Problematic Online Behaviours among University Students and Associations with Psychological Distress Symptoms and Emotional Role Limitations: A Network Analysis Approach

Vol.:(0123456789) In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11469-024-01296-y 1 3 ORIGINAL ARTICLE P oblema ic Online Beha iou s amongUni e si y S uden s andAssocia ions wi hPsychological Dis ess Symp oms andEmo ional Role Limi a ions: ANe wo k Analysis App oach MagdalenaSánchez‑Fe nández1 · Me cedesBo da‑Mas1 · F anciscoRi e a2 · Ma kD.G i i hs3 Accep ed: 30 Ma ch 2024 © The Au ho (s) 2024 Abs ac Ve y li le esea ch has simul aneously explo ed he in e ac ions be ween gene alized p ob- lema ic in e ne use (GPIU), p oblema ic social media use (PSMU), p oblema ic online gaming (POG), psychological dis ess, and emo ional well-being among uni e si y s u- den s. The e o e, he p esen s udy aimed o de e mine (i) he associa ions be ween GPIU, PSMU, and POG symp oms, (ii) whe he symp oms o hese h ee p oblema ic online beha iou s o m dis inc en i ies, and (iii) whe he he e a e associa ions be ween p ob- lema ic online beha iou s, psychological dis ess symp oms, and emo ional ole limi a ions using ne wo k analysis. A o al o 807 Spanish uni e si y s uden s pa icipa ed (57.7% emale; Mage = 21.22yea s [SD = 3.68]). Two ne wo k models we e compu ed. Ne wo k 1 showed a complex in e ac ion o nodes, wi h pa icula ly s ong connec ions be ween analogous symp oms o GPIU and PSMU. Symp oms o ganised in o dis inc dimensions, ea u ing a unique dimension o POG symp oms, one ha includes p eoccupa ion and a con lic symp om o GPIU, and wo o he dimensions wi h symp oms o GPIU and PSMU. Ne wo k 2 showed signi ican connec ions be ween GPIU and dep ession, GPIU and emo- ional ole limi a ions, PSMU and anxie y, PSMU and emo ional ole limi a ions, POG and dep ession, and POG and anxie y. The indings suppo he concep ualiza ion o GPIU as a nonspeci ic diso de , he independence o PSMU and POG as dis inc cons uc s, and aligning wi h pe spec i es ha sepa a e POG om he GPIU spec um. The s udy ein- o ces he model o compensa o y in e ne use and emphasizes he impac o p oblema ic online beha iou s on emo ional well-being. The indings ha e p ac ical implica ions o he assessmen and in e en ion o p oblema ic online beha iou s. Keywo ds P oblema ic online beha iou s· Psychological dis ess· Emo ional well-being· College s uden s· Ne wo k analysis Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 In oduc ion Du ing he pas wo decades, he e has been a ma ked inc ease in he numbe o in e ne use s alongside he democ a isa ion o in e ne access. While he in e ne has b ough nume ous ad an ages o socie y, o a small mino i y o use s, i s p oblema ic use has eme ged as a signi ican public heal h conce n (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, 2015). Such p oblema ic use has become e iden h ough a ange o po en ially p oblema ic online ac i i ies such as online gaming, online gambling, social media use, online shopping, and online po nog aphy use (Hussain & S a ce ic, 2020; Lopez-Fe nandez e al., 2016; Maue -Vakil & Bahji, 2020; Mo a-Salguei o e al., 2021; Mülle e al., 2021). Uni e si y s uden s a e a popula ion o special in e es wi h ega d o hese p oblems because hey a e ‘digi al na i es’, who ha e g own up su ounded by echnology and ha e ne e known a wo ld wi hou he in e ne (Ande son e al., 2017), and need such echnol- ogy o hei op imal academic, pe sonal, and social de elopmen (Sánchez-Caballé e al., 2020; Zhao e al., 2021). P e ious esea ch has epo ed a clea associa ion be ween p ob- lema ic use o