Social Innovation for the Socio-Labour Integration of Refugees in New Host Countries: The Spanish Case

1 Social inno a ion o he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees in new hos coun ies: he Spanish case Ca men Guzmána, F ancisco J. San osa, Lidia Valien ea* and F ancisco J. San olayab aDepa men o Applied Economics I, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain; b Depa men o Social Psychology, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain *Co esponding au ho : [email p o ec ed] Guzmán, C. San os, F.J. Valien e, L. and San olaya, F (2023) Social inno a ion o he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees in new hos coun ies: he Spanish case, Jou nal o Social En ep eneu ship, La es a icles. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/19420676.2023.2275132 Published online: 01 No 2023 2 Social inno a ion o he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees in new hos coun ies: he Spanish case Abs ac In ecen yea s, sou he n Eu opean coun ies ha e expe ienced a su ge in he a i al o e ugees and asylum seeke s, which has in ensi ied due o he wa in Uk aine. In his scena io, he public sec o and non-p o i and olun a y o ganisa ions (NPVOs) play a leading ole by in oducing new ini ia i es o espond o he as numbe o applican s and acili a ing hei socio-labou in eg a ion in o hese new hos socie ies. This a icle aims o iden i y and analyse social inno a ions de eloped by he public sec o and NPVOs while paying pa icula a en ion o he new go e nance ega ding he collabo a ion be ween hese wo ypes o ins i u ions. Ha ing aken Spain as ou case s udy, we ocus on he leading o ganisa ions o he Na ional Asylum Sys em, composed o h ee NPVOs and one public ins i u ion. Ou indings show ha he o e sa u a ed si ua ion in he new hos coun ies has s imula ed social inno a ion, especially wi hin NPVOs, albei wi h close collabo a ion wi h he public sec o and o he local ac o s. Keywo ds: Re ugees; Socio-labou in eg a ion; Social inno a ion; NPVOs. In oduc ion Poli ical ins abili y and o he ac o s, such as na u al disas e s, a e causing millions wo ldwide o be displaced. This igu e has passed om ewe han 40 million in 2000 o mo e han 80 million in 2020 (UNHCR 2020). Especially in ecen yea s, e ugees and asylum seeke s make up a high p opo ion o hose igu es, g owing om 16.2 million in 2010 o 24.5 million in 2015 and 26.4 million in 2020 (UNHCR, 2015, 2020). F om he beginning o he 21s cen u y, poli ical con lic s in Sy ia, A ghanis an, I aq, Yemen and, mo e ecen ly, Uk aine ha e in ensi ied his e e -inc easing numbe o e ugees. In his la e case, mo e han 4 million people c ossed he Uk ainian bo de 3 in o o he Eu opean coun ies du ing he i s mon h o he Russian agg ession (UNHCR 2022). No he n Eu opean coun ies ha e adi ionally p o ided a p incipal des ina ion o he e ugees and asylum seeke s collec i e, mainly due o hei high na ional incomes and ou s anding commi men o human igh s, eedom, and democ acy. Howe e , since 2010, sou he n Eu opean coun ies, such as I aly, Spain, Po ugal, and G eece, ha e also become new des ina ions o his speci ic ype o mig an (Valen a e al. 2019) mainly due o disag eemen be ween no he n Eu opean coun ies ega ding how o ecei e such a high numbe o asylum seeke s (S ockeme e al. 2019). Ne e heless, hos ing his inc easing low o e ugees is challenging o hese sou he n Eu opean coun ies. They gene ally su e ed om g owing inequali y and po e y, high unemploymen a es, and job insecu i y be o e becoming new hos coun ies (Eu os a 2020a). Fu he mo e, hey need mo e expe ience and an adequa e public ins i u ional amewo k o a end o he needs o e ugees. Howe e , public au ho i ies and di e se o ganisa ions o socie y a e ocusing on sol ing he p oblems o e ugees and asylum seeke s by p omo ing hei socio-labou in eg a ion h ough a wide ange o measu es, mos o which a e ela ed o he ields o employmen , educa ion, heal h, housing, and social cohesion (Age and S and 2008; Mig a ion Policy G oup 2020; UHNCR 2013). In his con ex , specialised ins i u ions, gene ally non-p o i and olun a y o ganisa ions (NPVOs), assume an essen ial ole in social assis ance (Gale a e al. 2018). Howe e , hey a e ca ying ou hei ole in e y di e se ways wi h signi ican a ia ions wi hin coun ies, depending, among o he ac o s, on he o ganisa ion o he wel a e s a e and he di e en legal amewo k in each hos coun y (Gale a e al. 2018; Pa uzzi e al. 2019; Oli e e al. 2020). Fu he mo e, gi en ha NPVOs need mo e 4 esou ces o deploy hei measu es, hey mus adap o he ci cums ances quickly by de eloping hei capaci y o inno a ion. The Uni ed Na ions High Commissione o Re ugees (UNHCR) de ines inno a ion as “ he c ea ion o alue o e ugees by in oducing inno a i e solu ions and doing hings be e ” (UNHCR 2023). This de ini ion connec s wi h ha o social inno a ion, which is iden i ied as new social p ocesses and p oduc s o achie e he social inclusion o excluded g oups and p omo e hei well-being by add essing ma ke ailu es and p o iding public goods (G abbe e al. 2018). The e o e, inno a ion in he ield o social assis ance o e ugees can be conside ed social inno a ion. Acco ding o esea ch, social inno a ion implies he c ea ion o new p oduc s and p