2), 9–22. https://doi.org/10.14635/IPSIC.2018.115.1 Arnau, V. M., Checa, I., & Bohórquez, M. R. (2018). Resilencia y Ansiedad Precompetitiva en nadadores enedadescolar.Unestudio descriptivo [Resilience and Precompetitive Anxiety in school-age swimmers. A descriptive study]. Informació Psicològica, (115), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.14635/IPSIC.2018.115.1 Atkins, M. R., Johnson, D. M., Force, E. C., & Petrie, T. A. (2015). Peers, parents, and coaches, oh my! The relation of the motivational climate to boys’ intention to continue in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16, 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. psychsport.2014.10.008 Barber, H., Sukhi, H., & White, S. A. (1999). The influence of parent-coaches on participant motivation and competitive anxiety in youth sport participants. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22(2), 162. Bohorquez, M. R., & Checa, I. (2017). Psychosocial factors related to the competitive anxiety of sports in training stages. Cultura, Ciencia y Deporte, 12(36), 205–210. http://hdl.handle. net/10952/6056 Bois, J. E., Lalanne, J., & Delforge, C. (2009). The influence of parenting practices and parental presence on children’s and adolescents’pre-competitive anxiety. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(10), 995–1005. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903062001 Borges, P. J., Argudo, F. M., Ruiz, R., & Ruiz-Lara, E. (2020). Analysis of competitive anxiety in young water polo players according to gender and performance. RETOS-Nuevas Tendencias en Educacion Fisica, Deporte y Recreacion, (38), 20–25. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v38i38.73450 Brownlee, H. (2000). Global initiatives on olympic education. International Olympic Academy. 39th Session for young participants20/7-5/8/1999. Proceedings, 72–78. Díaz-Ceballos, I. (2005). Propuesta de un programa de prevención de trastornos de la conducta alimentaria para entrenadores. Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte, 5(1), 68–80. Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., & Payne, W. R. (2013). A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479- 5868-10-98 García-Ceberino, J. M., Fuentes-García, J. P., & Villafaina, S. (2022). Impact of basketball match on the pre-competitive anxiety and HRV of youth female players. International Journal of Environmental research and public health, 19(13), 7894. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137894 García-Mas, A., Palou, P., Smith, R. E., Ponseti, X., Almeida, H. G. L. D., Lameiras, J., Jiménez, R., & Leiva, A. (2011). Ansiedad competitiva y clima motivacional en jóvenes futbolistas de competición, en relación con las habilidades y el rendimien- to percibido por sus entrenadores [Competitive anxiety and motivational climate in young competitive soccer players, in relation to the skills and performance perceived by their coaches]. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 20, 197–207. http://hdl.handle.net/10400.12/2532 Glover, J., & Fritsch, S. L. (2018). # KidsAnxiety and Social Media: A Review. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 27(2), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2017.11.005 Gómez-Mármol, A., Sánchez-Alcaraz, B. J., Bazaco, M. J., & Molina, J. M. (2015). La percepción del olimpismo de los estudiantes universitarios de educación física y ciencias del deporte: un estudio en la comunidad autónoma de Murcia [The perception of Olympism by university students of physical education and sports sciences: a study in the autonomous community of Murcia]. Journal of Sport and Health Research, 7(2), 103–112. Gómez-Mármol, A., Sánchez-Alcaraz, B. J., & García, M. F. (2019). Olimpismo en la educación formal: percepción desde