Scientific Narratives in the Study of Student Time Management: A Critical Review

Ins uc ions o au ho s, subsc ip ions and u he de ails: h p:// imcis.hipa iap ess.com Scien i ic Na a i es in he S udy o S uden Time Managemen : A C i ical Re iew Cla a Rome o-Pé ez1, Enca nación Sánchez-Lissen1 1) Uni e si y o Se illa, Spain Da e o publica ion: Issue published 30 July, 2022 Edi ion pe iod: July 2022 – No embe 2022 To ci e his a icle: Rome o-Pé ez, C., & Sánchez-Lissen, E. (2022). Scien i ic Na a i es in he S udy o S uden Time Managemen : A C i ical Re iew. In e na ional and Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Social Sciences, 11(2), 60-86. h ps://doi.o g/10.17583/ imcis.10322 To link his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.17583/ imcis.10322 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE The e ms and condi ions o use a e ela ed o he Open Jou nal Sys em and o C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License(CC-BY). RIMCIS – In e na ional and Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Social Sciences Vol. 11 No. 2 July 2022 pp. 60-86 2022 Hipa ia P ess ISSN: 2014-3680 DOI: 10.17583/ imcis.10322 Scien i ic Na a i es in he S udy o S uden Time Managemen : A C i ical Re iew Cla a Rome o-Pé ez Uni e si y o Se illa, Spain Enca nación Sánchez-Lissen Uni e si y o Se illa, Spain Abs ac E ec i e ime managemen plays a majo ole in he pe o mance socie y, and no only psychological, bu also socio-cul u al and pedagogical ac o s a e in ol ed in s uden s' e ec i e o ganiza ion o ime. Mains eam scien i ic discou se has a gued ha e ec i e lea ning depends o a la ge ex en on s uden s' o ganiza ional skills. Howe e , esea che s ha e paid scan a en ion o he socio-cul u al and pedagogical aspec s ha a e in ol ed in he de elopmen o hese skills. The pu pose o his a icle is o c i ically analyze he dominan scien i ic na a i es on he s udy o he e ec i e use o ime by s uden s. To his end, his s udy was designed based on a c i ical e iew o he li e a u e om 1990 o 2021. The Web o Science and Scopus da abases we e consul ed. A o al o 51 pape s me he inclusion c i e ia. The esul s sugges ha lea ning o o ganize and op imize academic ime is impo an o social coo dina ion, well-being and achie emen o s uden s' academic and li e goals. Howe e , he accele a ion o ins uc ional ime has a majo emo ional impac on he school popula ion. The conclusion is he need o in es iga e he subjec i e and collec i e expe iences o s uden s on he emo ional impac ha speed, wo k o e load and mul i asking ha e on hei academic and pe sonal li es. Keywo ds: c i ical e iew, scien i ic na a i es, s uden , ime, ime managemen skills RIMCIS – In e na ional and Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Social Sciences Vol. 11 No. 2 July 2022 pp. 60-86 2022 Hipa ia P ess ISSN: 2014-3680 DOI: 10.17583/ imcis.10322 Na a i as Cien í icas en el Es udio de la Ges ión del Tiempo en los Es udian es: Una Re isión C í ica Cla a Rome o-Pé ez Uni e sidad de Se illa, España Enca nación Sánchez-Lissen Uni e sidad de Se illa, España Resumen La ges ión e icaz del iempo desempeña un papel impo an e en la sociedad del endimien o, y en el caso de los es udian es, en aquélla in e ienen, no sólo ac o es psicológicos, sino ambién sociocul u ales y pedagógicos. El discu so cien í ico dominan e ha sos enido que el ap endizaje e icaz depende en g an medida de la capacidad de o ganización de los alumnos. Sin emba go, los in es igado es han p es ado escasa a ención a los aspec os sociocul u ales y pedagógicos que in e ienen en el desa ollo de es a habilidad. El p opósi o de es e a ículo es analiza c í icamen e las na a i as cien í icas dominan es sob e el es udio del uso e icaz del iempo po pa e de los alumnos. Pa a ello, se diseñó es e es udio a pa i de una e isión c í ica de la li e a u a desde 1990 has a 2021. Se consul a on las bases de da os Wos o Science y Scopus. Un o al de 51 a ículos cumplie on los c i e ios de inclusión. Los esul ados sugie en que ap