ocesses wi h h ee c ucial objec i es: o mee social needs, o imp o e social ela ionships and cohesion and, inally, o ans o m socie y’s alues and a i udes (Moulae e al. 2017). Fu he mo e, esea ch ecognises ha o implemen social inno a ion, a new way o o ganising he collabo a ion be ween he s a e and ci il socie y is equi ed; ha is, new go e nance is needed (Campomo i and Casula 2022). In his ega d, a bo om-up app oach and a co-p oduc ion p ocess a e essen ial o c ea ing social inno a ions (Pes o 2012). Speci ically, he con ibu ion o ci izens and he bene icia ies o hose social inno a ions a e necessa y (McMullin 2021). The e o e, gi en he p e ious a gumen s and bea ing in mind he signi ican di icul ies ha e ugees encoun e when hey a i e in new hos coun ies, he objec i e o his esea ch in ol es he iden i ica ion and analysis o he main ends o social inno a ions de eloped by NPVOs and he public sec o in hose coun ies, while selec ing he Spanish Asylum Sys em as a speci ic case s udy. To his end, we will also pay special a en ion o he way o go e nance o his asylum sys em and examine how 5 in e ac ions and collabo a ion be ween he a ious ins i u ions o he sys em (bo h public and p i a e) a e linked o he c ea ion o social inno a ion. Al hough some s udies ha e explo ed he case o Spain in he ield o social inno a ion (De Wi e al. 2019; Rey-Ga cia e al. 2018), i s asylum sys em has no p e iously been analysed om he iewpoin o social inno a ion in he ield o socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees, wi h pa icula a en ion o he go e nance o achie e his in eg a ion. This is pa icula ly in e es ing because, in he con ex o he 2015 e ugee c isis, he Spanish go e nmen e o med he na ional asylum sys em and expanded he numbe o NPVOs a ending o e ugees. Fu he mo e, as p e ious s udies poin ou , he success o he collabo a ion in he ield o e ugee in eg a ion among di e en local ac o s depends on each con ex since each hos coun y has i s speci ic cha ac e is ics (Campomo i and Amb osini 2020; Campomo i and Casula 2022; Gale a e al. 2018; Humph is 2014). The e o e, he analysis o he case o he Spanish Asylum Sys em dese es special a en ion. Consequen ly, o mee he objec i es men ioned abo e, a e a e iew o he li e a u e ega ding he main opic o his esea ch ( e ugees, social inno a ion, labou in eg a ion, and he ole o he s a e and NPVOs in hese a eas), an empi ical analysis is ca ied ou h ough a quali a i e me hodology based on a iangula ion p ocess, which in ol es mul iple sou ces o in o ma ion, such as websi es, public epo s and pe sonal in e iew sin e wi h he people in cha ge o hose en i ies (Ca e e al. 2014; Jen o and Olsen 2019). Speci ically, he analysis is ocused on ou o ganisa ions ha cu en ly cons i u e he backbone o he Spanish Asylum Sys em: h ee NPVOs (The Spanish Re ugee Aid Commission known as CEAR, The Spanish Ca holic Mig a ion Commission Associa ion called ACCEM, and he Spanish Red C oss) and one public o ganisa ion ( he Re ugee Recep ion Cen es, CARs). These ou o ganisa ions we e 6 selec ed because hey composed he old A iadna Ne wo k in he coun y; ha is, hey a e he leading and mos expe o ganisa ions in he e ugees’ in eg a ion in Spain. Finally, ega ding he main con ibu ions o his a icle, i s ly, we belie e ha i cons i u es one o he ew a emp s o link he esea ch ield o socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees wi h he ield o social inno a ion in he case o new hos coun ies and, mo e speci ically, in he case o Spain. Secondly, i con ibu es owa ds inc easing he knowledge ega ding no only he signi ican ole played by NPVOs in an unexpec ed si ua ion bu also hei weaknesses and po en iali ies and he new go e nance o he asylum sys em ega ding he collabo a ion be ween hese o ganisa ions and he s a e o he de elopmen o social inno a ion. Theo e ical amewo k The socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees The socio-labou in eg a ion concep The 1951 UNHCR Con en ion and P o ocol ela ing o he s a us o e ugees de ines e ugees as people who a e ou side he coun y o hei na ionali y and a e unable o a ail hemsel es o he p o ec ion o ha coun y because hey a e pe secu ed o easons o ace, eligion, na ionali y, membe ship o a pa icula social g oup, o poli ical opinion (UNHCR 2011). Speci ic li e a u e on his kind o mig an s a es ha e ugees and asylum seeke s mus ackle a ious obs acles once hey a i e in he hos coun y, such as cul u al adap a ion, inding a job, and en ing a house (Yakushko e al. 2008; Campion 2018). By conside ing hese p oblems, bo h go e nmen s and NPVOs o hos coun ies ha e pu a se o ini ia i es in o p ac ice o acili a e he success ul ese lemen o e ugees in he hos socie ies. This se o ini ia i es s i es o p omo e he so-called 7 p ocess o socio-labou in eg a ion, whose concep ualisa ion, no only in he case o e ugees bu also o economic mig an s, emains highly di used. In ac , academics, ins i u ions, and poli icians ha e ye o es ablish a consensus ega ding socio-labou in eg a ion and he a eas i co e s (Puma e al. 2018). In an e o owa ds syn hesis, Age and S and (2008) e iewed all he li e a u e ega ding socio-labou in eg a ion and de ined a concep ual amewo k o success ul socio-labou in eg a ion. In his espec , hese