Brain Drain and Technologies in the Social Justice New Policies of Ecuador

CHAPTER TWELVE BRAIN DRAIN AND TECHNOLOGIES IN THE SOCIAL JUSTICE NEW POLICIES OF ECUADOR FRANCESCO MANIGLIO Abstract In this article, we want to denounce how the politics of the global economy of knowledge have built an inter-state-dependent geography, which reinforces unfair access to the valorization of knowledge on a global scale. National governments participate in the systemic organization of collective intelligence when dealing in intellectual property rights (whether controlling markets or favouring monopolization) and regulating education institutions, universities and research centres. The brain migration flows indicate the close complex articulations and interactions between higher education sectors, economic policies and national interests in science and technology, RandD and ICT on the one hand, and the competitive strategies and global influences of the wealthier countries on the other. In this scenario, knowledge, science and technology public policies in Ecuador rely on growth patterns, which assumes a structural cognitive deficit, complicated by globally and regionally spread cognitive unfairness. Such policies attempt to strategically relocalize the country, in hegemony terms, in the international division of knowledge. Keywords: Brain drain, Social Justice, Science, Technology, Public Policies. Knowledge economy, university investment and new forms of inequalities Current society, usually referred to as a global society, has become more cognitive as knowledge is a key element with which to leverage the financial valorization mechanisms of capital. This is not a change from the typical industrial capitalistic polarization of knowledge ownership; Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve 268 however, it now entails the development of new mechanisms and devices whereby knowledge is becoming a command and dominion variable that differentiates humans from other beings, a new factor establishing hierarchies and ruling labour division. Ever since the nineties, OECD- member countries plan their political-economical agendas by sticking to the new growth and endogenous growth economic theories guidelines. Endogenous theory model patterns are emphasized: the scientific system, public and private research centres, and higher education institutions have become the hallmarks of a knowledge-based economy. Table 1. Analytics of the knowledge economy The rise of the sign or symbolic economy (knowledge capitalism) based on the combined logics of abundance and dispersal x unlike most resources that are depleted when used, information and knowledge can actually grow through sharing, exchange and application; x capital in a symbolic form of information can be speedily transferred in deregulated 24-hour virtual finance markets, allowing international currency speculation and increased geographical spread and mobility of FDI; x displacement of manufacturing industry from its old locations in the North to selected locations in the South (in Asia and Latin America) and a dematerialisation of the industrial products (the weightless economy). ICT diminishes the effect of distance, making possible “action at a distance in real time” x the radical concordance of image, text and sound, and development of new information/knowledge infrastructure; x the emergence of a global media network linked with a global communications network; x the emergence of a global Euro-American consumer culture and the rise of global edutainment giants in music/film/TV. Investment in human capital and key competencies as a source of value in knowledge-based institutions, with an emphasis on knowledge being locked into systems or processes x the technological transformation of “leading” science, where the major developments in informatics and modern theories of algebra, computer languages, communication theories and cybernetics, phonology and theories of linguistics, problems of information storage, retrieval and data banks, telematics, problems of translation, are significantly all language-based; x new legal, ethical and economic problems concerning knowledge creation, transmission and distribution highlighted in the emergence of international intellectual property rights regimes and the recent GATS agreements within the international knowledge system; Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Source: Stigl i By subj policies enc stressing th e However, a s importance power arou n Figure 1. Pu b as a p ercenta g Source: OEC D Socia l x t k c n l i tz, 1999. ecting educa t c ourage schol a e structural t r s shown in t h of a weak sta t n d public edu c b lic and private g e of GDP, by l D, 2016. l Justice New P t he promotion o k nowledge/tec h c orporatization n ew p ublic/pri v l ifelong educat i t ion instituti o a rs and scien t r ansformatio n h e graph b elo w t e apparatus, n c ation invest m expenditure o n l evel of educat i olicies of Ecua d o f new knowle d h nology transfe r of the universi t v ate p artnership on. o ns to the pr t ists to b eco m n of knowled g w , for all the n ational