ende a o ganiza y op imiza el iempo académico es impo an e pa a la coo dinación social, el bienes a y la consecución de los obje i os académicos y i ales de los es udian es. Sin emba go, la acele ación del iempo ins uc i o iene un g an impac o emocional en la población escola . La conclusión es la necesidad de in es iga las expe iencias subje i as y colec i as de los es udian es sob e el impac o emocional que la elocidad, la sob eca ga de abajo y la mul i a ea ienen en su ida académica y pe sonal. Palab as cla e: e isión c í ica, na a i as cien í icas, es udian e, iempo, habilidades de ges ión del iempo 62 Rome o-Pé ez & Sánchez-Lissen - S uden Time Managemen ime is an undeniably impo an ac o in anyone’s li e and p o essional p ojec s. In he academic con ex his a iable a ac s maximum a en ion om eache s and amilies who see s uden s’ e icien use o ime as a s a egy o be used o con on ing he di e en and complex academic ac i i ies ound in he di e en educa ional s ages, especially in seconda y and highe educa ion. Times o lea ning in o mal educa ional se ings a e o en subjec ed o cons ain s, he ime ables and deadlines o ac i i ies uled by he eaching ime clash wi h he s uden s’ o ced wo k pace. Academic s ess among s uden s has inc eased in ecen yea s and will be ch onic in a e y high pe cen age o young people by 2021, acco ding o he WHO. In 2017 he O ganiza ion o Economic Co-Ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD) conduc ed esea ch on a sample o 540,000 s uden s aged 15 and 16 om 72 di e en coun ies. Six y-six pe cen o s uden s epo ed eeling s essed by low g ades, wi h 59% s a ing equen wo y abou aking di icul exams. In addi ion, 55% o s uden s epo ed anxie y abou school es s, e en when hey el p epa ed. In sho , he da a show how he dynamics o academic li e and pe o mance a e a majo cause o s ess o s uden s (OECD, 2017). The e o e, ackling he p oblem o s uden s’ e icien use o ime wi hou conside ing he abo e could esul in ash, un ealis ic conclusions and, e en wo se, s e eo ypical ep esen a ions o eenage s and young people. These dis o ed images could lead o almos all he esponsibili y alling on he s uden s hemsel es, based on he assump ion ha an unde lying lack o will, mo i a ion o skills is o blame when s uden s s a e ha hey “ eel p essu ed,” “wo k agains he clock” o ind ha hey “ha e no ime.” The u h is ha he school model has e ol ed o e ime in o a compe i i e amewo k. In empo al e ms, speed logically has o be adop ed. In cul u al e ms his means adop ing pos -ma e ialis alues (Ingleha , 1971) o he liquid socie y (Bauman, 2007/2009), he pe o mance socie y (Han, 2012), and he ligh ness ci iliza ion (Lipo e sky, 2016). Pa adoxically, his ligh ness also “nou ishes he spi i o hea iness” (Lipo e sky, 2016, p. 15), depending on he subjec ’s abili y o o e come ad e si ies in li e by making pe sonal use o hei esou ces. Ligh ness and hea iness a e wo sides o he same coin, acco ding o Lipo e sky (2016). On he one hand, a socie y ha cul i a es indi idual eedom and com o h ough he expe ience o he p esen ime. On he o he hand, he socie y o hea iness, T In e na ional and Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Social Sciences,11(2) 63 which comes om a na cissis ic cul u e ha needs o emphasise ligh ness; ha is, p esen ism and indi iduali y. In his spi i o hea iness, he hidden ace o pe o mance socie y “p oduces dep essi es and ailu es” (Han, 2012). Fo mos young people o his gene a ion he alues o pe sonal accomplishmen and e o a e gua an ees o success. Posi i e a i udes om young people a e linked o he concep o accomplishmen and ewa d o e o , alues ins illed a home and ein o ced in school se ings in which he e ec i e use o ime and he abili y o o ganiza ion a e essen ial. The cul u e o e o , play an ex emely impo an ole in schools on a daily basis. Howe e , i should be no ed ha his excessi e posi i i y also esul s in diso de s, which a e ha m ul o s uden s’ men al heal h and a ec hei sel - es eem and academic pe o mance. The heo e ical