au ho s delimi ed ou a eas o ul il when handling he in eg a ion o e ugees: he i s is ela ed o he Gene a Con en ion and i s speci ica ion o social igh s o e ugees in e ms o employmen , housing, heal h, and educa ion (UNHCR 2011); he second is linked o he ules and no ms ega ding ci izenship and igh s; he hi d includes he social connec ions wi hin and hose be ween g oups inside he communi y; and he ou h a ea is connec ed wi h he ba ie s, such as language and cul u e di e ences, ha e ugees ha e o o e come o hese ela ionships o become a ou able. Along hese lines, and in e ms o he socio- labou in eg a ion o mig an s, Che i and McNeil (2012) di e en ia ed be ween he “big issues” o co e , such as employmen and housing, and he “e e yday in eg a ion” issues, such as leisu e, shopping, and consump ion. Apa om hese con ibu ions, i is necessa y o emphasise ha a ious s udies ha e s i en o e alua e his in eg a ion p ocess. Some such s udies also cons i u e suppo o he unde s anding o he concep o socio-labou in eg a ion and he indica o s o ields in ol ed he ein, ei he om he iewpoin o mig an s (Mig a ion Policy G oup 2020; OECD 2012; Bijl and Ve weij 2012) o e ugees (Puma e al. 2018; Lich ens ein and Puma 2019) in EU and OECD coun ies. Al hough he me hodologies o hese con ibu ions di e , mos coincide in a la ge p opo ion o he ields included in hei analysis: employmen , educa ion, housing, heal h, and social inclusion and 8 cohesion, among o he s. Simila ly, he “UNHCR 2013 Repo ” also p o ides a e e ence o analysing he ese lemen o e ugees in he hos socie y. Employmen , educa ion and language, social in eg a ion, social inclusion, ac i e ci izenship, and housing a e ields o in e es analysed and aken as indica o s o socio-labou in eg a ion. I , he e o e, seems app op ia e o base he s udy o he socio-labou in eg a ion o mig an s and e ugees on hose common elemen s ha academics and ins i u ions ha e widely accep ed. All hese elemen s a e a eas o aid o social wel a e p og ams in high-income coun ies whe e he s a e plays a key ole. Failu es in he implemen a ion o e ugee in eg a ion policies As s a ed p e iously, he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees implies in e en ion in ou di e en a eas: employmen , housing, heal h, and educa ion (UNHCR 2011). In his ega d, he S a e has usually played a ele an ole in designing inclusi e in eg a ion policies (Bache e al. 2019), whose success o ailu e is closely linked o he eelings and a i udes o he hos socie y owa ds e ugee collec i es (Callens and Meuleman 2017; Fe is 2020; P zy uła and Ma usz 2021). In his ega d, when he in eg a ion policy ails, social ela ions be ween e ugees and he hos socie y esul in social con lic , which pu s p essu e on he S a e o apply coe ci e policies owa d e ugees. In con as , success ul in eg a ion policies ha e a posi i e e ec , such as an imp o emen in he mig an s’ and e ugees’ sense o belonging o he hos socie y and he gene a ion o posi i e a i udes in he hos socie y owa ds e ugees (Fe is 2020). E idence o he ad e se e ec s o an unsuccess ul in eg a ion policy is when e ugees (and o he mig an s) a e conside ed, by he hos socie y, o be esponsible o highe iscal cos s o co e he expenses o he p o ision o public social se ices, such 9 as educa ion and heal h se ices. In con as , in he case o success ul in eg a ion policies, a sign o hei posi i e e ec s on he hos socie y is when e ugees a e seen as axpaye s who con ibu e owa ds he inancing o public social se ices (Fasani e al. 2022; Fe is 2020). Un o una ely, he s a e in eg a ion policies o e ugees ha e shown signi ican ailu es in ecen yea s. The eason is ha public adminis a ions need mo e ime and esou ces o adap hei adminis a i e p ocedu es o he high numbe o e ugees ecei ed in he hos socie ies. Acco in i and Wislocki (2016) demons a e ha he bo leneck caused by his si ua ion has some imes led o excessi e bu eauc a isa ion, leng hening e ugees' s ay in ecep ion cen es and delaying hei socio-labou in eg a ion. Fu he mo e, Fasani e al. (2022) conclude ha o e sa u a ion pushes s a es o implemen ine icien policies ha nega i ely a ec he ime and quali y o he in eg a ion o e ugees. The e o e, one consequence o hese go e nmen al policy ailu es in ol es mobilising p i a e o ganisa ions, such as non-p o i and olun a y o ganisa ions (NVPOs), which ha e o de elop social inno a ions o espond o he g owing needs o e ugees. Social inno a ions o he in eg a ion o e ugees The social inno a ion concep Unlike business inno a ion, social inno a ion is no mo i a ed by p o i maximisa ion bu by social goals (Mulgan 2012; Phills e al. 2008). Howe e , despi e he consensus ega ding i s ele ance in add essing social p oblems, a gene ally accep ed de ini ion o social inno a ion has ye o be made a ailable (Moulae e al. 2017; Tes i e al. 2019). 