gov e m ent. n education inst i i on (2013) do r d ge cultures an d r policies thro u t y, the encoura g p s and the conc e r oduction rea l m e entreprene u g e society as neoliberal m y e rnments kee p itutions 269 d gh the g ement of e pt of l m, these u rial, thus a whole. y th of the p strategic Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve 270 In the first place, we want to stress the fact that the investment gap in higher education is accounted for by an inter-state-dependent geography, which reinforces unfair access to and valorization of knowledge on a global scale. National governments participate in the systemic organization of collective intelligence by dealing in intellectual property rights (whether controlling markets or favouring monopolization) and regulating education institutions, universities, and research centres. The deregulation myth paves the way for new regulation forms. Governments will need more stress on upgrading human capital through promoting access to a range of skills, and especially the capacity to learn; enhancing the knowledge distribution power of the economy through collaborative networks and the diffusion of technology; and providing the enabling conditions for organizational change at the firm level to maximize the benefits of technology for productivity (OECD 1996: 6) OECD technicians are convinced that financing higher education yields greater profits than real interest rates (Schleicher 2006). It is precisely these profits that move Stiglitz, a consultant with both the World Bank and the White House, to suggest that information economics entails something like a balance and welfare formula in Globalization and Its Discontents (2002). The standard models that economists had used for generations argued either that the market worked perfectly – some even denied the existence of genuine unemployment –or that the only reason that unemployment existed was that wages were too high, suggesting the obvious remedy of lower wages. Information economics, with its better analysis of labor, capital and product markets, enabled the construction of macroeconomic models that provided deeper insights into unemployment, models that explained the fluctuations, the recessions and depressions, that had marked capitalism since its beginnings (Stiglitz 2002: 12) Financial profits are the actual payoff of a clockwork organization of knowledge, as described by Stiglitz as early as 1999, when he wrote the UNDP report headed Knowledge as a Global Public Good. Firstly, he emphasizes the “financial wants” that force those countries embracing neoliberal reforms to promptly engage in restructuring and expanding their university systems. This is the actual meaning of Stiglitz’s words when he states that “we now see economic development as less like the construction business and more like education in the broad and comprehensive sense that covers knowledge, institutions, and culture” (Stiglitz 1999: 2). The World Bank has shifted from financing infrastructure projects to financing Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Social Justice New Policies of Ecuador 271 what he calls a “knowledge bank”. State-run university financing focuses on using public expenditure to promote competitive companies, or startups, that seek to increase their value in the financial markets and definitively keep human capital costs down. This is why Stiglitz underlines the governments’ unique power to regulate capital/knowledge flows. Despite the recent wave of education reforms, the proclaimed end of the comprehensive era and the advent of new public-private partnership forms,1 state-run formal education continues to be a major form of knowledge organization. Far from weakening, the state takes on an even more strategic role – as the stakeholder of the citizens’ knowledge. Mazzucato and Dosi (2006) study how the state is still the main player in the knowledge accumulation process and, therefore, in the development of high-added-value industry. With the development of the knowledge economy, stock market participation by institutional investors has grown to strongly influence corporate leaders, and now the same interests and goals are shared by institutional stakeholders and management alike. The knowledge economy has thus undergone a change that is in line with that of the financial economy: the risks are increasingly run by the public sector while the economic gains are reaped by the private sector. In the second place, national science and technology policies reinforce state hierarchies, where the ownership of knowledge-rent establishes a peculiar international division of knowledge, labour, and wealth, which sets the basis for newer forms of dependence not only in political terms but also in economic and social ones. Third, national science and technology policies result in new cultural and material colonization and dominion forms. In fact, by quantifying and controlling knowledge flows and productions and imposing benchmark checks at admission and during the whole training process, such policies contribute to the exploitation of social relationships and the private appropriation of knowledge. In this organizational and organic revolution, the concerned institutions produce and socialize knowledge, clearly dealing in abilities, skills and creativity, producing at the same time abundance (of degrees, diplomas, certificates) and scarcity (since no degree seems to be enough) and establishing particular regional and domestic development patterns. 