The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera: on the Wake of a Powerful Past

221 Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera On the Wake of a Powerful Past Keywords: Bronze Age, Lands of Antequera, megaliths, megalithic cists, hypogea, settlement dynamics, metallurgy, cultural continuity Acknowledgements We would like to thank a number of people who have been greatly helpful in the process of compiling photographic and cartographic material for this paper, including Pedro Cantalejo Duarte, Luis-Efrén Fernández Rodríguez, Eduardo García Alfonso, Ignacio Marqués Merelo, José Enrique Márquez Romero and Victoria Pérez Nebreda. This research has been funded by two projects of the National R&D Plan of the Spanish Government: ‘Megalithic Biographies: The Antequera Megalithic Landscape in Its Temporal and Spatial Context’ (HAR2017–87481–P, 2018–2021), and ‘Nature, Society and Monumentality: High-Resolution Archaeological Investigations of the Antequera Megalithic Landscape’ (HAR2013–45149–P, 2014–2017). All work undertaken as part of this research has been authorised as part of the General Research Project ‘Societies, Territories and Landscapes in the Prehistory of Antequera (Málaga)’ of the Ministry for Culture and Historical Heritage of the Andalusian Government (2013–2021). Abstract Antequera is home to a major megalithic site, listed in the UNESCO World Heritage List since July 2016. Although going back to the first half of the 19th cent. CE, research on this site has hitherto failed to provide a thorough synthesis of the settlement dynamics in the Later Prehistory of the surrounding region, the Lands of Antequera. In line with the topic of this book, in this contribution a review of the currently available evidence for Bronze Age Antequera is presented. This is a follow-up of a similar paper dealing with the Copper Age, published some years ago (García Sanjuán et al. 2016). To achieve this review, a summary description of the available empirical evi dence is first made; then, the main trends of that period in terms of settle ment patterns, economic practices and funerary ideology are discussed; fi nally, the resulting conclusions are put into a more general perspective from the view point of the social and cultural dynamics of southern Iberian Bronze Age. The resulting picture is that the Bronze Age at the Lands of Antequera appears to have been visibly marked by a phenomenon of cultural continuity pivoting around the persistent infl uence of the magnifi cent megalithic monuments that dominated the social landscape in the 4th and 3rd mill. BCE. 1. Introduction Interest on the Later Prehistory of the Lands of Ante quera1 goes back to the first half of the 19th cent. CE, when the fi rst scientifi c description of the Menga dolmen was published by Rafael 1 The territory of the Lands of Antequera (2640km2) includes the municipalities of Alameda, Alfarnate, Alfarnatejo, Almargen, Almogía, Antequera, Archidona, Ardales, Campillos, Cañete la Real, Carratraca, Casabermeja, Colmenar, Cuevas Bajas, Cuevas del Becerro, Cuevas de San Marcos, Fuente de Piedra, Humilladero, Mollina, Periana, Sierra de Yeguas, Teba, Valle de Abdalajís, Villanueva de Algaidas, Villanueva de Tapia, Villanueva del Rosario and Villa nueva del Trabuco. Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 222 Mitjana y Ardison (1847). The discovery of Viera and El Romeral at the turn of the 20th cent. CE led to a renewed interest on the site, as refl ected in several publications (Velázquez Bosco 1905; Gómez Moreno Martínez 1905; De Mergelina 1922; Hemp 1934; Leisner/Leisner 1943). The Spanish Civil War and subsequent poverty of resources, human and material, during the Franco dictatorship caused research to grind to a halt for over sixty years. At the end of the 1980s academic research was resumed and continued through the fi rst two decades of the 21st cent. CE with projects run by the universities of Málaga (1986–1995), Granada (2005–2006) and Sevilla (2013–2021). In recent years major advances have been made in two areas hitherto poorly known: the landscape dimension and territorial background of the mega lithic monuments on the one hand (see for example García Sanjuán 2009; García Sanjuán/ Wheatley 2009; García Sanjuán et al. 2010; 2016; 2021; Rogerio-Candelera et al. 2018; Díaz- Guardamino Uribe et al. 2020) and their complex biographies on the other hand (see among others García Sanjuán/Lozano Rodríguez 2016; Bradley/ García Sanjuán 2017; García Sanjuán/ Mora Molina 2018; García Sanjuán et al. 2019; Mora Molina 2019). The advances achieved by recent (and ongoing) research were of key importance towards the inclusion of the site in the UNESCO World Heritage List in July 2016. However, despite recent progress, there remain significant areas for which the scientific knowledge of Antequera’s Later Prehistory is fairly limited to say the least. One of them is the Bronze Age, a period for which, to this date, no synthesis exists. This is to some extent surprising, given the importance that Bronze Age studies have had in neighbouring Andalusian regions such as the southeast (Almería and Granada) or the Guadalquivir Valley (Jaén, Córdoba and Sevilla) (see for example Lull Santiago 1983; Aubet Semmler et al. 1983; Castro Martínez et al. 1999; Contreras Cortés et al. 2000; Schubart et al. 2000; Aranda Jiménez et al. 2015). Probably, this absence can be best explained by the inordinate (if, arguably, understandable) prominence held by the outstanding megalithic monuments dating to the 4th and 3rd mill. BCE, which has somehow eclipsed the study of the Bronze Age in the region. In line with the title of this volume, the main aim of this paper is to review the currently available evidence for the study of Bronze Age Antequera. The approach followed here is much the same as the one presented in a recent paper dealing with settlement patterns and social dynamics in the Copper Age (García Sanjuán et al. 2016). To this end, the literature