16 Table 1: Some indica o s ela ed o he socio-economic le el and wel a e s a e o new hos coun ies (2019) Spain Po ugal I aly G eece EU-27 a e age GDP pe capi a (eu os) 26,440 20,840 30,080 17,100 31,310 Unemploymen a e (% o he popula ion in he labou o ce) 14.1% 6.7% 9.9% 17.9% 6.8% Expendi u e on social p o ec ion (% GDP) 24.1% 24% 29.2% 25.5% 28% Public expendi u e on educa ion (% GDP) 4.08% 4.61% 4.1% 3.59% 4.7% Heal hca e expendi u e by go e nmen s schemes (% GDP) 6.09% 5.56% 6.37% 2.24% 2.79% Sou ce: Eu os a da a In his con ex , he ci cums ances men ioned abo e ha e igge ed sui able coo dina ion be ween di e en le els o go e nmen and o he local ac o s, such as NPVOs, capi alis i ms, ci izens, and o he e ugee associa ions, ha is, he e is a new go e nance ha in ol es a ious local ac o s (OECD 2018a). In ac , he e ugee c isis has gene a ed a collec i e social esponsibili y ha has inc eased he pa icipa ion o olun ee s and NPVOs in helping e ugees and asylum seeke s (Gale a e al. 2018). In his espec , o ins ance, esea ch has shown ha he ela ionships a he ho izon al le el be ween local ac o s in I aly a e o e en g ea e signi icance han he mul ile el go e nance, which is p oduced be ween he cen al go e nmen and o he go e nmen s a he egional and local le els (Campomo i and Amb osini 2020). In Po ugal, ins i u ions awa e o he need o his collabo a ion be ween he s a e and o he local ac o s c ea ed a wo king g oup in 2015 ha in ol ed municipali ies and NVPOs, in addi ion o he cen al go e nmen , o ca y ou ag eemen s o he ecep ion and in eg a ion o e ugees (OECD 2018a). Howe e , se e al s udies ha e demons a ed ha , al hough a collabo a i e p ocess ook place be ween he di e en le els, he ole o he s a e was limi ed o he design o he ecep ion sys em, while ci il o ganisa ions we e in cha ge o implemen ing social in eg a ion ac ions o e ugees, such as in he 17 case o G eece (Baga os and Kou achanis 2022; Gale a e al. 2018; Kou achanis 2019). No wi hs anding he abo e, o he esea ch ound ha he success o he collabo a ion o a ious local ac o s o he in eg a ion o e ugees depends on each con ex , as e e yone has speci ic cha ac e is ics (Campomo i and Amb osini 2020; Campomo i and Casula 2022; Gale a e al. 2018; Humph is 2014). In his espec , wha is help ul o one coun y is no necessa ily alid o ano he e i o y. Table 2: Mig an In eg a ion in Spain (2018) (as a pe cen age o he g oup) Indica o Na ional UE- 28 a e age Na ionals in Spain Non-EU-bo n li ing in Spain Median Equi alised ne income ( €) 18,363 15,915 8,868 AROPE 21.8 24.1 53.7 Homeowne ship 68.3 76.6 24.9 O e c owding a e 17.9 4.4 14.8 Housing cos o e bu den a e 9.7 7.1 37.2 Employmen a e 73.7 67.6 60.0 Unemploymen a e 6.2 14.8 23.8 Sou ce: Eu os a da a In he speci ic case o Spain, al hough some s udies analyse how olun ee s con ibu e o he de elopmen and di usion o social inno a ions (De Wi e al. 2019) o how hese social inno a ions a e p oduced in social se ices in ol ing di e en ac o s (Rey- Ga cia e al. 2018), he e a e no p e ious s udies on how social inno a ions a e gene a ed in he speci ic ield o socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees, ocusing on he go e nance ha akes place in hese p ocesses. In his esea ch, he ocus is no only on p oduc and p ocess inno a ion, including he impac on socie y's a i udes and alues bu also on inno a ion ela ed o go e nance, as he e is a gap in he speci ic li e a u e in his con ex . As we will see, he case analysed in he empi ical sec ion, he Spanish case, is o pa icula in e es because he asylum sys em is o med by an ins i u ion o he public sec o ( he Re ugee Recep ion Cen e - CAR-) and non-p o i and olun a y o ganisa ions (NPVOs) (see Table 3). 18 Me hodology Spain as a case s udy o a new hos coun y Among he new hos coun ies, Spain has become one o he mos impo an al e na i e des ina ions o asylum seeke s, alongside mo e adi ional des ina ions such as F ance and Ge many. Al hough Spain s ill has signi ican socioeconomic weaknesses, i s economic con e gence ega ding No he n Eu opean coun ies and he consolida ion o i s ledgling democ acy ha e ans o med he coun y. Fo hese easons, his esea ch has chosen Spain as a speci ic case s udy o new hos coun y. Rega ding he weaknesses no ed abo e, some indica o s ela ed o he socioeconomic le el, such as he unemploymen a e (14.1%) and GDP pe capi a (26,440 eu os), show ha Spain has a wo se le el han he Eu opean Union o 27 (wi h an a e age o 6.8% and 31,310 eu os espec i ely). In he same ein, some wel a e indica o s show ha he Spanish sys em could be imp o ed since i s expendi u e on social p o ec ion is 24% o GDP, while in he Eu opean Union o 27, i eaches 28%. Simila ly, public spending on educa ion is lowe han he EU-27 a e age (4% o GDP in Spain and 4.7% in he EU-27). Spain s ands ou only in he case o public expendi u e on heal h, wi h 6.09% o GDP, well abo e he Eu opean a e age (2.79%) (Table 1). Despi e hese socioeconomic weaknesses o Spain, his coun y has ecei ed an inc easing numbe o immig an s since he beginning o he 21s cen u y. Among hese immig an s, hose looking o p o ec ion ia in e na ional asylum ha e unde gone a apid inc ease since 2013 (2,526%, om a me e 4,485 o 117,800 people in 2019) (Figu e 1), o he ex en ha in 2019 i o e ook I aly (43,770 asylum seeke s) and na owed he gap wi h Ge many (165,615 asylum seeke s) (Eu os a 2019). As in o he Eu opean coun ies, Spain ecei es many asylum applica ions om coun ies a wa , 19 such as Uk aine and Sy ia, bu also om di e se La in Ame ican coun ies, such as Ecuado , Venezuela, and Colombia, due o hei cul u al links. Table 3: Case s udies and main cha ac e is ics Name o