amewo k om which ou objec o s udy is app oached is indeb ed o sociocul u al (Elias, 1984/1989) and c i ical (Han, 2012; Rosa, 1989/2016) app oaches applied o he analysis o ime. As e ec i e ime managemen is co ela ed wi h pe o mance socie y and sel -disciplined indi iduals, his a icle aims o p o ide a c i ical analysis o dominan scien i ic na a i es on he e ec i e use o ime by s uden s. This analysis aims o es ablish whe he he esea ch communi y mi o s his dominan social na a i e. To ha end an ini ial analysis o he implici assump ions made by esea che s is conduc ed, ollowed by a summa y o scien i ic e idence using a mul idisciplina y app oach. Finally, o comple e he c i ical s udy, an induc i e c i ical analysis is applied o publica ions om he las hi y yea s. Scien i ic Na a i es on he E ec i e Use o Time by S uden s The s udy o ime managemen in di e en ields has p o ided a wide ange o esul s. Scien i ic na a i es a e a aluable esou ce o de ailing how “ hey ch is en he p oblem” and gene a ing plausible explana ions. Di e en epis emic schemes can be used o analyze a single phenomenon. The ollowing sec ion aims o p o ide a comp ehensi e in e p e a ion o he cons uc o “ ime managemen ”. 64 Rome o-Pé ez & Sánchez-Lissen - S uden Time Managemen The Neu oscien i ic App oach Beha io s associa ed wi h planning, se ing goals and p io i izing asks a e linked o b ain unc ion. Execu i e unc ions a e in cha ge o he cogni i e con ol o beha io , including basic cogni i e p ocesses such as a en ional con ol, cogni i e inhibi ion, wo k memo y and cogni i e lexibili y (Lezak, 1995). The implemen a ion o hese supe io unc ions equi es he simul aneous use o o he basic execu i e unc ions such as cogni i e lexibili y and planning, which a e di ec ly linked o ime managemen . Dys unc ion in some o hese unc ions, such as planning, would explain why school s uden s diagnosed wi h A en ion De ici and Hype ac i i y Diso de (ADHD) ind i di icul o plan, o ganize and p io i ize asks and manage s udy ime (Rohde e al., 2019). Due o dys unc ion in ac i a ion, which plays a pa in o ganizing asks and ma e ials, calcula ing ime, and p io i izing and ini ially p epa ing wo k, s uden s wi h ADHD a e mo e likely o display heigh ened p oc as ina ion pa e ns. Pos ponemen is he a oidance s a egy mos commonly used by school s uden s wi h ADHD. In he ield o neu oscience, beha io ally, ime managemen is a skill, which esul s om co ec dynamics in he chemis y and ope a ion o he b ain. When hese dynamics a e dys unc ional, di icul ies can be obse ed in he abili y o plan and o ganize ime (Seli & Dembo, 2019). The e o e, ADHD is no so much a p oblem o will as he esul o p oblems s emming om he dynamics o b ain chemis y. The Psychological App oach Psychological examina ion o he s udy o ime managemen p o ides a di e en in e p e a ion o his cons uc . Al hough concep s a y, hey all sha e he same na a i e conce ning he impo an ole o hese skills in decision-making p ocesses. Essen ially, in psychological esea ch ime managemen has been de ined and ope a es on he basis o h ee ca ego ies: i) as me acogni i e s a egies o sel - egula ion (Chu guno a & Kos omina, 2016; Ga zón Ume enko a e al., 2017; Liu e al., 2009); ii) as a esul o he adop ion o a speci ic empo al pe spec i e (Bajec, 2019); iii) as an acqui ed beha io o pa e n which can be ained and modi ied (MacCann e al., 2012). In e na ional and Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Social Sciences,11(2) 65 S udies on he sel - egula ion o lea ning and he s a egic use o ime by s uden s e lec his close ela ionship. The Pin ich model (Pin ich, 2004) inco po a es he ime managemen o s udy in o beha io s a egies. The s a egic use o academic ime allows s uden s o make decisions on key aspec s o he s udy p ocess: e o , se ing up sho - and medium- e m wo k plans, calcula ing he ime i would ake o comple e di e en academic ac i i ies. Ano he line o esea ch s udies he e ec i e use o ime, explained by he empo al pe spec i e adop ed by he s uden