The state of the art of limnology in the last decade

Rubén González Gérboles Curso 2013/2014 Tutora: Inmaculada Trabajo Fin de Título para la obtención del título de Grado en Ciencias del Mar THE STATE OF THE ART OF LIMNOLOGY IN THE LAST DECADE The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 2 0. Title The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade. 1. Personal data Name: Rubén Surnames: González Gérboles 2. Tutor data Name: Inmaculada Surnames: Menéndez González 3. Signature Date: 24/07/2014 Student’s signature Tutor’s signature The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 3 4. Index 4.1. Text 5. Introduction 8 5.1. Objective and structure 8 5.2. General context 8 6. Materials and methods 9 7. Lakes 9 7.1. Definition 9 7.2. Evolution 10 7.2.1. Description of its life 10 7.2.2. Water balance 10 7.2.3. Seasonal variations 10 7.3. Classification 11 7.3.1. Types of classifications 11 7.3.2. Classification based on their origin 12 7.3.2.1. Glacial lakes 12 7.3.2.1.1. Definition 12 7.3.2.1.2. Example 12 7.3.2.2. Tectonic lakes 13 7.3.2.2.1. Definition 13 7.3.2.2.2. Example 14 7.3.2.3. Volcanic lakes 15 7.3.2.3.1. Definition 15 7.3.2.3.2. Example 16 The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 4 7.3.2.4. Riverine lakes 17 7.3.2.4.1. Definition 17 7.3.2.4.2. Example 17 8. Paradigm shifts 18 8.1. Nutrient limitation 18 8.2. Food webs 19 8.3. Biodiversity 19 9. Results 20 9.1. Tendency in Limnology 20 9.2. Publications on Limnology 20 9.2.1. Journals 20 9.2.2. Countries 21 9.2.3. Institutions 22 9.3. Publications on Oceanography 23 9.3.1. Journals 23 9.3.2. Countries 24 9.3.1. Institutions 25 9.4. Comparison between Limnology and Oceanography 26 9.4.1. Journals 26 9.4.2. Countries 28 9.4.3. Institutions 29 10. Discussion 30 11. Conclusion 31 12. Bibliography 31 13. Webgraphy 36 The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 5 14. Description of the activities undertaken during the TFT 36 15. Training received 37 16. Positive and negative aspects related to the development of TFT 37 17. Personal assessment of learning achieved throughout the TFT 37 4.2. Figures Figure 1. Distribution of Earth’s water 9 Figure 2. The Great Lakes 13 Figure 3. Naini lake 15 Figure 4. Variation in precipitation rate and isotopic composition in Jakarta, Indonesia in 1985 15 Figure 5. Lake Taupo 16 Figure 6. Mississippi’s oxbow lake 18 Figure 7. The evolution of the concept of nutrient limitation 18 Figure 8. The evolution of the concept of food webs 19 Figure 9. The evolution of the concept of biodiversity 19 Figure 10. Annual distribution of research papers in journals under SCI category of Limnology from 2001 to 2010 20 Figure 11. Representation of Table I expressed in percentages 21 Figure 12. Representation of Table II expressed in percentages 22 Figure 13. Representation of Table III expressed in percentages 23 The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 6 Figure 14. Representation of Table IV expressed in percentages 24 Figure 15. Representation of Table V expressed in percentages 25 Figure 16. Representation of Table VI expressed in percentages 26 Figure 17. Comparison between journals in both topics 27 Figure 18. Comparison between countries in both topics 28 Figure 19. Comparison between institutions in both topics 30 4.3. Tables Table I. Number of publications on Limnology distributed by journals 21 Table II. Number of publications on Limnology distributed by countries 22 Table III. Number of publications on Limnology distributed by institutions 23 Table IV. Number of publications on Oceanography distributed by journals 24 Table V. Number of publications on Oceanography distributed by countries 25 Table VI. Number of publications on Oceanography distributed by institutions 25 Table VII. Comparison between the number of publications in both disciplines distributed by journals 27 The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 7 Table VIII. Comparison between the number of publications in both disciplines distributed by countries 28 Table IX. Comparison between the number of publications in both disciplines distributed by institutions 29 The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 8 5. Introduction 5.1. Objective and structure The objective of this work is show the state of the art of Limnology. Then it was decided to divide the work in two parts: one theoretical and one practical. The first part of this work is theoretical and it is focused on the lakes. This part describes only the lakes because they are the most important water bodies in Limnology, they contains more freshwater than others bodies like wetlands. Therefore, the work defines the most important aspects of these water bodies in such a way that the reader can get a comprehensive overview of current knowledge on this topic. This section finishes with some examples of recent changes of paradigm on Limnology at general level to provide the reader with recent ideas about this discipline as a whole. The second part is more practical and aims to test the hypothesis that there was more publication on Oceanography than on Limnology in the last decade (2001-2010). To create this section the author has used numerical records of publications. 