he o ganisa ion Spanish Red C oss CEAR ACCEM CARs Yea o c ea ion 1864 1979 1950 1980s Who ounded he o ganisa ion Ci izens Ci izens Ca holic Chu ch Public Sec o Legal Fo m NPVO NPVO NPVO Belonging o Public Sec o Cu en Ta ge Popula ion Vulne able Collec i es Asylum Seeke s and Re ugees People a isk o exclusion Asylum Seeke s Decision-Making Gene al Assembly Gene al Assembly Gene al Assembly Technical eam Financing Public and minimum om he p i a e sec o (5% o less) Public and minimum om he p i a e sec o (5% o less) Public and minimum om he p i a e sec o (5% o less) Public Employees 11,808 713 776 App ox. 25 in each CAR Volun ee s 197,061 864 928 Occasionally A ailable posi ions o e ugees in Phase I 2,321 1,457 1,501 396 Sou ce: O ganisa ion websi es and Minis y o Labou , Mig a ion, and Social Secu i y. Figu e 1: Asylum applican s in Spain, 2013-2019 (numbe o people) Sou ce: Au ho s’ own based on Eu os a da a 0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Fi s - ime asylum applican s Posi i e decisions Asylum applica ion ejec ed To al decisions 20 The numbe o posi i e decisions g an ing asylum in Spain emained e y low un il 2018 (2,895 posi i e decisions in his yea ) in compa ison o ha in o he Eu opean coun ies such as Ge many (75,940), F ance (32,725) and I aly (30,670). Howe e , in 2019, wi h 38,420 posi i e decisions, Spain ou pe o med mos o hese coun ies excep o Ge many (70,320) in his espec (28,140 o F ance and 18,375 o I aly) (Eu os a 2019). This indica es ha he asylum sys em in Spain has esponded o he new ci cums ances in a e y sho ime ame despi e i s lack o expe ience in his ield. Fu he mo e, i should be bo ne in mind ha he Spanish economy s ill p esen s se e al signi ican weaknesses in e ms o social exclusion, housing, and employmen (see Table 2), which hinde s he easy in eg a ion o such a high numbe o mig an s. In his espec , he S a e and ci il socie y, h ough NPVOs, ha e aken on an ac i e ole. The in eg a ion policy o he Spanish cen al go e nmen has been leading a speci ic app oach in line wi h Law 12/2009 on he igh o asylum and subsidia y p o ec ion. Fu he mo e, he Minis y o Employmen (MEYSS) designed an indi idualised i ine a y o in eg a ion wi h a du a ion o 12 mon hs (gene al i ine a y) and ano he o 18 mon hs (i ine a y o si ua ions o a mo e ulne able na u e. Bo h a e di ided in o h ee main phases ( ecep ion, in eg a ion, and au onomy) plus a sho p e- phase o assessmen and e e al (MEYSS 2016). Unde hese legal pa ame e s, he Na ional Asylum Sys em (NAS) in Spain is composed, on he one hand, o a ne wo k o ins i u ions (a public ins i u ion and di e se NPVOs) ha wo k wi h all he asylum seeke s who a i e in Spain owa ds hei socio- labou in eg a ion and, on he o he hand, o inancial esou ces p o ided by he Minis y o Employmen (MEYSS) and managed by hose ins i u ions o design and implemen speci ic in eg a ion measu es (MEYSS 2016). 21 Sample: ins i u ions analysed Due o he apid g ow h in he numbe o asylum applica ions in he c isis o 2015, he Spanish go e nmen e o med he ini ial ins i u ional ne wo k o a ending o e ugees (named he A iadna Ne wo k) and expanded he numbe o NPVOs pa icipa ing in he indi idualised i ine a y designed o in eg a ion. The links and communica ions be ween he di e se ins i u ions o he new ne wo k and he cen al go e nmen a e es ablished no in a pe sonal way h ough o mal mee ings in an execu i e commission as ini ially ca ied ou bu ins ead h ough compu e p ocedu es. The ins i u ions o he NAS use hese p ocedu es o egis e all he ac i i ies e ugees ca y ou du ing he indi idual in eg a ion i ine a y. In his way, he cen al go e nmen can also asce ain he speci ic si ua ion o all e ugees in he asylum p og amme and can assign he e ugees o ac i i ies o ganised in a ious NPVOs whene e necessa y so ha he indi idualised i ine a y is success ully comple ed. Ne e heless, due o he good ela ions es ablished be ween he ins i u ions which belonged o he ini ial A iadna Ne wo k, in o mal con ac con inues be ween hei p ominen ep esen a i es h ough which in o ma ion is sha ed, and help can be p o ided when necessa y. In his ega d, al hough he a ge popula ion o his s udy is composed o he di e se numbe o en i ies which pa icipa e in he Na ional Asylum Sys em, his esea ch akes explici ly he ou ins i u ions included in he old A iadna Ne wo k as i s sample o s udy since hese ins i u ions possess mo e expe ience and cons i u e he leade s in he in eg a ion o e ugees. These ou en i ies a e, on he one hand, a public ins i u ion named CAR (Spanish ac onym o Cen o de Acogida de Re ugiados o Re ugee Recep ion Cen e) and, on he o he hand, h ee p i a e non-p o i and olun a y o ganisa ions (NPVOs) 22 ca alogued by he Spanish law as being o ‘public in e es ' and subsidised by he MEYSS (cen al go e nmen ). The h ee NVPOs a e CEAR (Spanish ac onym o Comisión Española de Ayuda al Re ugiado), The Spanish Red C oss, and ACCEM (Spanish ac onym o Asociación Comisión Ca ólica Española de Mig aciones). The Re ugee Recep ion Cen e (CAR) helps e ugees exclusi ely du ing he ecep ion phase o he indi idualised i ine a y o in eg a ion (6 mon hs) (MEYSS 2016). Re ugees lodged in i s cen es mus subsequen ly be assigned o one o he NPVOs a he end o he six