The influence of the parents' educational level and participants' age in the derivation of equivalence-equivalence

And és Ga cía Ga cía, Ál a o Viúdez González and Jaclyn Gayle Le kowi z 314 Nume ous s udies ha e add essed he cause behind he de i a ion o beha io ha has no been explici ly ained (Vale o & Luciano, 1992). This phenomenon has been s udied on many occasions wi hin he Expe imen al Analysis o Beha io , beginning wi h Sidman’s disco e ies in 1971 (see Ga cía & Benjumea, 2001) and con inuing wi h hose o o he au ho s wi hin he amewo k o equi alence classes. Simple and condi ional disc imina ions a e undamen al concep s o unde s and he logic o equi alence classes. Simple disc imina ions consis o a disc imina ion con aining h ee elemen s (disc imina i e s imulus, esponse and consequen s imulus), he basic pilla o ope an condi ioning. Howe e , condi ional disc imina ions include a ou h elemen . In addi ion o he disc imina i e s imulus, esponse, and consequence, a condi ional s imulus is added, which changes he unc ion o he disc imina i e s imulus o posi i e o nega i e. The condi ional ela ions be ween s imuli a e s udied ia ma ching- o-sample p ocedu es (Pé ez-González, 1994), which consis o choosing be ween a ious compa ison s imuli (disc imina i e s imuli) in esponse o a sample s imulus (condi ional s imulus). O he wo compa ison s imuli ha a e ypically used in he p ocedu e, only one is he co ec choice. In o he wo ds, he p incipal cha ac e is ic o condi ional disc imina ions is he con ol he condi ional s imuli ha e o e he ela ion be ween he disc imina i e s imulus, he esponse, and he ein o ce (Pé ez, 2007). Wo king wi h condi ional disc imina ions, Sidman (1971) was he pionee in he expe imen al s udy o equi alence classes. Sidman’s wo k was he beginning o a line o esea ch ha he desc ibes and analyzes in his 1994 publica ion, and ga e way o an eno mous quan i y o s udies (Ga cía & Benjumea, 2002, 2006; Pé ez, Ga cía, & Gómez, 2011). Equi alence classes e e o a se o s imuli ha a e unc ionally equal o he indi idual, despi e ha ing comple ely di e en physical p ope ies. The necessa y es s o de e mine his ela ionship a e de i ed om he ma hema ical de i ni ion o equi alence ela ions (Sidman & Tailby, 1982), which speci i es h ee p ope ies: e l exi i y, symme y, and ansi i i y. The display o hese ela ions is conside ed indica i e o equi alence be ween s imuli. Thus, we ha e Class 1 made up o A1, B1 and C1, Class 2 (A2, B2 and C2), Class 3 (A3, B3 and C3), e c. ISSN 0214 - 9915 CODEN PSOTEG Copy igh © 2014 Psico hema www.psico hema.com The in l uence o he pa en s’ educa ional le el and pa icipan s’ age in he de i a ion o equi alence-equi alence And és Ga cía Ga cía1, Ál a o Viúdez González1 and Jaclyn Gayle Le kowi z2 1 Uni e sidad de Se illa and 2 Co nell Uni e si y Abs ac Resumen Backg ound: The objec i e o his wo k was he s udy o analogical easoning om he pe spec i e o he equi alence-equi alence phenomenon. Me hod: The a iables s udied consis ed o he age o he pa icipan s and he educa ional le el o he pa en s, in ela ion o pe o mance on a easoning ask. The ask u ilized a sample size o 64 pa icipan s and an ins umen based on condi ional disc imina ions using he ma ching- o-sample p ocedu e. Resul s: The esul s showed a signi i can di e ence in he pe o mance on he ask be ween he child en o pa en s wi h college deg ees, and hose o pa en s wi hou college deg ees. Howe e , he e we e no conclusi e esul s as o age. Conclusions: The esul s a e analyzed om he pe spec i e o he de i a ion o he ela ionship o equi alence-equi alence ia mul iple exempla aining. Keywo ds: equi alence-equi alence, analogical easoning, mul iple exempla aining, child en. In l uencia del ni el educa i o de los p ogeni o es y la edad en la de i ación de equi alencia-equi alencia. An eceden es: el obje i o de es e abajo ue el es udio del azonamien o analógico desde el enómeno de equi alencia-equi alencia. Mé odo: las a