on the Later Prehistory in the region, which currently encompasses 16 mono graphs and almost 400 journal papers and contributions in edited volumes and conference proceedings, has been reviewed. To that, a substantial amount of ‘grey literature’, including dozens of unpublished fieldwork reports (surveys, excavations, etc.) as well as some academic dissertations, must be added. The basic information about the sites included in this review is stored in the ARCA database (http://institucional. us.es/arca/), designed and maintained by the University of Sevilla’s research group ATLAS (Moreno Escobar/ García Sanjuán 2013). This database currently includes data of 1716 sites located in all the municipalities within the Lands of Antequera, from the Middle Palaeolithic to Modern History. To achieve this review, fi rst an overall description of the available empirical evidence will be made followed by a discussion in terms of settlement patterns, economic and social dynamics as well as burial practices and ideology; fi nally, the resulting conclusions will be put into a more general perspective from the view point of the social and cultural processes of the Bronze Age. 2. Evidence The ARCA database currently includes 181 Bronze Age sites for the Lands of Antequera (fig. 1). Of them, 19 have been researched archaeologically, including seven settlements (Aratispi, Castillo de Antequera, El Castillejo, Huerta de Peñarrubia, La Capellanía, Los Castillejos and Yacimiento 129), seven burial sites (Alcaide, El Tardón, Las Aguilillas, Morenito I, Rodahuevos, Torre del Cuchillo and Viera), four mixed sites (caves of Ardales, El Toro and La Pulsera as well as open air sites such as La Peña de los Enamorados and La Galeota) and one ‘warrior’ stela (Almargen) (table 1 and fi g. 2). Of the 19 best-known sites, 14 were excavated (Alcaide, The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 223 Fig. 1. Location map of Antequera in southern Iberia (design by María del Carmen Moreno Escobar and Leonardo García Sanjuán). Fig. 2. Location map of Bronze Age sites in the Lands of Antequera (design by María del Carmen Moreno Escobar and Leonardo García Sanjuán). Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 224 Site Municipality Period Type Source Bibliographic References Alcaide Antequera CA/EBA/ LBA Burial Excavation Aguado Mancha et al. 1997; 2002; Marqués Merelo 1983; 1987; 1992; Marqués Merelo/Ferrer Palma 1979; 1983; Marqués Merelo et al. 1992; Márquez Romero/Marqués Merelo 1997 Almargen Almargen LBA ND Survey Vilaseca Díaz 1993; Díaz- Guardamino Uribe et al. 2020 Aratispi Antequera N/LBA/EIA Settlement Excavation Perdiguero López 1989; 1990; 1992; 1994; 1998 Castillo de Antequera Antequera LBA/EIA Settlement Excavation Romero Pérez/Fernández Rodríguez 2012 El Castillejo Almogía LBA Settlement Excavation Fernández Rodríguez/Rodríguez Vinceiro 1995 El Tardón Antequera EBA Burial Excavation Ferrer Palma et al. 1987; Fernández Ruiz et al. 1997 El Toro Antequera N/CA/LBA Settlement/ Natural cave Excavation Martín Socas et al. 2004 Huerta de Peñarrubia Campillos LBA Settlement Survey García Alfonso 1999 La Capellanía Periana N/CA/LBA/ EIA Settlement Excavation Martín Córdoba/Recio Ruiz 2004 La Galeota Ardales CA/BA Settlement/ Lithic workshop Survey Espejo Herrerías et al. 1990 La Peña de los Enamorados Antequera CA/BA Settlement/ Burial Survey Moreno Aragüez/Ramos Muñoz 1983; Rodríguez Vinceiro et al. 1992; Suárez Padilla et al. 1995 La Pulsera Antequera N/CA/BA Settlement/ Burial Survey Leiva Riojano/Ruiz González 1977 Las Aguilillas Antequera BA Burial Excavation Ramos Muñoz et al. 1995; 1997; 1999; Macías López 1995 Los Castillejos Teba EBA/EIA Settlement Excavation García Alfonso 1994; 1996 Morenito I Ardales EBA Burial Excavation Ramos Muñoz et al. 1987; 1989 Rodahuevos Antequera EBA Burial Excavation Fernández Rodríguez et al. 1999 Torre del Cuchillo Antequera LBA Burial Excavation Fernández Rodríguez et al. 2013 Viera Antequera N/CA/EBA Burial/Ritual Excavation Aranda Jiménez et al. 2013 Yacimiento 129 Bobadilla EBA Settlement Excavation Fernández Rodríguez 2005 Table 1. Bronze Age sites in the Lands of Antequera studied through excavation or surface survey. N: Neolithic; CA: Copper Age; BA: Bronze Age; EBA: Early Bronze Age; LBA: Late Bronze Age; EIA: Early Iron Age. The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 225 Aratispi, Castillo de Antequera, El Castillejo, El Tardón, El Toro, La Capellanía, Las Aguilillas, Los Castillejos, Morenito I, Rodahuevos, Torre del Cuchillo, Viera and Yacimiento 129) while the remaining fi ve are known only through surveys and/or studies of surface materials (Almargen, Huerta de Peñarrubia, La Galeota, La Peña de los Enamorados and La Pulsera). In addition, there is a small series of sites located at the confl uence of the Turón and Guadalhorce rivers for which Bronze Age occupation is likely, although no confi rmatory evidence in the form of radiocarbon dates is available. 2.1. Settlements There are seven excavated settlements for which Bronze Age occupation has been reported. The site of Aratispi, which was inhabited in the Copper Age, seems to have been abandoned in the Early Bronze Age, to then be reoccupied in the Late Bronze Age.2 This Late Bronze Age phase of occupation was well refl ected in the assemblage of ceramic materials retrieved at the site, but no associated substantial architectural remains were identifi ed (Perdiguero López 1992, 32). At La Capellanía (Periana), excavations undertaken in 1986 and 1987 revealed a similar sequence of occupation: inhabited in the Copper Age, abandoned in the fi rst half of the 2nd mill. BCE and then occupied again in the Late Bronze Age. The reoccupation of the site in the Late Bronze Age largely exceeded the habitation area of the Copper Age, sprawling not only over the entire hilltop but also on the northern and southern slopes. In this period, the site was enclosed by a 1.7m thick perimetral wall made following a constructive