s when unde aking academic and pe sonal ac ions and p ojec s. The concep o empo al pe spec i e is unde s ood as an unconscious and subjec i e beha io al ac o which allows indi iduals o manage hei ime and e e s o he dominan end among s uden s in ocusing on he pas , p esen o u u e. Thus, an e ec i e o ganiza ion o ime is no so much a ma e o skill in he s a egic use o ime, bu he way in which s uden s gi e hei indi idual expe ience cohe ence and meaning by coding i in o empo al ca ego ies (Boyd & Zimba do, 2005). Fo wa d-looking beha io is associa ed wi h esponsibili y, goals, and mee ing deadlines, as well as he gene al conce n o he la e consequences o his beha io . Educa ional esea ch de eloped ollowing he heo y o empo al pe spec i e has shown ha he u u e pe spec i e is an impo an p edic o in s uden s’ s a egic use o academic ime. In con as , a a alis ic iew o he p esen e eals a dishea ened, de enseless and nega i e s ance wi h ega ds o he u u e and li e in gene al, in addi ion o a lack o empo al o ien a ion. Voli ional and a ec i e sel - egula ion is closely linked o he p edominance o he o wa d-looking empo al pe spec i e (Bu ns e al., 2021). Addi ionally, he empo al pe spec i e heo y de eloped by Nu in (1980) and Nu in and Lens (1985) highligh s he oles o he psychological pe spec i e o ime in decision-making p ocesses and in explaining human beha io . The wo k o K uge e al. (2008) s esses ha he empo al pe spec i e is a psychological mechanism enabling human unc ional and adap i e de elopmen . A hi d se o psychological s udies desc ibes he cons uc o ime managemen as a skill which needs o be exe cised, p ac iced and au oma ed. Time managemen is unde s ood as skills in he e ec i e adminis a ion o s udy ime and is included wi h o he s in he ca ego y o s udy skills. This is 66 Rome o-Pé ez & Sánchez-Lissen - S uden Time Managemen he basic na a i e o mos psycho-educa ional in e en ions o imp o e s uden s’ s udy habi s, as he e ec i e use o ime is he ac o wi h he mos impac on he academic pe o mance and men al well-being o s uden s. Resea ch by De Jage (2014) shows ha only 18% o s uden s aged 16-21 a e skilled in o ganizing hei s udy ime. The Sociological App oach Sociological s udies combine di e en na a i es in e linked by a common guiding h ead: he social subs a um cha ac e is ic o he in o ma ion socie y which ans o ms he uses o ime and he empo al expe ience o indi iduals. In e ms o p oduc i i y, ime managemen has been linked o “doing mo e in a sho e space o ime”. In o ma ion o e load, which in u n leads o a lack o a en ion, immediacy and accele a ion since pe o mance guidelines, as well as connec i i y, ein o ce he impo ance o ime managemen as a s a egy o coo dina ing wi h he emaining social imes. On he one hand, lea ning o manage ime co ec ly p omo es social assimila ion and in eg a ion. On he o he , i p o ec s he indi idual om he p ocesses o accele a ion (Rosa, 2011), lexibili y and dilu ion o he empo al expe ience (Bauman, 2007/2009). Fo child en and eenage s, school becomes an ins ance o empo al li e acy. S uden s adap o he empo al s uc u e o school h ough social p ac ices such as he eache s’ con ol o ime and hei own au onomous ime managemen . This empo al li e acy akes he o m o a empo al g amma based on indi idual esponsibili y and a empo al ho izon gea ed o an accele a ed and lexible u u e. In beha io al e ms his is he exp ession o a new disciplina y s a egy (Foucaul , 1969/1978), which akes he o m o social p ac ices subo dina e o p oduc i e ime. This sel - egula ion o ime, as opposed o he con ol o ime, becomes a ool o disciplining hype cul u e. Romo Pa a (2012, p. 28) illus a es his idea when s a ing ha “we inhe i he concep o ime as an economic ac o , essen ially mone a y, and as i s p ice goes up, i makes us hink o i as a sca ce esou ce”. Howe e , ou cu en in e p e a ion o ime has been modi ied by he phenomenon o empo al accele a ion (Rosa, 2011, 1989/2016). Educa ional ime is subo dina e o p oduc i e ime. The o me expands he empo