iables es udiadas ue on la edad de los pa icipan es y el ni el educa i o de los pad es, en elación a la ejecución de la a ea de azonamien o. Pa a ello se u ilizó una mues a de 64 pa icipan es. Se diseñó un ins umen o basado en disc iminaciones condicionales u ilizando el p ocedimien o de igualación simbólica a la mues a. Resul ados: los esul ados mos a on una di e encia signi i ca i a en la ejecución de la a ea en e los niños con pad es uni e si a ios y los niños con pad es no uni e si a ios. Sin emba go, en elación a la edad no se ob u ie on esul ados concluyen es. Conclusiones: se analizan es os esul ados desde la pe spec i a de la de i ación de la elación de equi alencia-equi alencia a a és de en enamien o en múl iples ejempla es como o igen de la de i ación del enómeno. Palab as cla e: equi alencia-equi alencia, azonamien o analógico, múl iples ejempla es, niños. Psico hema 2014, Vol. 26, No. 3, 314-320 doi: 10.7334/psico hema2013.215 Recei ed: July 9, 2013 • Accep ed: Janua y 24, 2014 Co esponding au ho : And és Ga cía Ga cía Facul ad de Psicología Uni e sidad de Se illa 41018 Se illa (Spain) e-mail: [email p o ec ed] The in luence o he pa en s’ educa ional le el and pa icipan s’ age in he de i a ion o equi alence-equi alence 315 The equi alence-equi alence phenomenon ep esen s one s ep close o a be e unde s anding o complex beha io (Ba nes- Holmes, Hega y, & Smee s, 1997). Due o he na u e o he es s assessing he equi alence-equi alence phenomenon, i s measu emen equi es compound s imuli in bo h he sample and compa ison s imuli. Speci i cally, he sample can be wo s imuli o he same equi alence class o wo s imuli o dis inc classes. In he i s case, he pa icipan s should choose he compa ison s imulus composed o wo s imuli o he same equi alence class. In he second case, hey should choose he compa ison s imulus made up o wo s imuli o dis inc classes. The pa icipan s should choose he pai o s imuli ha main ain he same ela ion wi h one ano he as he pai o s imuli in he sample (belonging o no belonging o he same equi alence class). The e o e, he equi alence- equi alence phenomenon e e s o bo h ypes o ela ions: hose o equi alence-equi alence and hose o nonequi alence- nonequi alence (Ca pen ie , Smee s, & Ba nes-Holmes, 2003; S ewa , Ba nes-Holmes, Roche, & Smee s, 2002). I we ain ou equi alence classes consis ing o ou membe s each, such as A1-B1-C1-D1, A2-B2-C2-D2, A3-B3-C3-D3 and A4-B4-C4-D4, he compound s imulus A1B1 main ains an equi alence-equi alence ela ion wi h B2C2 because bo h compounds con ain elemen s belonging o he same class. In he same manne , he compound A2C3 main ains a nonequi alence- nonequi alence ela ion wi h A3C4. Figu e 1 shows a diag am o he equi alence-equi alence phenomenon u ilizing he o ma o he ma ching- o-sample p ocedu e. Di e en explica i e hypo heses ha e add essed why hese ela ions be ween s imuli ha ha e no been ained in he indi idual’s on ogenesis a e de i ed. One o he mos in l uen ial ideas in his sense was p oposed by Hayes (1989) and Boelens (1994), and is known as Exempla Theo y. These au ho s p oposed ha du ing e bal de elopmen , human beings a e ained in a la ge numbe o condi ional disc imina ions and hei symme ic coun e pa s. The double aining as a lis ene and speake allows one o lea n he disc imina i e con ol ela ion ha is es ablished be ween he p onuncia ion o a wo d and he appea ance o an objec , as well as ha which is es ablished be ween he p esen a ion o an objec and he p onuncia ion o a wo d. Acco ding o he au ho s, he de i a ion o symme y among humans can be explained by assuming ha mul iple exempla aining occu ed in an indi idual’s na u al his o y. Exempla aining, he e o e, is based on aining bo h A1-B1 and B1-A1, A2-B2 and i s symme ical coun e pa , and so on un il An-Bn and Bn-An. A a ce ain poin , we can conduc a es aining Ax-Bx and es ing Bx-Ax (Gómez, 2008). When Boelens (1994) o mula ed he Exempla Theo y, he also ex ended he idea o he