online ac i i ies and heal h and unc ional impai men among s uden s (e.g., Chang e al., 2022; Kwok e al., 2021; Wong e al., 2020). Rega ding he diagnos ic c i e ia ha ha e desc ibed hese p oblem beha iou s, G i - i hs (2005) p oposed a biopsychosocial model o addic ion, common o subs ance and beha iou al addic ions (such as in e ne addic ion), based on six componen s: salience, mood modi ica ion, ole ance, wi hd awal, elapse, and con lic . This model has been es ed no only o gene alized p oblema ic in e ne beha iou (Mee ke k e al., 2009), bu also o speci ic beha iou s such as social media use (And eassen e al., 2012) and online ide- ogame playing (Deme o ics e al., 2012). Mo e ecen ly, applicable only o p oblema ic beha iou associa ed wi h ideogame playing, he la es ( i h) edi ion o he Diagnos ic and S a is ical Manual o Men al Dis- o de s (DSM-5; Ame ican Psychia ic Associa ion, 2013) included wi hin he sec ion Eme ging Measu es and Models (Sec ion III), ‘in e ne gaming diso de ’ (IGD), wi h nine diagnos ic c i e ia adap ed om hose used o subs ance use diso de s: p eoccupa ion, wi hd awal, ole ance, loss o con ol, loss o p e ious in e es s, con inua ion despi e p ob- lems, decep ion, mood modi ica ion, and jeopa diza ion. Simila ly, he 11 h e ision o he In e na ional Classi ica ion o Diseases (ICD-11; Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, 2018) included ‘gaming diso de ’ (GD), and p oposed in i s desc ip ion he c i e ia o salience, loss o con ol, losing in e es in and educing o he ec- ea ional ac i i ies, con inua ion o he playing beha iou despi e nega i e consequences, and isking/losing ela ionships and oppo uni ies. Al hough he e is no o icial diagnos ic ecogni ion o o he online p oblem beha iou s (apa om ‘gambling diso de ’ which can occu bo h online and/o o line), cu en esea ch has ocused on b oadening he unde - s anding o he na u e and scope o hese beha iou s and de e mining whe he hey ep e- sen sepa a e psychopa hological condi ions ha me i u he in es iga ion and conside a- ion in clinical p ac ice (Baggio e al., 2022). In e ms o concep ualising hese beha iou s, much o he li e a u e has used e ms such as ‘in e ne addic ion’, ‘compulsi e in e ne use’ and ‘p oblema ic in e ne use’ o e e o maladap i e online beha iou mani es ed h ough di e en p oblema ic online beha iou s associa ed wi h di e en ac i i ies (Finebe g e al., 2018). Howe e , his concep ion has been subjec o c i icism suppo ed by he idea ha he in e ne is only a means o access di e en online ac i i ies (G i i hs, 2000; Mee ke k e al., 2009) and ha online ac i i ies a e no subs i u ed o each o he when indi iduals canno pe o m hei a ou i e ac i i y In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 (G i i hs & Szabo, 2014; Pon es e al., 2015). As a possible solu ion o hese c i icisms, he spec um hypo hesis a gues ha p oblema ic online beha iou s can be de ined as a spec um o ela ed bu dis inc i e beha iou s associa ed wi h common and speci ic ae io- logical ac o s (Billieux, 2012; S a ce ic & Billieux, 2017). P e ious esea ch has suppo ed his las concep ualisa ion o p oblema ic online beha - iou s, demons a ing hese beha iou s a e co ela ed and he magni ude o his co ela- ion is mo e p onounced be ween speci ic p oblema ic beha iou s (e.g., p oblema ic social media use [PSMU] o p oblema ic online gaming [POG]) and gene alized p oblema ic in e ne use (GPIU) han i is be ween indi idual beha iou s hemsel es (Rigó e al., 2023; Sánchez-Fe nández & Bo da-Mas, 2024; Van Rooij e al., 2017). Mo eo e , s udies ha e ound simila i ies and di e ences in he impac o speci