technique very different from that of the Copper Age (Martín Córdoba 1994, 6). The excavations unearthed an unspecified number of huts built by means of short and thin walls of stone masonry roofed by timber and perishable materials coated with sun-dried mud, and with fl oors made 2 In line with our previous work, the term Early Bronze Age will be applied to those sites dated to between the 23rd and 16th cent. calBC and Late Bronze Age to those dated to between the 16th and 9th cent. calBC. with fi red clay or fl at and regular pebbles (Martín Córdoba 1994, 6). The material culture found in these dwellings included basically pottery vessels such as large pots, storage jars and carinated vessels, as well as knapped lithics not unlike those of the Copper Age. The excavations carried out at El Castillejo ( Almogía) in 1993 led to the discovery of a settlement which, like Aratispi and La Capellanía, had been occupied in the Copper Age, then discontinued in the Early Bronze Age, and then occupied again the Late Bronze Age. However, no architectural remains were attributed to the later phase of occupation, which does not seem to have been very substantial (Fernández Rodríguez/Rodríguez Vinceiro 1995, 68). A sondage pit excavated in 1993 at the Iron Age site of Los Castillejos (Teba) unearthed some hand-made ceramic materials the excavators dated to the second half of the 2nd mill. BCE (García Alfonso 1994, 67). No further evidence exists for the occupation of this site during that period, as all architectural remains discovered (including dwellings and a perimetral wall) were dated to the Early Iron Age in connection with the Phoenician colonial presence along the Málaga coast (García Alfonso 1994, 67). Various excavations undertaken since 2000 at the Antequera Castle as part of restoration projects led to the identifi cation of artefacts that the excavators interpreted as resulting from a Late Bronze Age occupation. As in the case of Aratispi, El Castillejo or Los Castillejos, no architectural remains of this period were found (Romero Pérez/ Fernández Rodríguez 2012, 273). In 2002, excavations carried out at Yacimiento 129 (Antequera) in connection with the Antequera- Granada high-speed railway link, led to the discovery of a Late Bronze Age settlement. According to the published report, the site yielded some material culture and remains of light architecture made with perishable materials. Coupled with the fact that the site was located on low ground, the available evidence suggested a single-phase of temporary or seasonal occupation (Fernández Rodríguez 2005, 91). At the El Toro cave (Antequera), a single radiocarbon date (2880 ± 50 BP, 1260–910 calBCE 2σ) Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 226 (GrN-15446), suggests a possible frequentation or sporadic presence in the Late Bronze Age, but precise evidence of the activity this date represents was not found. Apart from these seven Bronze Age sites for which some kind of evidence was obtained during excavation, survey work (in some cases coupled with studies of material culture) has suggested the existence of a number of other sites. This is the case of Huerta de Peñarrubia (Campillo) (García Alfonso 1999, 362; Romero Pérez/ Fernández Rodríguez 2012, 271) and various other sites at the confl uence of the Turón and Guadalhorce rivers, including El Calvario, El Cerrajón, La Peña de Ardales, Raja del Boquerón, Lomas del Infi erno, Parque de Ardales, Pico Vado Real and others (Martín Córdoba et al. 1992). No precise data about the chronology or nature of their occupation exists for any of them. Finally, a site that has yielded signifi cant evidence for the study of the Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera is Almargen, where a ‘Huelvatype’ sword and a ‘warrior’ stela were discovered ( Vilaseca Díaz 1990; 1993; Díaz-Guardamino Uribe et al. 2020). The stela was found by chance just outside the modern town of Almargen, on the road to Olvera and 700m away from the site of Las Madrigueras, where an excavation undertaken in 1992 yielded a substantial amount of architectural remains and material evidence dated Fig. 3. Almargen ‘warrior’ stela (from: Díaz-Guardamino Uribe et al. 2020, 10). The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 227 by the excavators to the Early Iron Age, a point later corroborated by two radiocarbon dates (Díaz-Guardamino Uribe et al. 2020, table 4). This stela, depicting an anthropomorph together with a circular shield, a spear and some kind of headgear (perhaps a conical helmet) is the only of its kind in Mediterranean Iberia (fi g. 3). The ‘Huelvatype’ sword was also found by chance just outside Almargen (Vilaseca Díaz 1993, 221). It is important to note that, barely a few hundred metres from where the stela and the sword were found, another important discovery was made, also by chance: the so-called ‘Almargen idol’ ( Vilaseca Díaz 1994). This ‘idol’ is a sculpture carved in stone that, on account of its large size and morphology, stands out among the plastic creations of the Late Neolithic and Copper Age in southern Iberia (García Pérez et al. 2020, 253) (fi g. 4). The concentration of exceptional fi nds, such as the idol, the sword and the stela, suggests that Almargen played an important role in the territorial organisation of late prehistoric communities in the Lands of Antequera. This is very likely partly connected with fact that Almargen lies at a very special geostrategic position, hinging right on the watershed between the Mediterranean and Atlantic hydrological basins, which probably made it a pivotal node in the communication between the Malaga coast and the Guadalquivir valley, along the Corbones river, in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age. Fig. 4. Location map of Almargen fi nds and sites: (1) ‘Warrior’ stela; (2) Almargen ‘idol’; (3) Huelva-type sword; (4) Las Madrigueras; (5) Haza del Almirón; (6) Arroyo La Rana; (7) Cerro de Las Rosas; (8) Ladera Majavea; (9) Plataforma las Ventanas; (10) Espolón de las Ventanas; (11) Cueva Arroyo Dehesa; (12) Herriza Arroyo Sourcezuela (from: Díaz- Guardamino Uribe et al. 2020, 29). Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 228 Site BP Lab. Code BCE (1σ) BCE (2σ) Sample Context Bibliographic References La Capellanía 3750 ± 120 Ly-4197 2350–1970 2550–1750 Not available Settlement Rodríguez Vinceiro/Márquez Romero 2003 Ardales 3747 ± 40 COL-1641 2265–2046 2286–2034 Bone (undetermined) Hypogeum Rethemeyer 2014 El Tardón (Tomb B) 3745 ± 25 GrN-16066 2200–2060 2275–2039 Bone (human) Megalithic cist Fernández Ruiz et al. 1997 Ardales 3718 ± 40 COL-1640 2196–2037 2275–1980 Bone (undetermined) Natural cave Rethemeyer 2014 Ardales 3715 ± 40 COL-1642 2195–2036 2275–1978 Bone (undetermined) Natural cave Rethemeyer 2014 Ardales 3621 ± 35 COL-1637 2031–1936 2126–1890 Bone (undetermined) Natural cave Rethemeyer 2014 Viera 3580 ± 30 Beta-353822 1950–1890 2020–1880 Bone (Cervus elaphus) Megalith Aranda Jiménez et al. 2013 El Tardón (Tomb A) 3530 ± 60 UGRA-260 1940–1740 2040–1680 Bone (human) Megalithic cist Fernández Ruiz et al. 1997 Alcaide (#14) 3475 ± 40 CNA-14096 1878–1746 1985–1690 Bone (human) Hypogeum Tovar Fernández et al. 2014 Alcaide (#15) 3340 ± 90 GrN-16064 1740–1510 1880–1430 Bone (human) Hypogeum Baldomero Navarro 2001 Torre del Cuchillo 3250 ± 30 Beta-526360 1607–1461 1612–1451 Bone (human) Megalith This paper Alcaide (#14) 3180 ± 100 GrN-16061 1610–1310 1750–1100 Bone (human) Hypogeum Baldomero Navarro 2001 Torre del Cuchillo 3160 ± 30 Beta-526361 1494–1411 1501–1323 Bone (human) Pit This paper Alcaide (#14) 3115 ± 40 CNA-14097 1433–1304 1494–1269 Bone (human) Hypogeum Tovar Fernández et al. 2014 El Toro 3090 ± 130 UGRA-189 1500–1130 1700–950 Charred material ( undetermined) Natural cave Martín Socas et al. 2004 Alcaide (Pit B) 3090 ± 60 GrN-19199 1422–1280 1498–1208 Bone (human) Pit Marqués Merelo/Aguado Mancha 2012, 52 Alcaide (#14) 3045 ± 40 CNA-14098 1387–1234 1414–1135 Bone (human) Hypogeum Tovar Fernández et al. 2014 Alcaide (#14) 2945 ± 40 CNA-14099 1220–1060 1263–1023 Bone (human) Hypogeum Tovar Fernández et al. 2014 Alcaide (#15) 2910 ± 100 GrN-16063 1270–970 1400–850 Bone (human) Hypogeum Baldomero Navarro 2001 Alcaide (#15) 2880 ± 150 GrN-16065 1261–900 1439–796 Bone (human) Hypogeum Marqués Merelo/Aguado Mancha 2012, 47 El Toro 2880 ± 50 GRN-15446 1190–940 1260–910 Charred material ( undetermined) Natural cave Martín Socas et al. 2004 Yacimiento 129 2785 ± 45 Ua-23136 1000–840 1050–820 Charred material ( undetermined) Settlement Romero Pérez/Fernández Rodríguez 2012 Table 2. Radiocarbon dates published for Bronze Age sites in the Lands of Antequera. The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 229 2.2. Burial Sites Evidence of Bronze Age burial activity has been identifi ed at six sites, in all cases through excavation. Two of them are hypogea (Alcaide and Las Aguilillas), three are megalithic cists (Morenito I, El Tardón and Rodahuevos) and the last one corresponds to a reuse of the Viera dolmen. The site of Alcaide includes a necropolis of hypogea (or ‘artifi cial caves’, as they are often referred to in the Spanish literature) fi rst excavated by Simeón Giménez Reyna in the 1950s ( Giménez Reyna 1946; 1953), and then by the University of Málaga in several seasons extending between the 1970s and 1990s (Aguado Mancha et al. 1997; 2002; Marqués Merelo 1983; 1987; 1992; Marqués Merelo/ Ferrer Palma 1979; 1983; Marqués Merelo et al. 1992; Márquez Romero/Marqués Merelo 1997; Tovar Fernández et al. 2014). Although predominantly used in the 3rd mill. BCE (Copper Age), six out of the 21 excavated burials, specifically those designated as hypogea #9, #12 (early #7), #14 and #15 and burial pits A and B, were used (and probably built) in the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age chronology of those six tombs is suggested by the material culture found in them as well as eight radiocarbon dates, fi ve from Tomb #14 and three from Tomb #15 (table 2). Hypogeum #14 has a simple 3.2m long and 1.4m wide access corridor leading to a 3.3m wide and 0.6m high circular-plan chamber cut into the bedrock. This chamber opens to an annex chamber (1.22m in width, 0.84m in depth and 0.7m in height) and a niche (1.1m in width, 0.7m in depth and 0.7m in height) (fig. 5–6). Numerous highly fragmented human bones were found, amounting to a minimum number of 32 individuals,3 including five non-adults, seven adult women 3 A previous publication mentions a MNI of 33 (Marqués Merelo/Aguado Mancha 2012, 45). Fig. 5. Alcaide. Hypogeum 14: access corridor (1986 excavations) (from: Tovar Fernández et al. 2014, 129). Fig. 6. Alcaide. Hypogeum 14: plan and section (from: Tovar Fernández et al. 2014, 131). Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 236 Fig. 19. Morenito I. General view (photo by Pedro Cantalejo Duarte). Fig. 20. Morenito I. Detail of chamber (photo by Pedro Cantalejo Duarte). Fig. 21. Morenito I. Grave goods (photo by Pedro Cantalejo Duarte). The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 237 an 8cm long stone wrist-guard with three perforations on each end, four copper objects, including a dagger blade, a punch, an axe and a Palmela-type arrowhead, as well as several personal ornaments mainly manufactured on shells of marine molluscs ‘three Columbellae rusticate, one Pecten maximus and a discoidal perforated bead’ (Fernández Ruiz et al. 1997, 377). A similar megalithic cist, built with large uprights and trapezoidal in plan, was excavated in September 1986 at the site of Morenito I (Ardales) (fi g. 19–20) (Ramos Muñoz et al. 1987, 238; 1989; Durán Balsero 1987). Although no comprehensive anthropological report has been published to date, on the basis of fi eld observations the excavators interpreted that the tomb contained ‘the remains of two individuals inhumed in foetal position’ (Ramos Muñoz et al. 1987, 238–240). The artefacts accompanying these two individuals included a large globular