es o he equi alence p ope ies ( e l exi i y, ansi i i y, and equi alence), p oposing ha human beings in hei na u al en i onmen s gene alize a se ies o p ope ies: gene alized iden i y, gene alized symme y, gene alized ansi i i y, and gene alized equi alence. As a esul , an indi idual’s beha io emains subjec o a p ope y o he s imulus— he co ec ela ion be ween he sample and he compa ison. The indi idual can espond using he gene alized p ope y, such as he symme ical ela ion, when aced wi h new s imuli (Luciano, Bece a, & Val e de, 2007). In he p esen wo k, we app oached he equi alence- equi alence phenomenon om his poin o iew (Ruiz & Luciano, 2012), seeking o expe imen ally in es iga e he e ec o mul iple exempla aining on he de i a ion o equi alence- equi alence esponding. Addi ionally, we explo e he ele ance o a iables ha could in l uence he de i a ion o his phenomenon: he pa icipan s’ age and he educa ional le el o he amily. Wi h e e ence o he a iable age, a s udy conduc ed by Ca pen ie , Smee s, and Ba nes-Holmes (2002) and subsequen eplica ions showed ha child en younge han 9 yea s old do no show gene alized equi alence-equi alence ela ions. In e p e ing hese esul s om he pe spec i e o he Exempla Theo y, hese child en did no each he success c i e ion in he es s o equi alence-equi alence because hey had no ecei ed su i cien exempla aining. Addi ionally, hese s udies ound posi i e esul s in child en olde han 9 yea s old, as well as in adul s (Pé ez, Ga cía, Gómez, Bohó quez, & Gu ié ez, 2004). In ou s udy, we chose o wo k wi h child en ages 8-9 and 14-15, conside ing ha he o me is a c i ical pe iod o analogical easoning and he la e co esponds o a pe iod in which p e ious esea ch indica es posi i e esul s (Ga cía, Pé ez, Ma ín, Gu ié ez, Gómez, & Pé ez, 2011). Wi h espec o he second a iable, he educa ional le el o he amilies, he e ha e been no s udies measu ing he equi alence-equi alence phenomenon. Howe e , in e es in o he psychological phenomena has been a ied. Palacios and González (1998) ound impo an di e ences be ween amilies as o how hei in e ac ions de e mine he ools in ol ed in he child’s in ellec ual de elopmen . One o he mos signi i can di e ences is ela ed o he pa en s’ educa ional le el, which, in u n, is ela ed o he amily socioeconomic le el. Simila ly, A anz, Bellido, Mazano, Ma ín and Olaba ie a (2004) indica e ha pa en s wi h highe educa ional le els use e bal s a egies o in e ac ion mo e equen ly. Among hem a e decon ex ualized s a egies, which consis o helping he child o e oke e en s, people and si ua ions beyond he cu en spa io- empo al con ex . Fo example, pa en s wi h highe educa ional le els p oduce nonspeci i c ques ions and sugges ions, which se e as iche and mo e s imula ing o ms o ela ions. Such s a egies a e no necessa ily he mos elabo a e and complex, bu a he he bes adjus ed o he child’s in e ac i e si ua ion and le el. This implies ha a amily wi h a highe educa ional le el helps o p omo e he de elopmen o complex beha io . The e o e, i is ele an o in es iga e he in l uence o he pa en s’ educa ional le el on he genesis o phenomena ha a e pa o analogical easoning, e e R’s B2 C2 A3 C4 B2 C2 A3 C4 A1 B1 A2 C3 R’s R’s R’s Figu e 1. Diag am o he equi alence-equi alence phenomenon. The s imuli A1 and B1 belong o he same equi alence class. The e o e, he ein o ced choice is he s imuli pai B2C2, which main ains an equi alence ela ion. The s imuli A2 and C3 belong o di e en equi alence classes. The ein o ced choice in his occasion is he pai A3C4, which is o med by s imuli belonging o di e en equi alence classes And és Ga cía Ga cía, Ál a o Viúdez González and Jaclyn Gayle Le kowi z 316 such as equi alence-equi alence ela ions. Keeping in mind p e ious disco e ies ound wi hin psychology, we hypo hesize ha he e will be di e ences in equi alence-equi alence esponding be ween child en o pa en s wi h college deg ees and child en whose pa en s do no ha e such deg ees. Consequen