5.2. General context The Limnology is the discipline that studies the inland waters (lakes, wetlands, rivers, ground water and streams), incorporating knowledge of geological, physical, biological and chemical processes at different scales. Then it is an interdisciplinary science and usually adopts an ecosystem approach to research problems (Cao et al., 2012; Cole, 2009). The world’s water is distributed as follows (Figure 1): approximately 96.3% of water is in the oceans as salt water and the remaining 3.7% percent is fresh water. However it is important to say that 1.93% of this 3.7% is fresh water trapped in glaciers and ice caps, so it is not useful to supply the population. The humanity can only drink fresh water from some aquifers and a portion of the fresh surface water that is free in the form of rivers, lakes and wetlands. The fresh surface water is very important as it shapes much of the landscape of the continents. The lakes (67.5%) and wetlands (8.5%) contain significantly more amount of fresh water than the rivers (1.6%). Thus these water bodies, studied by Limnology, are of vital importance to humanity by providing easy access to what is indisputably the most important recourse: the fresh water (Marshall, 2013). . The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 9 Figure 1. Distribution of Earth’s water. Marshall (2013). 6. Material and methods This work is based on a review of existing bibliographic information on Limnology and lakes and, to carry out this task, it used from scientific books to journal articles. These bibliographic sources were recompiled using computing resources used in the Universities as Scopus, ScienceDirect, Faro and others. Furthermore, the author used websites about Limnology to get some photographs that illustrate the examples of the lakes. Finally, the program Excel was used to create tables and graphics related to the work. 7. Lakes 7.1. Definition A lake is an enclosed body of freshwater totally surrounded by land and without direct access to the sea but they can be interconnected by rivers (Thomas et al., 1992). The rock type in the area of catchment of water determines the chemical composition of lakes. The silicate rocks like basalt form freshwater rich in dissolved SiO2 (20-30 mg/l), (Ca+Mg)/HCO3 ratios <0.5 and SiO2/HCO3 ratios up to 0.45, but the sedimentary rocks like limestone form freshwater poor in dissolved SiO2 (<20 mg/l), (Ca+Mg)/HCO3) ratios >0.5 and SiO2/HCO3 from 0.02 to 0.34 (Yan et al., 2002). The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 16 It is possible to classify the volcanic lakes in two groups (Varekamp et al., 2000): - Volcanic gas-dominated systems: their rate of acidification is greater than the rate of neutralization by the higher amount of gas (mainly CO2 and H2S) and fluids circulate relatively rapidly through the sublimnic hydrothermal systems. - Rock dominated-systems: their rate of neutralization is greater than the rate of acidification and fluids circulate relatively slowly through the sublimnic hydrothermal systems. 7.3.2.3.2. Example Lake Taupo Lake Taupo (Figure 5) is a large oligotrophic volcanic lake in New Zealand. In recent years, this lake has suffered a nitrogen contamination caused by human activities (Matheson et al., 2011). Chimneys have been discovered at the bottom of the lake and their surfaces contain a number of elements such as S, Hg, As, Sb and Ti. These vents are increasing the concentration of SO4, Cl, Na and SiO2 in the water (Ronde et al., 2002). There are sponges within the genus Heterorotula close to the vents that have bored into the chimneys. Furthermore, exist annelids of family Enchytraeidae living in the lake sediments and the crayfish (Paranephrops planifrons). Some species of fish are Koaro (Galaxias brevipinis) and Toitoi (Gobiomorphus cotidianus) (Ronde et al., 2002; Rota & Manconi, 2004). Figure 5. Lake Taupo.Info.geonet.org (n.f). The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 17 7.3.2.4. Riverine lakes 7.3.2.4.1. Definition Riverine lakes are also called oxbow lakes and they are formed by cutoff creation. As the water flows, it accumulates sediments on the convex bank and the sediments are eroded from the concave bank of the river, increasing the sinuosity of the meander and joining the two parts. Finally, a bar of sediments is created and this part of the river is excluded, forming an oxbow lake (Delhomme et al., 2013; Hudson et al., 2012). There are four regimes of sedimentation in an oxbow lake (Wren et al., 2008): 1: While the lake is still connected with the river, the sand is deposited in this zone of less velocity. 2: Separation of the river with a high sedimentation rate from seasonal floods. 