ali y o he subjec s while he la e makes i possible o pe o m be e in a sho e In e na ional and Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Social Sciences,11(2) 67 ime. The consequences can be obse ed in he school pace, and as wi h ime, he academic pace has sped up conside ably. Thus, ollowing Rosa (2011), he indi idual expe ience o ime is a ec ed: ime is seen as a p ecious commodi y and ime and s ess p essu es a e heigh ened. In keeping wi h Rosa (2011, p. 20) ime is conside ed sca ce when “speed is doubled and he dis ance o be co e ed is quad upled,” leading o a need o doubling o ipling he ime employed in unde aking and coo dina ing e e yday ac i i ies. The “slippe y slope” phenomenon o mula ed by Rosa (2011) explains his p ocess: “a capi alis canno s op and es , s op he ace and make su e o hei posi ion (…) because s opping is he same as being le behind” (p. 21). Agains his backd op o accele a ion, lea ning o sel - egula e ime is bo h libe a ing and opp essi e o he indi idual (Bunn e al., 2019). Fea o “no being le behind” ein o ces accele a ion due o he demands o speed and lexibili y in he social and p oduc i e sphe es. This accele a ion is also accompanied by a dominan ideology based on indi idual eedom, and wi h i “ he he o ic o obliga ion “I ha e o” which now is no based on he he o ic o p og ess, bu on he inhe en need o a compe i i e wo ld” (Rosa, 2011, p. 31). The academic pace o s uden s has con inued o speed up in he las decade (Hakanen e al., 2006). Fo ins ance, he lexibili y a o ded by new echnologies o child en and eenage s in school has no led o an inc ease in ee ime o mo e balanced men al, a ec i e, cogni i e and social condi ions. In ac , s ess indices ha e inc eased among school s uden s. Excessi e esponsibili ies, hea y wo kloads and asks bo h wi hin and ou side school, eache assessmen s, compe i i eness, ea o ailu e, amily p essu es, changes in die a y habi s and sleep pa e ns, and cogni i e exhaus ion a e jus some o he p ecu so s o s ess in school. The Pedagogic App oach The pedagogic na a i e on e ec i e academic ime managemen is mos ly d i en by psychological in e p e a ions linking he cons uc o skills which can be lea ned and imp o ed h ough p ac ice and echnique, cu en ly including echnological de ices such as digi al calenda s and planne s. In addi ion, a socially sha ed no ma i e in e p e a ion iews e icien 74 Rome o-Pé ez & Sánchez-Lissen - S uden Time Managemen ca ied ou and he e osion o socio-cul u al discou ses which o e scien i ic e idence on he impac o he dynamics o accele a ion and p essu e in s uden s’ e ec i e use o academic ime. The s udies selec ed p esen a p edominan ly posi i is epis emological o ien a ion in which ime is a disc e e and quan i iable uni . In addi ion, he ela i e lack o quali a i e s udies on he opic examined should be highligh ed. Secondly, he managemen o academic ime as a malleable and ainable skill a he se ice o he academic pe o mance and men al well-being o he s uden s has been examined. Howe e , hese s udies do no speci y how a he di icul ies o co ec ime managemen can be explained, no only as a neu ocogni i e o cogni i e dys unc ion a ibu able o he indi idual, bu as he esul o he e ec s o he collision o wo ypes o ime: ins i u ional ime, uled by speed and p oduc i i y, and he subjec i e ime o he s uden s hemsel es, uled by paces, expec a ions, goals, and empo al pe spec i es. This phenomenon, which has a signi ican social impac , is condi ioned by he alues, cul u e and social and ins uc ional ac o s o each en i onmen (Benne & Bu ke, 2018). All in e e e wi h he concep ion o ime, on i s conside a ion in a dual pe sonal and social na u e, which pe ades he indi idual commi men o he ul illmen o asks, whe he daily ones o o he medium- o long- e m asks unde aken. In his pa h owa ds sel - egula ion, he le el o p oc as ina ion shown by s uden s acqui es eno mous alue, conside ing hei po en ial o delay and, mo e impo an ly, o pos pone hose asks ha mus be comple ed wi hin a gi en pe