ly, in he p esen wo k, we will add ess wo independen a iables: age, u ilizing he wo abo e-men ioned condi ions, and pa en s’ educa ional le el, dis inguishing be ween pa en s wi hou college deg ees and pa en s wi h college deg ees. The dependen a iable will be pe o mance on he easoning ask. The e o e, he goals o his wo k a e o e i y whe he : – The child en o pa en s wi h college deg ees (a leas one o he pa en s has a comple ed college deg ee) will pe o m be e on he easoning ask han he child en o pa en s wi hou college deg ees. – The child en o ages 14-15 yea s will pe o m be e on he easoning ask han he child en o ages 8-9. – The e will be an in e ac ion e ec be ween bo h a iables, so ha olde child en o pa en s wi h college deg ees will ob ain he bes esul s. Me hod Pa icipan s The pa icipan s consis ed o 64 child en (be ween 8 and 15 yea s old) om dis inc a eas o Se ille. They we e assigned o 4 expe imen al g oups acco ding o he independen a iables: 16 child en who we e 8-9 yea s old and had pa en s wi h college deg ees, 16 child en who we e 8-9 yea s old and had pa en s wi hou college deg ees, 16 child en who we e 14-15 yea s old and had pa en s wi h college deg ees and 16 child en who we e 14-15 yea s old and had pa en s wi hou college deg ees. Sex was con olled in all g oups o a oid i s possible in l uence. Ma e ials In o de o e alua e equi alence-equi alence esponding, we used an expe imen al p ocedu e o simul aneous symbolic ma ching- o-sample. This p ocedu e consis s o p esen ing a sample s imulus and wo compa ison s imuli a he same ime. In o de o answe co ec ly in a ial, pa icipan s mus choose he compa ison s imulus ha main ains a pa icula ela ion wi h he sample s imulus. The ela ion can be equi alence-equi alence o nonequi alence-nonequi alence. I pa icipan s selec ed he co ec compa ison s imulus in a aining ial, hey would hea he sound o applause. I hey made an inco ec selec ion, hey would hea he sound o a ho n. The same ins umen s we e used du ing he es phase, howe e , eedback abou pe o mance was no o e ed h oughou he ials. Bo h he sample and compa ison we e compound s imuli con aining wo s imuli each (images o pho og aphs). The elemen s wi hin he compound s imuli could main ain an equi alence o nonequi alence ela ion. I he sample compound s imulus con ained wo elemen s o he same equi alence class, he child en should choose he compa ison s imulus con aining wo elemen s ha also belonged o he same class. Howe e , i he sample s imulus was composed o elemen s ha did no belong o he same class, he compa ison s imulus con aining nonequi alen elemen s was he co ec choice. We wo ked wi h s imuli om na u al ca ego ies ha we e mos likely o med p e iously in he e e yday expe ience o he pa icipan s (wi hou p e- es ing), gi en hei ages. The ca ego ies we e o ganized in en blocks ( om 1 o 10), wi h each block con aining h ee ca ego ies. The assignmen o he ca ego ies o se s and he o de o hei p esen a ion we e andomized (see Table 1). Each block was made up o 20 ials, in which one hal co esponded o equi alence-equi alence and he o he hal o nonequi alence-nonequi alence. The o de in which he wo ypes o ials we e p esen ed and he posi ion o he co ec compa ison s imuli we e coun e balanced. The p opo ion o elemen s om each class and he posi ion o he elemen s wi hin he s imuli we e also con olled (see Table 2). We employed he same s uc u e o all blocks. P ocedu e In o de o e alua e equi alence-equi alence esponding, we designed a p ocedu e made up o wo ypes o ials- es ing and aining. To pass each phase, he pa icipan s needed o answe co ec ly in 80% o he equi alence-equi alence ials as well as in hose o nonequi alence-nonequi alence (i.e., co ec ly answe ing a minimum o eigh ou o en o each ype o ial). In o de o i nish he expe imen , one o he ollowing cases had o occu : – The pa icipan does no pass he c i e ion in any o he 5 ainings wi hin a block. – The pa icipan passes he c i e ion o any