3: River migrates away from the lake and the sedimentation rate diminishes. 4: Increase of transparency of water because to the increase of sedimentation rate. There are several factors that influence the advance of tie channels that connect these lakes to the main stem river: mainly sediment load, frequency of entrance of sedimentladen water and internal controls like the response to the channel lengthening and the influence of river hydrograph characteristics (Rowland et al., 2005). 7.3.2.4.2. Example Mississippi’s oxbow lakes There are hundreds of oxbow lakes (Figure 6) that are periodically connected to the Mississippi River (North America) in the rainy season when increase the amount of water. The anthropogenic changes can modify the connectivity between the river and its floodplain (Miranda, 2005). The trace elements like Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, V, etc., suffers strong seasonal variations provoked mainly by processes redox by exists other minor mechanisms as changes of pH, hydrological factors like changes in discharge and mixing ratios of major tributaries that affect less the concentrations of these elements, except for Ba and U, where mixing of major tributaries with a very different concentrations is important (Shiller, 1997). Some examples of fish are: pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus), paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), round goby (Neogobius melanstomus), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), river carpsucker (Carpiodes carpio), logperch (Percina caprodes), etc. Moreover, there are introduced zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) (DuBowy, 2013; The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 18 Miranda et al., 2013). There are many species of zooplankton like Bosmina longirostris, Daphnia ambigua, some genus of rotifers (Filinia, Encentrum, Brachionus, etc.) and others (Burdis & Hoxmeier, 2011). Furthermore, some examples of phytoplankton are: Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Clacidiscus leptoporus, Odontella sinesis, Emiliania huxleyi, etc (Wawrik & Paul, 2004). Figure 6. Mississippi’s oxbow lake. Eoearth (2008). 8. Paradigm shifts A clear evidence of the advance in knowledge about Limnology is the amount of paradigm shifts that have resulted over the years. In this section it will explain some recent examples where scientists have showed that some old ideas are not true. It is very important to say though some ideas that arise in the field of Limnology can also affect the Oceanography for example the paradigm shifts described in 8.2 and 8.3 sections. 8.1. Nutrient limitation Traditionally, it has been believed that phosphorus was the limiting nutrient in lakes (Walz & Adrian, 2008). However, there are now indications (Figure 7) that these water bodies are co-limited by the macronutrients phosphorus and nitrogen, with a contribution of micronutrients such as iron (Lewis Jr. & Wurtsbaugh, 2008; Sterner, 2008). Figure 7. The evolution of the concept of nutrient limitation. OLD PARADIGM P is the limiting nutrient. NEW PARADIGM P, N and some micronutrients are the limiting nutrients. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 19 8.2. Food webs Currently it is known that the aquatic food webs are more diverse in their carbon sources and more versatile in their function (Figure 8). Except in the open oceans and big lakes, the benthic food influences the flow of carbon within the pelagic zone. At large scales, the biotic components do not function independently from the adjacent terrestrial system that is the source of important inputs of carbon, organic or inorganic, particulate and in solution. Therefore, the old paradigm based only in the importance of the open pelagic water has changed (Reynolds, 2008). Figure 8. The evolution of the concept of food webs. 8.3. Biodiversity Originally, it believes that diversity of genotypes, species and functional groups were consequences of ecosystems functions (like biomass production, elemental cycling, etc). Currently, the scientist known that the scenario (Figure 9) is more complicated and it is necessary to consider the biodiversity as active because its influences the ecosystems functions (Gamfeldt & Hillebrand, 2008). Some examples of ecosystem processes affected by the loss of biodiversity are: primary and secondary production, organic matter decomposition, carbon mineralization, oxygen production/consumption, denitrification, bioturbation, food web topology, provision of specific chemicals, etc. (Giller et al., 2004). Figure 9. The evolution of the concept of biodiversity. OLD PARADIGM NEW PARADIGM Biodiversity is a consequence of ecosystems functions (PASSIVE CONCEPT). Biodiversity influences and change the ecosystems functions (ACTIVE CONCEPT). OLD PARADIGM NEW PARADIGM Only the open pelagic water is important to the flow of carbon. The open pelagic water, the benthic food and the adjacent terrestrial systems are important to the flow of carbon. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 20 9. Results This section performs a bibliometric analysis of Limnology and Oceanography to see which sector is the most researched. 9.1. Tendency in Limnology The annual number of scientific articles on Limnology has been steadily increasing in recent years (Figure 10). These articles are found in the database of Science Citation Index (SCI) that is maintained by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) Web of Science (Cao et al., 2012). Figure 10. Annual distribution of research papers in journals under SCI category of Limnology from 2001 to 2010. Cao et al. (2012). 9.2. Publications on Limnology It is possible to create a number of tables to give a general idea of the state of publication on Limnology in recent years from recompiled data by Scopus from 2001 to 2010. Specifically, these tables mention the first five exponents of each category, because they contain the major part of the publications, and the next 15 exponents are grouped in the name ‘Others’. The work has considered a total of 20 exponents to establish the same extension for each category. 9.2.1. Journals The Table I summarizes the number of publications on Limnology distributed by journals from 2001 to 2010. Figure 11 represents the values of Table I expressed in percentages. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 21 Journal Total publications Hydrobiologia 263 Freshwater Biology 167 Limnology and Oceanography 127 Applied and Environmental Microbiology 80 Aquatic Microbial Ecology 77 Others 771 Table I. Number of publications on Limnology distributed by journals. Figure 11. Representation of Table I expressed in percentages. L: Limnology. In this category Hydrobiologia has the 18% of published articles but the second exponent possesses the 11%, thus there is no clear predominance of the first journal over the rest. 9.2.2. Countries The Table II summarizes the number of publications on Limnology distributed by countries from 2001 to 2010. Figure 12 represents the values of Table II expressed in percentages. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 22 Country Total publications China 1,085 Germany 1,052 United States 998 Sweden 616 Austria 498 Others 2,697 Table II. Number of publications on Limnology distributed by countries. Figure 12. Representation of Table II expressed in percentages. L: Limnology. China, Germany and USA are the dominant countries with a similar number of publications on Limnology. 9.2.3. Institutions The Table III summarizes the number of publications on Limnology distributed by institutions from 2001 to 2010. Figure 13 represents the values of Table III expressed in percentages. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 23 Institutions Total publications Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology 954 University of Wisconsin Madison 444 NIOO Centre for Limnology 378 Max Planck Institut für Limnologie 378 Chinese Academy of Sciences 258 Others 2,209 Table III. Number of publications on Limnology distributed by institutions. Figure 13. Representation of Table III expressed in percentages. L: Limnology. In this category Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology clearly dominates the amount of publications with the 21% of papers. 9.3. Publications on Oceanography To contextualize the Oceanography, the work uses again data from Scopus. The temporal interval is 2001-2010 to act in consonance with the last section. Furthermore, the work only takes into account the first twenty values to calculate the tables as those taken into account in the previous section. 9.3.1. Journals The Table IV summarizes the number of publications on Oceanography distributed by journals from 2001 to 2010. Figure 14 represents the values of Table IV expressed in percentages. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 24 Journal Total publications Journal of Geophysical Research C Oceans 924 Geophysical Research Letters 825 Journal of Physical Oceanography 581 Deep Sea Research Part II Topical Studies in Oceanography 551 Marine Ecology Progress Series 454 Others 3,778 Table IV. Number of publications on Oceanography distributed by journals. Figure 14. Representation of Table IV expressed in percentages. O: Oceanography. Journal of Geophysical Research with 13% and Geophysical Research Letters with 12% are the dominant journals in this sector. 9.3.2. Countries The Table V summarizes the number of publications on Oceanography distributed by countries from 2001 to 2010. Figure 15 represents the values of Table V expressed in percentages. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 25 Country Total publications United States 11,965 United Kingdom 3,481 China 2,810 Canada 2,535 Germany 1,585 Others 10,127 Table V. Number of publications on Oceanography distributed by countries. Figure 15. Representation of Table V expressed in percentages. O: Oceanography. United States is the most productive country on Oceanography with the 37%, clearly dominating the sector. 