ceramic vessel with a narrow mouth, a copper dagger with four rivets, a copper punch and a micro-flake in black flint (fig. 21) (Ramos Muñoz et al. 1987, 238–240). In the absence of radiocarbon dates, the excavators dated the tomb to the Early Bronze Age based on the morphology and style of these objects (Ramos Muñoz et al. 1987, 240). A rescue excavation undertaken in 1995 at the site of Rodahuevos, located between the municipalities of Campillos and Antequera, uncovered seven cist burials, of which fi ve were excavated (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 1999). The only published report of this excavation provides a perfunctory description of the architecture and finds, which will be summarised here. Cist #1 presented an accumulation of human bones and grave goods on one of the ends of the cist, while the other end was occupied by a single individual in foetal position. The material culture found in this burial included various pendants made in bone, several perforated beads in limestone and two ornaments made in twisted metal bands, one in copper and another in silver. Cist #2 revealed human remains of up to fi ve individuals. Four of them appeared as commingled bones placed on one of the sides, while the fi fth, which appears to be the last internment, was found occupying the opposite half of the chamber, in foetal position. The grave goods retrieved from this cist included a number of pottery fragments and a silver spiral band. Cist #3 was covered by a very substantial cairn of pebbles and sealed by a rectangular slab 1.5m in length and 1m in breadth (fi g. 22–23). Fig. 22. Rodahuevos. Cist 3: cairn (photo by Luis Efrén Fernández Rodríguez). Fig. 23. Rodahuevos. Cist 3: chamber (photo by Luis Efrén Fernández Rodríguez). Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 238 Fig. 24. Rodahuevos. Cist 4: cairn (photo by Luis Efrén Fernández Rodríguez). Fig. 25. Rodahuevos. Cist 4: chamber (photo by Luis Efrén Fernández Rodríguez). Fig. 26. Rodahuevos. Cist 4: chamber (photo by Luis Efrén Fernández Rodríguez). Fig. 27. Rodahuevos. Cist 4: human remains (photo by Luis Efrén Fernández Rodríguez). The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 239 Three individuals were found inside, but the published report does not mention any grave goods. Cists #4 (fig. 24–27) and #5 were not described individually, but jointly. Both are referred to as having a sub-trapezoidal plan and relatively large dimensions, which gave them ‘an archaic appearance, akin to megalithic constructions’ (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 1999, 388). In both cases, human bones were found in a commingled state, with partially articulating anatomical parts. Only one polished ceramic pot was listed in terms of material culture for these two tombs. Another rescue excavation, undertaken in 2011 as part of the construction of the Ante quera- Málaga high-speed railway line, led to the discovery of two burial structures at the site of Torre del Cuchillo (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 2013). Tomb I, almost completely destroyed at the time of excavation, is an orthostatic structure, probably a megalithic cist, with remains of secondary inhumations of three different individuals and some pottery fragments (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 2013, 263– 268). Tomb II, located 130m to the west of Tomb I, is a circular-plan pit containing bone remains of four individuals. One of those individuals, the last one to be inhumed, was in a partially articulated position, whereas the bones of the other three were clustered in ‘packages’ arranged around the first (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 2013, 268–271). Two radiocarbon determinations recently obtained as part of the University of Sevilla’s MEGA Project place these inhumations in the Bronze Age (table 2). A date on skull #3 of Tomb I (Beta-526360) gave an age of 1612–1451 BCE (2σ) whereas another date on a tooth from Tomb II (Beta-526361) provided a result of 1501–1323 BCE (2σ). Apart from Alcaide, Las Aguilillas, El Tardón, Morenito I, Rodahuevos and Torre del Cuchillo, two other sites have provided possible evidence of Bronze Age burial practices: the Viera dolmen and the cave of Ardales. In Viera, one radiocarbon date (Beta-353822) obtained from a sample of deer antler (cervus elaphus) yielded an Early Bronze Age age: 3580 ± 30 BP (2020–1880 BCE 2σ), ( Aranda Jiménez et al. 2013). Although there is no unequivocal evidence of Viera being used as a burial ground in the Bronze Age (for example through radiocarbon-dated human remains), it is quite possible that this deer antler was deposited as a grave good or offering during that period because the dolmen was known and frequented – just like it was the case with the hypogea of Alcaide (and possibly those of Las Aguilillas). Further evidence of the likely use of Viera in the Bronze Age comes from the stratigraphy and materials uncovered during the excavation undertaken in 2003 in support for its restoration. Stratigraphic unit #6 of that excavation, lying directly on top of the bedrock and under a thick layer dating to Antiquity (when the dolmen was also reused as a burial ground), yielded various fragments of pottery that the excavators described as evidence of Late Bronze Age frequentation (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 2006, 97; Fernández Rodríguez 2009, 72). These materials have not been subject to a thorough post-excavation analysis yet, but the preliminary assessment of their age is consistent with the radiocarbon date mentioned above. Examples of reuse of megalithic monuments of Late Neolithic or Copper Age date in the Bronze Age of southern Iberia are abundant (see discussion below). In the Ardales cave, four radiocarbon dates obtained on unspecifi ed samples of animal bone recovered from the sedimentation cone accumulated at the entrance of the cavity suggest activity in the Early Bronze Age (Rethemeyer 2014, 83). These