iod (Tuckman, 2003). In any e en , “ ime managemen is a lea ned skill and he e o e suscep ible o in e en ion, which mul iplies i s impo ance in p e en ing p oc as ina ion” (Ga zón Ume enko a & Gil Flo es, 2017, p. 9). Found in se e al ex s and na a i es in his s udy, his pe spec i e unde sco es willingness, which is a good mo i a o in ime managemen , on he one hand, and awa eness o s uden s wi h a en ion de ici diso de s who, howe e , ind ime managemen di icul o egula e on he o he . Finally, a lack o s udies analyzing he condi ions in which he s udy o academic ime managemen is now ca ied ou on ins i u ional le el has been obse ed. Linking he analysis o s uden s’ o ganiza ional skills wi h he academic demands, li es yles and new s uden p o iles, pa icula ly a uni e si y le el, could o e a mo e comp ehensi e ision o hese ime o ganiza ion and managemen skills. Al hough wen y- ou hou s a e he same In e na ional and Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o Social Sciences,11(2) 75 o e e yone, e icien managemen o his ime emains unequal. And i is so no only because o indi idual di e ences, bu because o he ins i u ional ba ie s and cul u al gaps behind his. Hence i is easie o unde s and ha o pa - ime s uden s, ma u e s uden s, e hnic mino i ies and s uden s wi h special needs and lea ning di icul ies, lea ning o o ganize and manage academic ime e ec i ely is an exe cise o compensa ion and esilience o handling he empo al dynamic hey ace, a he han a s a egy o hei own sel -de e mina ion and sel -de elopmen . I we ake an economis ic and psycho-pedagogical app oach, he e a e se e al s udies ha demons a e he close ela ionship be ween he na u e o ime and s uden pe o mance. This app oach based on Ca oll's model (1963) o on wha is known as “e ec i e lea ning ime” (Abadzi, 2009; A onson e al., 1998) has, in ecen decades, shaped a ce ain end in ime managemen leading o p oduc i e ime and excellence. This model will be uly success ul i he expec a ions ega ding he quan i y and quali y o his ime a e me o , in o he wo ds, i he e is a conside a ion o ime as bo h quan i y and meaning (Hus i, 1992). Howe e , he in luence o se e al indica o s on he inal esul mus be assessed in o de o achie e his objec i e. Among hem a e he mo i a ion o he agen s pa icipa ing in he ins uc ion, he alue o he knowledge and he esou ces a ailable, all o which a e pa o e ec i e ime. Howe e , s udies ha e also shown ha nei he his no o ie y no he ela ionship be ween pe o mance and ime has been demons a ed, bu a he he opposi e, and he e o e, he e is li le o no connec ion be ween ime spen and imp o ed esul s (Ho ng e al., 2010). In sho , he way we manage ime oday in ol es se e al a iables, a i udes and he mindse o ou pas . Simila ly, s udies con inue o be published, including hose wi h a phenomenological app oach, which demons a e ha ad e se childhood expe iences in luence he academic pe o mance o bo h younge and uni e si y s uden s (Hall e al., 2021). The alues o he pas de e mine he alue o u u e ime. Technologies and especially digi al echnology will inc easingly play a g ea e ole in his u u e ime, since i undeniably pe mea es e e yone's li e and pa icula ly ha o s uden s, h oughou he di e en s ages o hei educa ion. They es ablish a close ela ionship be ween ime and digi al compe ence and whe e good use o misuse o i can a ec he e ec i eness o he wo k ha esul s. As acknowledged by Galindo-Domínguez and Bezanilla 76 Rome o-Pé ez & Sánchez-Lissen - S uden Time Managemen (2021), hose s uden s who manage hei ime be e and e en ge be e academic esul s owe i o a be e use o digi al compe ence. Racing agains he clock c ea es a handicap in his ask ha no only a ec s he knowledge acqui ed bu also shapes he basis o u u e educa ion. Funding The au ho s ecei ed inancial suppo o he publica ion o his a icle by he VII Plan P opio de la Uni e sidad de Se illa (Spain). Vice ec o ado de In es igación. Acción I.1A. Re e ences Abadzi, H. (2009). 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