es . – The pa icipan does no pass he es phase in he las block o s imuli. The es and aining phases we e p esen ed as ollows: Tes Phase 1: We began e alua ing he objec i e phenomenon o ou s udy u ilizing he i s block wi hou o e ing eedback o he pa icipan s. The pa icipan comple ed he s udy i he/she passed he abo e-men ioned c i e ia. I he child demons a ed a lowe le el pe o mance (< 80%), he aining phase began. T aining Phase 1: The same se o s imuli as in he p e ious phase was p esen ed o up o a maximum o i e epe i ions ha now included eedback. I he pa icipan did no pe o m co ec ly in any o he epe i ions, he expe imen was comple ed. I he child demons a ed a pe o mance abo e 80% in any o he p esen a ions, he/she p oceeded o he nex phase. Tes Phase 2: Implied comple ing a es phase wi h he second block o ials. The c i e ia we e iden ical o hose employed in he i s phase. T aining Phase 2: Consis ed o comple ing he same s eps as in he i s aining phase. This logic con inued h oughou he expe imen un il he pa icipan eached one o he abo e-men ioned condi ions. The expe imen ook place in an au ho ized esea ch labo a o y, wi h only wo expe imen e s and he pa icipan p esen . One o he expe imen e s sa o he le o he child and eco ded he The in luence o he pa en s’ educa ional le el and pa icipan s’ age in he de i a ion o equi alence-equi alence 317 answe s. This expe imen e e alua ed whe he he child passed he es ablished c i e ion upon i nishing each o he sessions. The o he in es iga o sa o he igh o he child, ga e eedback ela ed o he answe (when necessa y) and an he subsequen ial. The ins uc ions we e as ollows: We in oduce ou sel es and ell he pa icipan : – We designed a compu e game in which a couple o images appea in he uppe pa o he sc een. You will ha e o look a his pai and choose one o he wo pai s on he bo om, he one ha you belie e goes wi h he one abo e. Only one pai om below will be co ec , bu we will no ell you i you a e winning. Do you ha e any ques ions? A e you eady? We hen con inue o es phase 1. I he pa icipan passes, we ell him/he he ollowing: – Thank you o you collabo a ion. You ha e been a g ea help. We ha e i nished. I he child does no pass he es phase we say: – Now we a e going o con inue on o a simila ask. The same images a e going o appea , bu now when you choose Table 1 Ca ego ies and s imuli used in each block Numbe o block S imulus A S imulus B S imulus C Block 1 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Appliances Jungle gym P o essions Washing machine Beam Police Mic owa e Seesaw Fi eman Re ige a o Slide Bu che Block 2 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Boa d games Numbe s Vege ables Pa cheesi Fi e Le uce Chess Eigh Ca o Dominoes Th ee Toma o Block 3 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Ca oons Jewels Vehicles SpongeBob Ea ings Mo o cycle Mickey Necklace Ca The Simpsons Ring Bus Block 4 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Animals D inks Foo wea Dog Co ee Rain Boo s Ca Coke Sneake s Ho se Milk shake High-Heels Block 5 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Clo hes Ch is mas Buildings Pan s Ch is mas T ee Sky-sc ape T-shi Th ee wise men House Ski San a Claus Old building Block 6 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Fas Food Plane s Le e s Hambu ge Ea h B Ho dog Sa u n C Pizza Ma s M Block 7 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Cu le y Landscapes Human body Fo k Moun ain Hand Spoon Ca ibbean Ea Kni e Dusk Nose Block 8 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 F ui s Spo s Tools Apple Baske ball Hamme Banana Socce goal Sc ewd i e O ange Tennis acke W ench Block 9 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Fu ni u e Insec s Red objec s So a Bu e l y Flowe A mchai Fly Umb ella Chai Wasp Peppe Block 10 Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Geome ic i gu es School People Ci cle Blackboa d Baby T iangle Desk Adul Squa e Chalk Elde ly man