dates do not prove per se that the cave was used for burial practices in the Bronze Age, although the signifi cant amount of human remains and material culture found in its upper galleries, currently under study, strongly suggest intense funerary activity throughout the Late Prehistory. In addition to all the sites mentioned above, there are imprecise references to Bronze Age cist burials at other locations of the Lands of Antequera (table 4). Most of them were discovered by chance or by looters and their exact location is unknown or they are nowadays destroyed. At Cerro Alcolea (Periana) 15 cists were reported to which two copper daggers, a copper arrowhead and a fragment of a carinated ceramic vessel are attributed (Baldomero Navarro/Ferrer Palma 1984); Cortijo de Gonzalo (Colmenar) is reported for the discovery of fi ve cists from which a riveted dagger and two small chisels were recovered ( Baldomero Navarro/Ferrer Palma 1984); near the Iznájar water dam (Cuevas de San Marcos) two cists are reported to have yielded a silver rolled band and two Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 240 Site Number of Cists Municipality Ground Plan Dimensions Grave Goods Bibliographic References Observations Castillón NA Campillos NA NA NA Ramos Muñoz et al. 1990 Cementerio Alto NA Valle de Abdalajís NA NA NA Martín Ruiz et al. 1999 Cerro Alcolea 15 Periana Presumed rectangular 1.5/1 x 0.5/0.5m Two metal daggers, one foliaceous metal point and fragments of a carinated vessel Baldomero Navarro/Ferrer Palma 1984 Mostly destroyed; some materials discovered after sieving Cortijo de Gonzalo 5 Colmenar Rectangular 1/0.7 x 0.95/0.6m One metal dagger and two small metal chisels Baldomero Navarro/Ferrer Palma 1984 Looted Embalse de Iznájar 2Cuevas de San Marcos NA NA One silver spiral bracelet and two metallic points Marqués Merelo/Aguado Mancha 2012, 39 Grajeras 1 Ardales NA NA NA Ramos Muñoz et al. 1990 La Bolina 1 Ardales NA NA One polished axe, one silex blade and one perforated bead of shell Ramos Muñoz et al. 1986; 1990 Discovered and destroyed in the 1960s Lomas del Infi erno NA Ardales NA NA One riveted sword, one punch and two silver spiral bracelets Ramos Muñoz et al. 1990; 2004 Olivar de Jorge 1 Ardales NA NA NA Ramos Muñoz et al. 1990; 2004 Playas de Guadalteba y Guadalhorce NA Campillos NA NA NA Marqués Melero/Aguado Mancha 2012 Raja del Boquerón 1 Ardales NA NA One riveted sword Ramos Muñoz et al. 1987; 1990; 2004 Very deteriorated Tumbalobos 2 Cuevas de San Marcos NA NA One metal punch and one silver ring Marqués Merelo/Aguado Mancha 2012, 39 Table 4. Summary description of cist burials dating to the Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera. NA: Not available. The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 241 copper punches (Marqués Merelo/Aguado Mancha 2012, 39). Likewise, at Tumbalobos ( Cuevas de San Marcos) another two cists were reportedly found, from which a metal punch and a silver ring were recovered (Marqués Merelo/Aguado Mancha 2012, 39). Other even more vague references locate Bronze Age cists in Castillón (Campillos), Cementerio Alto (Valle de Abdalajís), Grajeras (Ardales), La Bolina (Ardales), Lomas del Infi erno (Ardales), Olivar de Jorge (Ardales), Playas de Guadalteba and Guadalhorce (Campillos) and Raja del Boquerón (Ardales) (table 4). 3. Discussion With 181 recorded sites, the occupation of the Lands of Antequera during the Bronze Age entails an average density of 0.06 sites per km2, basically half that of the Copper Age (García Sanjuán et al. 2016). A total of 22 radiocarbon dates are currently available for the study of this period of time (table 2), of which three were obtained from domestic contexts (La Capellanía, Yacimiento 129 and El Toro) and 14 from burial contexts (Alcaide, El Tardón, Torre del Cuchillo and Viera). As mentioned above, the three dates from Ardales cave (Rethemeyer 2014, 83) date activity in a general sense but there is no certainty that they are connected with Bronze Age burial activity potentially taking place in the upper galleries of the cave. In general, the availability of radiocarbon dates is quite insuffi cient to analyse the social and cultural process occurred within a period of approximately 1400 years. It is even diffi cult to structure the available record within a simple two-phase organisation of Early Bronze Age (ca. 2200–1550 BCE) and Late Bronze Age (ca. 1550–850 BCE). Another problem is that in all cases, excavated settle ments (Aratispi, La Capellanía, El Castillejo, Los Castillejos, Castillo de Antequera and Yacimiento 129) were explored by means of stratigraphic sondages or small-scale excavations not followed by any kind of signifi cant post-excavation study. Therefore, the available evidence consists mostly of small assemblages of artefacts and summary records of architectural remains. Considering these limitations, in this section, a general nonsystematic and nonquantitative discussion of the existing empirical base for the Bronze Age taken as a whole will be made (distinguishing where possible between Early Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age), while looking basically at three problems: settle ment patterns and locational strategies, economic resources and burial practices. From the point of view of settlement patterns and locational strategies it is interesting that in three of the excavated settlements, namely Aratispi, La Capellanía and El Castillejo, there is evidence of a strong discontinuity between the Copper Age and Bronze Age. While they were occupied throughout the 3rd mill. BCE, they seem to have experienced a substantial discontinuity during the fi nal centuries of the 3rd and fi rst half of the 2nd mill. BCE, to then be reoccupied in the Late Bronze Age. In addition to this, the remaining four excavated sites (Los Castillejos, Castillo de Antequera, Yacimiento 129 and El Toro) were only inhabited during the Late Bronze Age. Therefore, the empirical record for the Early Bronze Age