1 For instance, the UK Private Finance Initiative (PFI) and the Ley Orgánica de Universidades (Act 6/2001), a Spanish university-regulation act passed on December 21, 2001 during José María Aznar’s second term; or the Gelmini reform in Italy (Act IT-133/2008), which reasserts the destructuring of public education and the full convergence with the private sector. Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. 272 Brain Endogenou s public and human capi t economy. T migration fl of inclusio n knowledge ( Map 1. Emig r Source: OEC D The inc r the externa l tableau. N o t in which h countries, c policies, all u Qualific a impact on t h which ado p migration fl map b elow , highly skill e migration i n s theory mod e private rese a t al growth ha v T hrough the ows, we can d n and draw t h ( Maniglio 201 r ation rates of t D-DIOC, 2010 r ease in the d l recruitmen t t only war bu h ighly skille d c ompanies a n u ring strategi e a tion-based m h e labour ma r pt selective ows and red u , since the 9 0 e d labour ma r Chapter T n the interna t e l patterns ar e a rch centres, v e become th e analysis of i d escribe the c h e map of w 6), as shown t he highly-skill e /11 d emand for q u t field, creat i ut also new al d p rofession a nd universit i e s and retenti o m igratory dis c r ke t and in th e immigration u cing non-qua 0 s, in order t r ke t has exp a T welve ional divisi o e emphasized : higher edu c e hallmarks o i nternational c onsolidation w ha t we call t b elow. ed to OECD co u alified p rofe i ng an inter n liances and d a l migration i es through o n capacity ( B c rimination po e public acco u policies, e s l ifie d immigr a t o meet the d a nded further o n of knowle : the scientifi c c ation institu t f the knowle d highly skill e of this new g t he spatial d i o untries, 2010/1 e ssionals has e n ationally co d ependence f o flows are d favourable m B oeri et al. 20 1 olicies have u nts of those c stablishing c ation. As sho w d emand for t a in crossb or d dge c system, t ions and d ge-based e d people g eograph y i vision of 1 e xpande d m petitive o rms arise d riven by m igration 1 2). a serious c ountries, c ontrolle d w n in the a lent, the d e r terms, Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Social Justice New Policies of Ecuador 273 progressively increasing the quota of highly skilled foreigners in industrialized countries and implementing international mobility programmes in the majority of universities (Stein et al. 1996). The priority worker classification has been adopted by Western countries in order to discriminate between the wanted immigration (highly skilled personnel) and the unwanted (unqualified personnel), thereby reinforcing the international knowledge and labour division. We can observe the USA, Canada, Australia, Japan and the EU, whose immigration policies, especially in the 1990s, have become selective in terms of educational profiles, according to the demands of the internal labour market. In Europe, in 2007, Commissioner Frattini launched the European Blue Card initiative (Directive 2009/50/CE), by and large an equivalent to the US’s Green Card, to favour the entrance of highly skilled immigrants, harmonizing thus the measures taken by Germany, the UK and France, which had themselves followed the paths of the US, Canada and Australia.2 Second injustice: the talent gap approach and the differential immigration public policies The differential immigration public policies that favour the entrance of highly skilled people are inseparable from the national technological development policies. In the selective immigration process, governments and industrial lobbies intervene by increasing the alluring policies in the receiver countries, promoting tax incentives and superior quality investigation infrastructures. The capacity of some countries, regions and cities to attract talented people from all over the world seems enormous, and governments are always under pressure to react to such scenarios. Thus, knowledge spatial division mechanisms are amplified and inequality becomes fiercer between nations in order to retain, attract and supply 2 Australia and Canada were pioneers in adopting these types of measures, implementing, since the 60s and 70s, a visa system with points based on skills. The point system was established in Australia in 1958 with The Migration Act, based on criteria of age, titles, experience and health. In 1978, Canada adopted the same Australian model with the Immigration Act: as a consequence, , in 1997, more than half of the immigration in Canada was composed of highly skilled professionals. The USA’s system follows the previous lines, functioning by visa quota. This quota was set at 65 thousand units in the Immigration Act, and was increased during the Clinton presidency in the 1990s to 115 thousand, with the American Competitiveness Work Force Improvement Act, in line with the development of policies concerning the Information Society. Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. 274 highly skil l supply-and- one is co n convergenc e Romer 19 9 developme n qualified i m coming up t Map 2. The g Red indicate Numbers sho w Source: Oxfo l e d people f demand gro w n sisten t wit h e theories an d 9 3): deficits n tally non-co n m migrants co u o the North f r g ap between th e s a deficit tr e w trend growt h o r d Economics, Chapter T f lows. Speci f w th gap, two c o h the critici s d the technol o and surplus e n verging kno w u ld easily be i r o m an everm e growth in de m e nd, green a s u h as annual p er c 2012 T welve fi cally, mapp i o nsiderations sm of the o gy gap appr o e s are here w ledge econ o i nterpreted as m ore depende n m an d and in sup u rplus trend, y c entages. i ng the glo b can be made. neo-classic e o ach (Fagerb e seen as si g o my. Flows o unidirection a nt South. p ply of talent, 2 0 y ellow a b roa d b al talent The first e conomic e rg 1887, g ns of a o f highly a l, i.e., as 0 11 d balance. Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Social Justice New Policies of Ecuador 275 Table 2. Percentage of temporary residents receiving S/E doctorates in 2006 who were in the United States, 2007-2011, by degree field Degree Field Recipients 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Physical Science 1,975 78 75 72 69 66 Mathematics 666 75 73 72 67 65 Computer Science 798 81 79 78 79 77 Agricultural Science 400 55 51 48 46 46 Life Science 2,260 78 76 74 71 70 Computer/EE Engineering 1,453 82 81 79 78 76 Other Engineering 2,845 79 76 73 71 70 Economics 676 50 47 45 43 42 Other Social Science 876 51 49 46 45 46 Total, all fields 11,949 75 72 70 68 66 Source: Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 2014 In fact, the technological policies of advanced capitalist countries always put the relationship between technology transfer and social learning at the top of their list, along with the resulting human capital growth. The national innovation systems (NIS) of advanced countries play a major role when it comes to determining the inflow and outflow of foreign qualified workers. In political and economic terms, inflows are greater in those industries where human capital is scarcest, i.e., computer science and the computer/EE engineering sectors. In the US, the NIS revolves around certain excellence centres that have gone beyond the national borders and operate globally. Public migratory policies regulate the entrance quotas according to their financial and industrial development. For more than a decade, these policies have linked knowledge exploitation to the development of incubators by high tech companies, the technology of the materials and the development of ICTs. According to a study by the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, as early as 1999, 30% of foreign students in the universities of Northern California (UC Berkeley, Stanford, San Francisco SU and San Jose) ended up working in Silicon Valley (Mahroum 2005). This shows how the convergence between the industrial sector, the academic world and the services sector creates an extremely attractive environment for highly skilled immigration. For these reasons, the employability characteristics claimed by universities is related to academic mobility. Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve 282 in the region.3 Therefore, from 2009, Ecuador has been developing new legislation in order to democratize knowledge so that it has a social function and serves the development of national industry. In Ecuador, this unfair global cognitive distribution has been politically counteracted by expanding the state agents’ legitimating power. Thus, Ecuador’s public policies regarding the social economy of knowledge involve analysing and intervening on a global level on the following: – Domestic and international knowledge (RandD) commercial flows, granting of licences, direct foreign investment, use of technological spillovers as intermediate inputs, etc. – Capital flows and international limitations thereto. – International movement of people. And, economically, at a domestic level: – The promotion of knowledge, capital and human flows, considering their effects on the economic structure. – The consequences of commercial restrictions and their positive or negative impacts on knowledge flows. In short, Ecuador has overcome the neoclassical growth model, which hardly considers state intervention as an investment-driving factor. The Ecuador government’s model rejects that limit by acknowledging the fact that growth, increasing innovation and new capital accumulation forms are complementary to one another. Although a primary-goods exporting (or rather resource-extraction exporting) economy, Ecuador has embarked on a series of efforts, which are expressed in the restructuration of the Secretariat of Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation. Such efforts include new public policies regarding the following: – Access: Scholarships, education credit, enhanced support to universities and technical and technological institutes. 