Table 2 Dis ibu ion o es s in each block T ial numbe Type o ial Sample Le compa ison s imulus Righ compa ison s imulus 1 N-N B2A1 C1A2 B3C3 2 E-E A2B2 C3B3 B2B1 3 E-E B1C1 C3A1 B2C2 4 N-N B3C1 A1 B2 B2A2 5 N-N B1C2 A3B3 C3A1 6 E-E C2A2 A3C1 A1C1 7 E-E C1A1 B2B3 A2C2 8 N-N A1C2 C3A3 B3A2 9 N-N A1C3 C3B2 A2C2 10 E-E B3A3 B1C1 C2A1 11 N-N C1A2 B1C2 C3B3 12 E-E C3B3 A2A1 B2C2 13 E-E A3B3 C1B1 A1B2 14 E-E B2C2 C3A3 A3B1 15 N-N B1A3 B2C2 B3C2 16 N-N C3B2 A1B1 C2B1 17 E-E A2C2 A3C1 A1B1 18 E-E A3C3 C2A2 B2B1 19 N-N B1A1 A3C1 A3B3 20 N-N A1 C3 C2A2 A3B2 E-E: equi alence-equi alence ela ion. N-N: nonequi alence-nonequi alence ela ion. The numbe s co espond o he equi alence class o which he s imulus belongs, while he le e co esponds o he pa icula s imulus o he said class. The co ec op ion o each es appea s in bold And és Ga cía Ga cía, Ál a o Viúdez González and Jaclyn Gayle Le kowi z 318 one o he pai s, he compu e is going o emi a sound. I he sound is applause, you chose co ec ly, bu i he sound is a bullho n (we p esen he sound on he compu e ), you chose inco ec ly. I he pa icipan passes o he new block o s imuli ( he ollowing es phases) we say: – Ve y good, now we a e going o es wi h new images and, like in he beginning, he e will be no sounds ha indica e whe he you a e choosing co ec ly. When he pa icipan comple es he expe imen in one o he p e iously men ioned si ua ions, we say: – Thank you o you collabo a ion. You ha e been a g ea help. We ha e i nished. As p e iously indica ed, he session began wi h es phase 1 and con inued acco ding o he abo e sequence, wi h new ins uc ions o e ed when necessa y. Da a analysis The da a was analyzed using he s a is ical p og am SPSS.19. The analysis included an in e g oup compa ison using he binomial es . Resul s O he pa icipan s, 62.5% passed a leas one equi alence- equi alence es , whe eas he emaining 37.5% did no pass any. In acco dance wi h he i s goal, we analyzed he ela ionship be ween he pa en s’ educa ional le el and he pe o mance on he easoning ask. O he child en o pa en s wi hou college deg ees, 37% passed one equi alence-equi alence es , whe eas in he case o he child en o pa en s wi h college deg ees, he pe cen age inc eased o 87%. U ilizing he binomial es , we ound a signi i can di e ence in ask pe o mance be ween child en o pa en s wi h college deg ees and child en o pa en s wi hou college deg ees (p = .039). In he i s g oup (pa en s wi h college deg ees), he e was a g ea e p opo ion o child en who passed he es . Fo he second goal, we analyzed he ela ionship be ween he a iable age and he pe o mance on he easoning ask. We ound a endency ha poin s o olde child en pe o ming be e on he ask (75 s. 50%), bu his endency was no signi i can (p = .302). Wi h espec o he hi d goal, he e we e no signi i can esul s as o he in e ac ion e ec be ween he pa en s’ educa ional le el and he age o he pa icipan s on he easoning ask pe o mance. The i s signi i cance index (Figu e 2) showed ha he e we e no di e ences in pe o mance on he easoning ask be ween olde and younge child en o pa en s wi h college deg ees (50 s. 25%, p = .465). Simila ly, he second signi i cance index showed ha he e we e no signi i can di e ences be ween olde and younge child en o pa en s wi hou college deg ees (100 s. 75%, p = .285). Discussion Rega ding he pa en s’ educa ional le el, we ound ha he child en o pa en s wi h college deg ees pe o med be e on he easoning ask han he child en o pa en s wi hou college deg ees. This i nding emphasizes he impo ance o he educa ional in e ac ion as a key ac o in he acquisi ion o complex beha io . Based on his i nding, he in l uence o his elemen needs o be u he explo ed. The a iable pa en al educa ional le el could ha e p o ided mo e in o ma ion i we had e i ned i by in oducing ele an c i e ia. Fo example, we conside ed he a iable o he pa en s’ educa ional le el as a dicho omy: pa en s wi h college deg ees and pa en s wi hou college deg ees. In u u e s