mon hs as pa o he in eg a ion p og amme. Howe e , NPVOs assis he e ugees and asylum seeke s in he ecep ion phase, complemen ing he wo k ca ied ou by he CAR in his espec and he o he wo phases o he i ine a y (in eg a ion and au onomy). Mo eo e , he h ee NPVOs a e he en i ies which p o ide he i s con ac wi h he e ugees when hey a i e in Spain since hey cons i u e he o ganisa ions au ho ised by he MEYSS o he p elimina y assessmen and e e al ( he p e-phase) be o e beginning he h ee phases o he i ine a y. The main cha ac e is ics o he ou ins i u ions s udied a e p esen ed in Table 3. Speci ically, one o he mos c i ical aspec s o he h ee NPVOs is ha public unds p incipally inance hem. This means ha hese p i a e en i ies a e highly dependen on go e nmen policies and need mo e sel - inance, which implies a signi ican weakness in pe iods o economic down u n. Go e nance also p o ides an in e es ing poin . In he case o he h ee NPVOs, he decision-making is democ a ic h ough he Gene al Assembly. Me hod A quali a i e esea ch me hod was applied. Resea che s ha e suppo ed quali a i e me hods since hey ocus on unde s anding he easons and subjec i e aspec s o he eali y unde s udy (Pe en and Ram 2004). Speci ically, da a has been collec ed om 23 he ou ins i u ions o he sample h ough iangula ion, ha is, h ough mul iple and di e se sou ces o in o ma ion (Ca e e al. 2014; Jen o and Olsen 2019). In his ega d, da a was collec ed, i s ly, om he websi es o he o ganisa ions, secondly, om documen s published by hese o ganisa ions, and las ly, om pe sonal in e iews wi h he manage s in cha ge o he ou ins i u ions analysed. This la e sou ce was necessa y due o he limi ed in o ma ion a ailable ega ding hei inno a i e ini ia i es in he o he wo sou ces. The in o ma ion collec ed was analysed h ough a hema ic analysis me hod o iden i y, in es iga e and epo pa e ns wi hin quali a i e da a (B aun and Cla ke 2006; Vaismo adi, Tu unen, and Bondas 2013). All hese p ocesses ook place in 2019, and we ecei ed e hical app o al om all o ganisa ions o pa icipa ing in he esea ch and ea ing all he in o ma ion p o ided. The in e iews wi h he manage s ollowed a semi-s uc u ed me hod, wi h open-ended ques ions, no p e-p epa ed answe ca ego ies, and gi ing place o spon aneous ques ions along he con e sa ion o ge he in o ma ion equi ed o ou esea ch. Since he objec i e o his su ey in ol ed asce aining he inno a i e ac i i ies in he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees, he ques ions we e designed ollowing he p e iously de eloped li e a u e e iew. Speci ically, he ques ions conside ed he i e a eas o in eg a ion acco ding o Age and S and (2008) and UNHCR (2013), ha is, housing, educa ion, employmen , heal h, and social inclusion and, in addi ion, conside ed he ypes o social inno a ions as laid ou by Moulae e al. (2017), ha is, p oduc and p ocess-based social inno a ions o co e social needs, o imp o e social ela ionships, and o c ea e social change. The answe s ob ained p o ided no only an ou line o he p o ile o he en i ies and an insigh in o wha hese en i ies do in hei egula ac i i ies bu also wha speci ic social inno a ions hey we e in oducing. 24 Rega ding how he ou in e iews we e ca ied ou , he i s s ep in ol ed con ac ing he manage s in cha ge o he local headqua e s o he ou ins i u ions es ablished in he Spanish ci y o Se ille and se ing an appoin men in each ins i u ion a a speci ic da e. The eason o choosing he headqua e s o Se ille is highly ele an o he objec i es o his esea ch. Se ille is he la ges ci y in Sou he n Spain and one o he ou Spanish ci ies wi h a local o ice o he CAR ( he public ins i u ion) and local o ices o he h ee NPVOs o he sample. The ac ha Se ille has local o ices o he ou ins i u ions analysed o e ed he possibili y o s udy how collabo a ion be ween he public ins i u ion (CAR) and he h ee NPVOs ook place because he ou ins i u ions wo k oge he wi h he e ugees who a i e in he ci y. Subsequen ly, due o he semi-s uc u ed na u e o he in e iew, he pe son in e iewed was encou aged o speak eely o ga he he maximum in o ma ion om he o ganisa ion on hei in eg a ion measu es and s a egy. The e o e, he mee ing wen beyond he ini ial ques ions' limi s, making i possible o each a deepe unde s anding o hei ac i i ies ega ding he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees and he social inno a ions implemen ed. Resul s Acco ding o he in o ma ion ob ained h ough he a ious sou ces, only hose ac ions ha b ough new elemen s o sol e he social p oblem o e ugees we e conside ed social inno a ions, he eby dispensing wi h hose ac ions ha o med he egula ac i i y o he o ganisa ions analysed. Ne e heless, be o e going in-dep h wi h hese social inno a ions, i should be highligh ed ha all manage s in e iewed ag eed ha he A iadna Ne wo k was a majo social inno a ion. I was c ea ed in 2008 h ough an ag eemen be ween he Spanish go e nmen ( ia he MEYSS), he CARs, and he h ee NPVOs, and i s speci ic objec i e was o p omo e he socio-labou in eg a ion o 25 e ugees and asylum seeke s. The ne wo k had an execu i e commission chai ed by a ep esen a i e o he MEYSS, in which he main decisions we e adop ed in coope a ion wi h he o ganisa ions. In his way, a new go e nance p ocess