3 Roberto Beltrán Zambrano, using data from 2011, explains, “About 70 universities offer different undergraduate and post-graduate degrees in Ecuador. Only a few offer research post-graduate courses, and much fewer offer Ph.D. programs. Apart from these, there are some 360 technical and technological institutes with a highly varied, in some cases sui generis, academic offer which in a certain way are much like universities. Thus, there are about 430 higher education institutions, which should cater for a population roughly above 300,000 students”. (Bellettini and Ordóñez 2013: 65) Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Social Justice New Policies of Ecuador 283 – Measurement and Control: Ongoing evaluation of students, university accreditation (quality), increased salaries for professors/researchers (status). – Public Funding: Allotment of nearly 2% of the GDP to higher education. – Strategic Positioning Regarding Knowledge Economy: Building of massive projects and setting of progressive agendas, aiming at the transfer and maximum valorization of knowledge and technology (Yachay, Ikiam, Unae, Uniarte). Ecuador’s science and technology system reforms over the last 8 years have strategically focused on the valorization of the so-called intangible components in society (knowledge, know-how, education, learned practices, innovation, etc.), to step out of what is mostly a resourceextraction-oriented system. For these reasons, higher education in Ecuador is going through a radical change compared to the previous decade. In passing the Higher Education Law (LOES) in 2010, we faced the challenge of transforming society, its social, productive, and environmental structure, and enhancing our human potential so that it lives up to the needs of national development and citizenship construction. (Ramírez 2014) The main transformation involved higher education public investment. Now, Ecuador is one of the countries that invests the most in higher education in the region, with 2% of the GDP (Argentina: 1.2%; Colombia: 1.1%; Brazil: 1.0%; Chile: 0.9%; Paraguay: 0.8%; Peru: 0.4%), compared to the OECD mean of 1.7% (SENESCYT 2013). Not only has this resulted in a rise in the main international scientific ratings, it also resulted, for instance, in an increased number of scientific publications. Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. 284 Figure 2. Gr o Long-term tr a the Science C Citation Inde x Source: Lem a Let us g qualified e m increased to world’s qua et al. 2008). strategic gr o (2009-2013 ) of highly q u intervening studies on t know that E o wth of cogniti v a c k of the year C itation Index, S x (1973-2008). a rchand, 2010. g o back to b m igration was o 1.9 million p lified migran t It is p recisel y o wth factor t h ) attempts to p u alified Ecua d in migration t he repatriati o E cuado r has be Chapter T v e justice ly number of m S ocial Science Data per milli o b rain migrati o observed in L p eople, in 200 t s (OECD co u y because of t h a t the N atio n p u t a stop to t d orian men a flows. Alth o o n rate of hi g e en a humanc T welve m ainstream sci e Citation Index o n inhabitants. o n studies: A L atin Americ a 7 it was 4.9 m u ntries) (Doc q h e importanc e n al Well Liv i t he brain dra i a n d women by o ugh we lack g hly qualifie d c apital-friendl e ntific p ublicat i and Arts and H A considerab l a . While in 1 9 m illion, i.e., 1 9 q uier, Lowell, e of human c a i ng Develop m i n and foster t y both contr o k data from s y d Ecuadoria n l y country sin c i ons as per H umanities l e rise in 9 90 it had 9 % of the Marfouk a pital as a m en t Plan t he return o lling and y stematic n s, we do c e 2010. Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Social Justice New Policies of Ecuador 285 Table 5. Growth of cognitive justice: international university degrees registered in Ecuador Total Higher education level Technical/technological Third level Fourth level Ecuadorian 38,642 1,326 12,889 24,427 Foreign 38,877 1,738 26,142 10,997 Total 77,519 3,064 39,031 35,424 Source: SENESCYT - SNIES, 2016 In 2015, SENESCYT recorded 23,415 foreign degrees, which is a 48.5% increase from 2014, with 16,163. The SENESCYT report 35 logros de la revolución ciudadana en Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENESCYT 2013)4 reveals the radical higher education policy changes in the region. Notably, democratizing higher education access has been a fundamental and strategic step towards enhancing social policies and material justice. 4 Cf. Ecuador National Secretariat of Higher Education, Science and Technology. Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. 286 Figure 3. Gr o enrolment in Source: ENE M Further m higher educ a 2014 were w women wer e Figure 4. Gr o by gender Source: SNN A o wth of social higher educati o M DU, 2012 m ore, a subst a a tion enrolm e w omen comp e enrolled co m o wth of gender j A , 2016 Chapter T and material j u o n for economi c a ntial gender e n t rates: 46.6 are d to 53.31 m pared to 48. 