occupation in the region consists only of the burial deposits radiocarbon-dated at Alcaide, Viera and El Tardón, and presumed on the basis of material culture at Las Aguilillas, Morenito I and Rodahuevos. One important point to bear in mind is that these early 2nd mill. BCE burial sites are characterised by architectures (hypogea, megalithic cists, reuse of a dolmen) and material culture (marine shell ornaments, lithic tools) that convey a strong sense of cultural and ideological continuity with the Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic past. As discussed below, this appearance of underlying continuity in the Early Bronze Age is apparently broken only by the presence of personal ornaments made in silver, including the remarkable Alcaide diadem. Although no information is available as to the individual who wore this diadem, it is worth noting that all Argaric diadems were associated to women. In light of this, one possibility is that in the last quarter of the 3rd mill. BCE, the Lands of Antequera region experienced a major demographic, social and cultural shift, in line with what has been noted for other Iberian regions, particularly in the southwest (see discussion in Soares/ Tavares da Silva 1998; Valera 2015) possibly in connection with the so-called 4.2 ky BP climatic event (Blanco- González et al. 2018; Hinz et al. 2019), as has been Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 242 also observed in other regions of Europe and the Mediterranean (Billie/ McAneney 2015; Carolin et al. 2018; Malone et al. 2018). Clearly, the settlement dynamics of the Lands of Antequera at the end of the 3rd mill. BCE seem to be less in line with those of the Argaric southeast, characterised by hill-top villages endowed with substantial civil infrastructures (perimeter walls, terraces, large cisterns, public buildings) than with those of the southwest, where settlements for that period are often diffi cult to pinpoint. The emphasis in burial architectures inspired in the 4th and 3rd mill. BCE and the reuse of monuments from that period also aligns the Lands of Antequera with the cultural dynamics of the southwest rather than with those of the southeast, although there is growing evidence of the reuse of old megalithic monuments in the Argaric Bronze Age too (Aranda Jiménez et al. 2015). The second half of the 2nd mill. BCE, and particularly its last third, witnessed what appears to be more intense settlement dynamics. This is suggested by several pieces of evidence, including: 1) the reoccupation of Aratispi, El Castillejo and La Capellanía, in the latter case with an inhabited area that substantially exceeded that of the Copper Age and was enclosed by a defensive wall; 2) the activity detected at Los Castillejos, Castillo de Antequera, Yacimiento 129 and Huerta de Peñarrubias, as well as several sites at the confluence of the Guadalhorce and Turón rivers; 3) by the remarkable fi nds of Almargen, including the ‘Huelva’ type sword and the ‘warrior’ stela, the only of its kind ever found in the Mediterranean hydrological domain of Iberia. The study of the Almargen fi nds suggests that this site acquired a prominent territorial role as a node of communication between the Málaga coast and the Lands of Antequera on one hand, and the Lower Guadalquivir valley and Huelva region on the other. Since none of the known settlements has been excavated extensively, there is very little information in terms of their intrinsic characteristics and internal organisation. At La Capellanía, Yacimiento 129 and Huerta de Peñarrubia small walls were found which may represent the foundations or lower bodies of residential architectures, while at La Capellanía fl oors paved with hardened earth and small pebbles were also identified. La Capellanía is also the only settlement to have yielded evidence of economic production, a smelting furnace. In his study of Late Bronze Age settlement patterns, partly based on the excavations at La Capellanía, Martín Córdoba (1994, 9) distinguished four main categories of sites on the basis of their internal organisation and locational characterisation: (i) large settlements located on prominent hills commanding a good visual control of the surroundings, and protected by perimetral stone walls; (ii) secondary settlements of variable size located on hilltops or high ground, and sometimes surrounded by stone walls; (iii) small-size settlements located on hilltops, with a good visual control of the surrounding ground and often near important pathways or mountain passes, sometimes presenting stone walls and other defensive devices (bastions); and (iv) small-size settlements located on low ground of minor elevations, without stone walls, presenting evidence of a strong agricultural economy. La Capellanía represents the fi rst category as a large, topographically dominant and walled settlement. Aratispi, El Castillejo, Los Castillejos and Castillo de Antequera all of smaller size than La Capellanía, but located on topographically commanding locations, can be placed in the second category, while Yacimiento 129 is a good example of a low-ground settlement located on good agricultural land, and perhaps occupied only seasonally. Altogether, although no formalised spatial analysis has been undertaken, the available evidence suggests that in the Late Bronze Age the communities living in the Lands of Antequera experienced a resurgence, including a process of increased hierarchisation between settlements, more rigid territorialisation and intensifi ed interregional connectivity, possibly within the context of growing competition for certain strategic resources, particularly metals. At least three pieces of supporting evidence can be found. Firstly, the presence in Almargen, right on the westernmost part of the Lands of Antequera, of two typically Atlantic cultural markers, a ‘warrior’ stela and a ‘Huelva’ type sword, precisely at the watershed between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, a