was c ea ed based on he collabo a ion o he di e en ins i u ions, which can be iden i ied as a p ocess-based social inno a ion. In he wo ds o he own ac o s, “ his new sys em le s communica ing e y easily wi h he o he pa icipan s and exchange in o ma ion e y apidly” (ACCEM manage ), as well as “making decisions mo e adap ed o he pa icula ci cums ances o he momen and mo e apidly” ( e e ing, o example, o he cases o he a i al o e ugees’ applican s in mass in a conc e e ime) (Red C oss manage ). Fu he mo e, as a esul o his new kind o go e nance, a co-p oduc ion p ocess occu s since, as explained below, o he local ac o s pa icipa e in he ac ions de eloped, such as ci izens, p i a e i ms, and e en e ugees and asylum seeke s. We now highligh and explain he social inno a ions (SI) iden i ied, and di e en ia e be ween p ocess-based inno a ions, p oduc -based inno a ions, and inno a ions o bo h simul aneously, and also indica e he objec i es hey pu sue, ha is, o mee a social need, o imp o e social ela ionships, and o ans o m socie y’s a i udes and alues (Table 4). A) Social inno a ions in p ocesses The i s social inno a ion iden i ied is he acc edi a ion o he h ee NPVOs as he o icial media o s in he labou ma ke by he public sec o . This acili a es ma ching labou demand (local i ms) wi h labou supplie s ( e ugees and asylum seeke s) while he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees and o he mig an s is me . This ini ia i e can be conside ed an SI because “i cons i u es a new way o in eg a e e ugees in o a p e iously inexis en labou ma ke ” (Red C oss manage ). In his con ex , he ole o 32 By applying a quali a i e me hod based on a iangula ion p ocess, we ha e s udied ou ins i u ions o he Spanish Na ional Asylum Sys em ( h ee p i a e o ganisa ions (NPVOs) and one public). The esul s enable he ollowing conclusions o be ex ac ed. Fi s , leade ship in c ea ing social inno a ions lies in p i a e o ganisa ions (NPVOs) mo e han in he public sec o . This seems logical since hese o ganisa ions a e in di ec con ac wi h he e ugees and asylum seeke s h oughou he whole in eg a ion p ocess and a e consequen ly mo e awa e o hei needs. Howe e , despi e designing he legal and o icial in eg a ion p ocess, he public sec o only pa icipa es di ec ly in he i s phase o he in eg a ion p ocess ( ecep ion), which is why hei di ec p esence is mo e limi ed compa ed o p i a e o ganisa ions. This conclusion is in line wi h o he s udies ha demons a e ha he public sec o plays a seconda y ole in e ugee in eg a ion (Baga os and Kou achanis 2022; Gale a e al. 2018). The e o e, he public sec o is no expec ed o play a mo e signi ican ole in c ea ing SI o e ugee in eg a ion. Second, p ocess-based social inno a ions p oli e a e mo e han p oduc -based social inno a ions in he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees. This also seems o be logical since hese inno a ions espond o he new eme ging go e nance o speci ic social needs (such as access o employmen and housing), whe eby his go e nance is based on he collabo a ion o NPVOs, he S a e, and o he local ac o s, such as he collec i es a ec ed, ci il socie y, and local i ms and hei en ep eneu s. Consequen ly, new co- p oduc ion p ocesses ake place, which p omo e new ways o co e ing e ugees’ needs. This conclusion suppo s p e ious s udies highligh ing he impo ance o his kind o go e nance and hese co-c ea ion p ocesses in c ea ing social inno a ions (Campomo i and Casula 2022; McMullin 2021; Pes o 2012). 33 While bea ing conclusions one and wo in mind, we can ake as a hi d conclusion ha social inno a ions in Spain o e ugee in eg a ion a e de eloped unde a bo om-up app oach. In his espec , he ini ia i es a e p omo ed and p oduced by local ac o s o a di e en na u e (NPVOs, i ms, e ugees). This conclusion suppo s indings om o he Eu opean case s udies on ends in social inno a ions in e ugee in eg a ion, whe e mos SI a e de eloped unde he collabo a ion scheme be ween di e en ac o s (Edwa ds- Schach e e al. 2012; Humph is 2014). The e o e, his kind o SI is de eloped by ollowing wha is called a “communi y-building” app oach (Pa uzzi e al. 2019). Fou , he inal aim o social inno a ion in he e ugee sec o in Spain is mainly imp o ing social ela ionships, such as ini ia i es ocused on employe s and amous people, which shows, as s a ed in o he s udies, ha he a i udes and eelings o he hos socie y a e he key o he success o in eg a ion ini ia i es (Callens and Meuleman 2017; Fe is 2020; P zy uła and Ma usz 2021). In his way, social inno a ions wi h his objec i e will y o change he social sys em and alues in he long e m, ha is, hese social inno a ions will ul ima ely ha e a ans o ma ionalis pu pose (Anheie e al. 2014). Fi e, he ma ke -o ien ed app oach plays a c ucial ole in social inno a ions o he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees. In his espec , he c ea ion o social en e p ises by NPVOs s ands ou . These en e p ises s i e o in eg a e e ugees and mig an s h ough aining and gi e hem employmen di ec ly o o e come he obs acles p esen ed by he sys em. These social en e p ises aim o be inancially iable and sus ainable o no dependen on public esou ces. This need o be sus ainable and au onomous in e ugee ini