9.3.3. Institutions The Table VI summarizes the number of publications on Oceanography distributed by institutions from 2001 to 2010. Figure 16 represents the values of Table VI expressed in percentages. This data has been obtained in a query in Scopus. Institution Total publications Scripps Institution of Oceanography 5,193 State Oceanic Administration China 1,730 University of Washington Seattle 1,211 National Institute of Oceanography India 1,198 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 1,116 Others 11,068 Table VI. 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Taxonomy and Ecology of sponge-associate Marionina spp. (Clitellata; Enchytraeidae) from the Horomatangi geothermal system of Lake Taupo, New Zealand. International Review Hydrobiology, 89, pp. 58-59. Rowland J.C., Lepper K., Dietrich W. E., Wilson C. J. and Sheldon R (2005). Tie channel sedimentation rates, oxbow formation age and channel migration rate from optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) analysis of floodplain deposits. Earth Surfaces Processes and Landforms, 30, pp. 1161, 1177. Salerno F., Thakuri S., D’Agata C.,Smiraglia C., Manfredi E. C., Viviano G. and Tartari G (2012). Glacial lake distribution in the Mount Everest region: Uncertainty of measurement and conditions of formation. Global and Planetary Change, 92-93, p. 30. Sánchez-Moral S., Ordoñez S., Benavente D. and García del Cura M.A (2002). The water balance equations in saline playa lakes: comparison between experimental and recent data from Quero Playa Lake (central Spain). Sedimentary Geology, 148, p. 222. 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Bibliometric analysis of the Adriatic-related oceanography and meteorology publications. Geofizika, vol 26, nº2, p. 231. Walz N. and Adrian. R (2008). Is there a paradigm shift in limnology and marine biology? International Review of Hydrobiology, 93. pp. 634-635. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 36 Wang W., Xiao W., Cao C., Gao Z., Hu Z., Liu S., Shen S., Wang L., Xiao Q., Xu J., Yang D. and Lee X (2014). Temporal and spatial variations in radiation and energy balance across a large freshwater lake in China. Journal of Hydrology, 511, pp. 811812. Waples J.T., Eadie B., Klump J.V., Squires M., Cotner J. and McKinley G (2008). The Laurentian Great Lakes. North American Continental Margins (Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory), pp. 73-75. Wawrik B. and Paul J.H (2004). Phytoplankton community structure and productivity along the axis of the Mississippi River plume in oligotrophic Gulf of Mexico waters. Aquatic Microbial Ecology, vol 35, p. 191. Westoby M.J., Glasser N.F., Brasington J., Hambrey M.J., Quincey D.J. and Reynolds J.M (2014). Modelling outburst floods from moraine-dammed glacial lakes. EarthScience Reviews, 134, p. 138. Wren D. G., Davidson G.R., Walker W.G. and Galicki S.J (2008). The evolution of an oxbow lake in the Mississippi alluvial floodplain. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 63, pp. 134-135. Yan J. P., Hinderer M. and Einsele G (2002). Geochemical evolution of closed-basin lakes: general model and application to Lakes Qinghai and Turkana. Sedimentary Geology, 148, p. 106. 13. Webgraphy Eoearth (2008). www.eoearth.org/view/article/152241/ Ghumakkar (2013). www.ghumakkar.com/the-jewel-of-kumaon-ii/the-mango-shapedlake-from-cable-car/ Info.geonet (n.f.).info.geonet.org.nz/display/volc/Taupo NASA (2007). www.nasa.gov 14. Description of the activities undertaken during the TFT The realized activities were the recompilation of the information, the interpretation, the synthesis and the redaction. The state of the art of Limnology in the last decade Rubén González Gérboles 37 15. Training received I have not received any extra course. The information gathering was performed using computing resources learned during the college career as Scopus, ScienceDirect, Faro and others. 16. Positive and negative aspects related to the development of TFT Positive aspects: I especially liked learning the different types of lakes in the world and their features. Furthermore, I have learned to develop a bibliographic work providing my personal contributions to the author’s data and combine them thanks to the advices of teachers during the presentation of the previous version of this work. Negative aspects: I would have liked to come to a better understanding with those who reviewed my work to maximize their aid. 17. Personal assessment of learning achieved throughout the TFT Thanks to the advice of teachers I have learned a lot about Limnology and this has allowed me to satisfy my intellectual interest in this subject. Furthermore, although I was a little bit astonished at first, now I think that it has been positive to have done this second version of the work, because I have corrected wrong ideas, which is good for the workplace, and I have learnt how to do a better bibliographical work.