udies, each condi ion can be b oken down in o se e al ca ego ies. The e o e, we could wo k wi h pa en s who ha e college deg ees in social o echnical i elds. We could also di e en ia e he pa en s wi hou college deg ees, sepa a ing hem acco ding o p ima y educa ion, seconda y educa ion, oca ional aining, e c. Because he socioeconomic le el has also p o en in l uen ial in in ellec ual de elopmen , his a iable can also be ede i ned by keeping he amilial socioeconomic le el in mind along wi h he pa en s’ educa ional le el (B adley & Co wyn, 2002). This associa ion is based on he ac ha economic and social esou ces inc ease he possibili y o ob aining he educa ional and o ma i e esou ces ha p oduce g ea e s imula ion. This s imula ion acili a es he child’s in ellec ual de elopmen , and consequen ly leads o be e pe o mance on easoning asks. Pa en s’ in ol emen in he in e ac ion wi h hei child en could be ano he in e es ing a iable. The wo k o Razza, Ma in and B ooks-Gunn (2010) con i ms ha he p esence o wo highly in ol ed pa en s is associa ed wi h a mo e ad anced psychological le el han when only one o nei he o he pa en s is in ol ed. Whe eas his s udy deal wi h oddle s, i could be po en ially signi i can o he age g oups wi h which we wo ked. Simila ly, i would be in e es ing o s udy he impo ance o o he educa ional sou ces (school, classma es, g andpa en s, e c.). Ul ima ely, i would be bene i cial o choose a mo e complex and speci i c a iable ha be e delimi s he s imula ion ha pa en s and child en can con ibu e. Al hough we did no i nd di e ences in pe o mance on he easoning ask be ween he child en ages 8-9 and hose ages 14- 15, he e was a endency. As indica ed in he wo ks o Ca pen ie e al. (2002, 2003), an indi idual’s on ogene ic expe iences, a he han age, a e he mos ele an a iable o he de elopmen o equi alence-equi alence esponding. 100 80 60 40 20 0 8-9 14-15 Age % subjec s Pa en s wi hou college deg ees Pa en s wi h college deg ees Figu e 2. Pe cen age o pa icipan s ha eached he c i e ion in he equi alence-equi alence es s based on he educa ional le el o he pa en s The in luence o he pa en s’ educa ional le el and pa icipan s’ age in he de i a ion o equi alence-equi alence 319 One line o wo k ha is ele an o he s udy o equi alence- equi alence is he s udy o esponse c i e ia ha can en e in o compe i ion wi h ela ional c i e ia. The e mey be compe i ion be ween equi alence-equi alence c i e ion and c i e ia o o he p ocedu es esembling simila i y o equi alence (c i e ia bo h in he same o di e en compa isons, p esen ed simul aneously o sequen ially). This compe i ion can occu wi h na u al as well as wi h a bi a y ca ego ies (Ga cía, Gu ié ez, Bohó quez, Gómez, & Pé ez, 2002; Ga cía, Bohó quez, Gómez, Gu ié ez, & Pé ez, 2001; Ga cía, Gómez, Pé ez, Bohó quez, & Gu ié ez, 2003; Bohó quez, Ga cía, Gu ié ez, Gómez, & Pé ez, 2002; Ga cía, Bohó quez, Pé ez, Gu ié ez, & Gómez, 2008). These s udies examining compe i ion we e conduc ed wi h indi iduals (adul s) who had al eady acqui ed he ela ional esponse e alua ed by analogical easoning asks. The e o e, i would be o special in e es o see how hese dis ac o elemen s a ec child en while hey a e acqui ing his abili y. This s udy canno cla i y he in l uence o mul iple exempla aining on he de i a ion o equi alence-equi alence esponding. In ou s udy, we had wo ypes o pa icipan s: hose who al eady u ilized analogical easoning due o aining in a su i cien numbe o exempla s in hei sociocul u al en i onmen , and hose who did no . Because he numbe o ainings was limi ed (5 maximum), i was no su i cien ly ex ensi e o acili a e he de i a ion o equi alence-equi alence in he indi iduals who did no ye u ilize analogical easoning. Howe e , he design did e eal he compe ence o he pa icipan s who had al eady acqui ed his ype o easoning. In jus a ew es s (4 maximum), hese pa icipan s we e able o pass he disc imina ion. 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