sector where the Corbones river acts as a natural corridor connecting Antequera and the lower The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 243 Guadalquivir valley (Martín Córdoba 1994, 10; Díaz-Guardamino Uribe et al. 2020). The fact that nowhere else in Mediterranean Iberia a ‘warrior’ stela has been found bears testimony to the geostrategic significance Almargen must have had in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Located on a markedly liminal ground, the military symbology of the stela (coupled with the sword, probably resulting from an aquatic offering) underlines the importance of increased territoriality and boundary-marking in the centuries prior to the start of the Phoenician colonisation along the neighbouring Málaga coast. Secondly, the location of various settlements reveals the importance on control over communication routes and pathways. That is the case with La Peña de Ardales and El Cerrajón (neither of them excavated, but documented through surface finds) both in the municipality of Ardales, which command access towards the Málaga coast along the Guadalteba and Turón rivers, or El Castillón (Campillos), located at the confl uence between the Guadalhorce and Guadalteba rivers (Martín Córdoba 1994, 15). Thirdly, the locational strategy followed in the Late Bronze Age gave clear preference to inaccessible, welldefended hilltops, which causes the isochrone areas of the settlements of this period (fi g. 28–31) to be signifi cantly smaller than those of the Copper Age (García Sanjuán et al. 2016). Together with the presence of a major walled enclosure at La Capellanía (and presumably at several other sites), this points to a pattern of tension and competition between communities. In summary, compared to the Neolithic and Copper Age, Late Bronze Age communities adopted locational strategies that prioritised the defensive factor, accommodating their villages on grounds of mountainous structural morphology, and therefore some distance away from the best arable lands and main water course, a strategy detected through southern Spain in the second half of the 2nd mill. BCE (García Sanjuán 2011, 214 f.). The available evidence to discuss the Bronze Age economy is really limited. As mentioned, no archaeobotanical or archaeozoologi cal report has ever been published for any of the excavated Fig. 28. La Peña de los Enamorados. Isochrone areas (design: Joaquín Márquez Pérez). Leonardo García Sanjuán and Coronada Mora Molina 244 Fig. 29. Aratispi. Isochrone areas (design: Joaquín Márquez Pérez). Fig. 30. El Tardón. Isochrone areas (design: Joaquín Márquez Pérez). The Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera 245 sites. The only site for which any information is available is Las Aguilillas, for which 219 faunal remains are cited, although the data are not presented in a thorough, tabulated format but only through general references made in the text of the published report. The faunal remains identifi ed in this necropolis includes domestic animals such as bovids, ovicaprids, pigs and dogs as well as wild animals such as deer, rabbit, hare, rodents, fox, various kinds of birds and various types of marine molluscs (Unio pictorum, Cerastoderma edule and Pecten maximus) (Ramos Muñoz et al. 1995, 161). Personal ornaments made of shells from marine molluscs were also found inside El Tardón graves, including Pecten maximus. Aside from revealing regular interaction with the coast, the use of scallop shells (Pecten maximus) and other marine bivalves as grave goods in Bronze Age burials is signifi cant as a cultural trait, as these objects link up with a long-standing Neolithic and Copper Age tradition. There is an analogous dearth of evidence concerning the exploitation, transformation and circulation of abiotic resources in the Bronze Age in the Lands of Antequera, with the only exception of copper and silver metallurgy (for a discussion see Rodríguez Vinceiro et al. 1992; 2018; Aranda Jiménez et al. 2021). The inventory of metal objects recorded in the sites described above amounts to 40 objects, including 32 copper-base items (a sword, seven daggers, six points, nine punches, two chisels, a sickle, three spirals and two small plaques) and eight silver-base ones (one diadem, six spirals and a ring) (table 5).4 The only site for which in situ evidence of copper smelting has been found is La Capellanía, where a combustion structure for smelting was identifi ed in connection with an arrowhead, a fragment of a smelting pot and a large amount of slag. From the point of view of mining and circulation of metals, isotopic data for the Málaga province are still inconclusive as to the specifi c role of copper metallurgy in the Lands of Antequera (Rodríguez Vinceiro et al. 2018, 112). Although when compared with Copper Age (13 items) the collection of Bronze Age metal objects (40 items) represents a threefold increase, in comparison with the collections known for the Iberian southeast, or indeed for other European regions, it represents a very small metallurgical production. The differences between the metallurgies of both periods seem to be more qualitative than quantitative and are refl ected in the nature of the manufactured objects and in the appearance of silver metallurgy. In the Copper Age, copper was mostly applied to the manufacture of tools (punches, chisels, saws, sickles, axes, etc.) whereas in the Bronze Age, while still used to produce tools, it was also 4 An assemblage of copper objects not recovered through archaeological work (including two daggers, a punch and more than a dozen fragments of other metallic items as well as a crucible) is attributed to La Peña de los Enamorados (Rodríguez Vinceiro et al. 1992, 227). Since the context and chronology of these objects are not known they have not been included in our inventory. Fig. 31. Comparison of isochrone areas. Left: Bronze Age sites El Tardón and La Peña de los Enamorados. 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