ia i es is also p esen in o he cases analysed, such as ha in Ashley Communi y Housing in he Uni ed Kingdom, which, aced wi h he economic cu s om he 34 go e nmen , ound al e na i e unding h ough he Islamic sys em called “Sha ia” (Pa uzzi e al. 2019). Finally, and ela ed o he p e ious idea, mos social inno a ions analysed in his esea ch o e ugees’ in eg a ion exis in o he highe -income Eu opean coun ies. Thus, o ins ance, expe iences linked o “Awa eness by Fi ms” and “Famous People Pa icipa ion” coincides wi h simila cases expe ienced, such as hose de eloped by he Swedish p ojec en i led En y Hub o he de ec ion o ba ie s o inclusion and which in ol ed employe s, e ugees, and local o icials, and he Ge man expe ience called Ki chen in Run, which in ol es locals and e ugees in dinne e en s o cooking and socialising (Pa uzzi e al. 2019). These coincidences should no be iewed as a nega i e cha ac e is ic o he social inno a ions analysed. Ins ead, hey could be conside ed posi i ely since hey eplica e “ adical social inno a ions” c ea ed in o he highe - income coun ies (Shockley and F ank 2011). The e o e, hese ini ia i es could be called “social inno a ion by imi a ion”. The analysed case o Spain con ibu es o he li e a u e by inc easing he knowledge o social inno a ion in he ield o e ugee socio-labou in eg a ion. Mo e speci ically, he in e es o his esea ch comes om being cen ed on a coun y wi h a lowe income which has become a des iny o e ugees mo e ecen ly han o he adi ional hos coun ies. Al hough some s udies ha e analysed he case o Spain in he de elopmen and di usion o social inno a ions (De Wi e al. 2019; Rey-Ga cia e al. 2018), hey ha e ye o ocus on he speci ic ield o socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees. This esea ch co e s his gap by paying a en ion o he go e nance ha is aking place o espond o he needs o e ugees, wha i is also essen ial o unde s and how new go e nance pa e ns eme ge o espond o social challenges. In his sense, his pape shows how local ac o s o ganise hemsel es o espond o hese challenges h ough a 35 p ocess o co-p oduc ion ha eme ges om bo om-up ini ia i es, despi e ha ing a lack o expe ience as a consequence o being a new hos coun y. All hese conclusions lead o di e en p ac ical implica ions. On he one hand, he ole o he S a e could be ein o ced in c ea ing social inno a ions h ough hei public policies. Al hough i coope a es and is a c ucial elemen in he de elopmen o he asylum sys em, i s ole could be mo e ac i e in pa icipa ing and p oposing new ini ia i es (Shockley and F ank 2011). Thus, he S a e could p omo e he eplica ion o ini ia i es al eady c ea ed by he p i a e sec o in o he places, such as he c ea ion o social en e p ises o he inclusion on he public TV channel o a space o public awa eness. On he o he hand, al hough he social inno a ions iden i ied a e p ima ily implemen ed in o he adi ional des ina ions o e ugees, he ela ionships o he Spanish ins i u ions analysed he ein wi h o he ins i u ions beyond i s on ie s could be s eng hened o be upda ed abou he ini ia i es unde de elopmen in o he places. In his con ex o o eign ini ia i es o e ugee in eg a ion, he expe iences conce ning en ep eneu ship a e wo hy o men ion. Fo ins ance, an ini ia i e implemen ed in Sydney encou ages e ugees o c ea e hei businesses (Collins 2017). These ypes o ini ia i es could be eplica ed in new hos coun ies such as Spain. And las ly, his esea ch is no exemp om limi a ions. Thus, he i s limi a ion is he numbe o in e iews we ha e de eloped. Al hough he numbe o ac o s in ol ed in he p ocess is high, i was necessa y o selec c i e ia o manage all he ac o s pa icipa ing in he Na ional Asylum Sys em, which inally esul ed in he leading ou o ganisa ions ha we e membe s o he old A iadna Ne wo k. In addi ion, he in e iews we e de eloped in he same ci y. Al hough he au ho s ied o make he in e iewed pe son answe acco ding o a na ional pe spec i e, he end was o loca e hei answe s in hei e i o y. Thus, o ha e a mo e ai h ul app oach o social 36 inno a ion in his ield a a na ional le el, i should be in e es ing in u u e esea ch o conside a highe numbe o o ganisa ions loca ed beyond he geog aphical bo de s he e conside ed. Mo eo e , due o he dynamism he wo ld is expe iencing ha makes he ci cums ances change d as ically in a e y sho ime, i may happen ha some ini ia i es s a ed may no be con inued in he u u e because, o ins ance, sudden go e nmen cu s ela ed o a con ex o economic c isis could a ec he ac i i ies o he ins i u ions. In his espec , o emain up- o-da e ega ding social inno a ions and hei de ec ed impac , he s udy can be epea ed in u he esea ch o ind ou how he ini ia i es ha e e ol ed and also o asce ain whe he hey ha e been success ul owa ds he socio-labou in eg a ion o e ugees in Spain, in addi ion o he de ec ion o new measu es ha may ha e eme ged. Decla a ions Con lic o in e es : The au ho s decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es conce ning he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle. Funding: The au ho s ecei ed no inancial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle Re e ences ACCEM. 2018a. DIVEM, Emp esas que suman. 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