1 j ustice in high e T welve u stice in highe r c reasons parity has fi n 9 % of the ne w % of men. I n 1 2% men. er education: a r education: r a n ally been ac h w enrolments n March 201 5 a ccess to highe r a te of nonh ieved in in March 5 , 51.82% r education Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. The gro 2006 comp a evident: In women; in being occu p Figure 5. Gr o Source: SEN E Advanc e gross enrol m from 4.9% i cognitive u n higher educ 2008. Socia l ss female en r a red to 37.4% 2012, only 2 2014, gende r p ie d by wome n o wth of gender j E SCYT, 2015 e s have also b m en t rate a m i n 2006 to 10. n fairness hav e ation, which i l Justice New P r olmen t rate in 2014. Oth e out of 10 ac r parity was a n . j ustice: acade m b een made in m ong the p oo r 6% in 2014. P e played a m a i s in line the olicies of Ecua d in higher ed u er achieveme n a demic p osit i a ttained, with m ic managers in class-origin- b r es t quintiles P olitical attit u a jo r role in d e social equity do r u cation was n ts in this are a i ons were oc c 5 out of 10 n the world of w b ased differe n was observ e u des confronti e mocratizing policies in f o 287 3 0.7% in a are selfc upied by positions w or k n ces. The e d to rise n g global access to o rce since Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. 288 Figure 6. Gr o Source: Cent r The co m university, a to support t h in the Ecua d Innovation) . As a co n Ecuador rel y complicate d policies atte in the inte r policies, li k and the Hi g technology revolution o revolution, w Interestingl y meaning of weapon aga i Public i n Creativity a n strategy co n of knowled g of educatio n o wth of social a n r al Bank of Ec u m bination of a n d lower p o v h e knowledge d orian Code o . n clusion, kno w y on growth p d by widespre a mp t to strate g r national di v k e the ones e x g he r Educati o system, c o o f Ecuador; i n w hich is strat e y enough, a l knowledge-r e i ns t the trans n n tervention th r nd Innovation n ceive d by th e g e, the deterrit o n (Peters 200 3 Chapter T nd material jus t u ador, 2013 easier acce s v erty rates p ar t economy fro m o f Social Eco n w ledge, scien c p atterns that a a d global an d g ically reposit v ision of kn o x pressed in t h o n Law (201 0 o nstitute the n deed, they h a e gic from the l aw was p as s e n t and use it n ational kno w r ough the Co d (INGENIOS e Ecuador go v o rialization o f 3 ). T welve t ice: Income G i s s to educati o t icularly p oin t m a social sta n omy of Kno w c e and techn o a ssume a stru c regional cog n i on the count r o wledge. Put h e General B 0 ), which ref o decade’s g a ve driven a country’s so c ed in 2006 t o as a state-su p ledge rentier c d e of Social E c Code) is, in t h v ernmen t to w information a i ni Coefficient o n, and esp e t s to a p olitic a a nce (which is w ledge, Creat i o logy public p c tural cogniti v n itive unfair n r y, in hegemo another wa y asic Educati o o rmed the sc i g rea t socio- e social and te c c ial justice p e r o dispute th e p porte d socia l c lass. c onom y of K n h is historical c w ards the cap i a n d the techno 2003-13 e cially to a l attempt reflected i vity, and p olicies in v e deficit, ess. Such ny terms, y , public o n reform i ence and e conomic c hnologic r spective. e political l struggle n owledge, c ontext, a i talization l ogization Pirani, B. M. (Ed.). (2018). The borders of integration : Empowered bodies and social cohesion. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. Created from uses on 2022-06-03 07:25:45. Copyright © 2018. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. Social Justice New Policies of Ecuador 289 Setting different (social) principles on which to assess income does not preclude the valorization of the knowledge-commodity except from a social function perspective, i.e., as a guarantee of future income. By “income” we do not mean currency capital but cultural, social and relational capital. Primarily, this is a political struggle for income not to be so paltry at the social base: this is a struggle against inequality. These knowledge-social-economy development processes are essential not only in terms of knowledge property (accumulation/regulation/ patenting) and access (dissemination/production) but also, and especially, in terms of the hegemonic process entailed by the changes in the productive structure in Ecuador and its class reproduction implications. Currently, pursuing the political struggle for revolution in Ecuador means fighting for the collectivization of knowledge. Otherwise, misery will be trivialized and we will get used to unfairness, considering it as our natural and deserved fate. References Attanasio, M. and Capursi, V. (2011). Statistical Methods for the Evaluation of University Systems. New York and Berlin: Springer. Bellettini, O., and Ordóñez, A. (2013). Ecuador: Del país recursos al país conocimiento. Quito: Grupo FARO. Benzi, D., and Zapata, X. 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