ic isk ac o s on di e en p ob- lema ic online beha iou s (Akba i e al., 2023; Chang e al., 2022; Naidu e al., 2023; Pe is e al., 2020; Sayili e al., 2023; Van Rooij e al., 2017). An e ec i e way o es he spec um hypo hesis is h ough he ne wo k analysis app oach. In his app oach, diso de s a e conside ed complex ne wo ks whe e symp oms a e ep esen ed as ‘nodes’ connec ed by ‘edges’ (Bo sboom, 2017; Schmi mann e al., 2013). The s eng h o hese connec ions e lec s he p obabili y ha symp oms appea oge he , iden i ying he co e and pe iphe al symp oms. This app oach cap u es he complexi y and dynamics o diso de s and allows he analysis o ela ionships be ween hem. Unlike he la en a iable app oach, whe e an unde lying ac o is assumed, ne wo k analysis consid- e s he ne wo k i sel as he main cons uc , explo ing dynamic causal ela ionships wi hou assump ions o local independence (Guyon e al., 2017). I also acili a es he iden i ica- ion o ‘b idging symp oms’ ha connec seemingly dis inc diso de s (Baggio e al., 2016; C ame e al., 2010), and he e o e p o ides e idence o he spec um hypo hesis. Following his app oach, p e ious s udies ha e analysed he ela ionships be ween symp oms o di e en p oblema ic online beha iou s and ound ha hese o m dis inc en i ies (e.g., Baggio e al., 2018, 2022; Li e al., 2023b; Rozgonjuk e al., 2021; Za a e e al., 2022). Howe e , o da e, no s udies ha e examined he ela ionship be ween GPIU, PSMU, and POG symp oms among he uni e si y s uden popula ion using he ne wo k analysis app oach. I is essen ial o ad ance esea ch speci ically wi hin his popula ion and hese h ee beha iou s o enable he de elopmen o a ge ed in e en ions. In addi ion, his app oach has been commonly used in ecen esea ch demons a ing he ela ionship be ween p oblema ic online beha iou s and a ious symp oms o psychological dis ess. Fo example, some s udies showed ha GPIU was ela ed o dep ession symp oms (Cai e al., 2022; Zhao e al., 2023). Rela ionships ha e been epo ed be ween GPIU and suicidal idea ion (Yang e al., 2023), and be ween GPIU and anxie y (Cai e al., 2021). Spe- ci ic s udies ha e shown ha dep ession is s ongly associa ed wi h PSMU and POG (Li e al., 2023b; Si e al., 2023). O he ela ionships ha e been epo ed be ween PSMU and psychological dis ess (Peng & Liao, 2023; Tulle -P ado e al., 2023; Wang e al., 2022), and be ween PSMU and di e en psychopa hological symp oms (Fou nie e  al., 2023). Focusing on he uni e si y s uden popula ion, signi ican ela ionships ha e been epo ed be ween gaming diso de , dep ession, alexi hymia, bo edom and loneliness (Li e al., 2021), and be ween gaming diso de , umina ion, and sleep quali y (Li e al., 2023a, b). Howe e , o da e, no p e ious s udy has analysed he ela ionships be ween di e en p oblema ic online beha iou s and psychological dis ess symp oms in he same ne wo k, which may ha e impo an implica ions o he ea men o hese beha iou s. I signi - ican ela ionships a e es ablished, changes in hese psychological dis ess a iables can ac i a e and/o inhibi p oblem beha iou s in he ne wo k (Bo sboom, 2017). Fu he - mo e, al hough PIU has been shown o ha e a nega i e impac on well-being (Dienlin & In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 Johannes, 2022; Machimba ena e al., 2019), no p e ious s udies ha e examined he ela- ionship be ween hese a iables using ne wo k analysis. The P esen S udy Based on he spec um hypo hesis and p e ious empi ical e idence, he objec i es o he p esen s udy we e o su ey a sample o uni e si y s uden s and o de e mine (i) o wha ex en symp oms o online p oblem beha iou s, such as GPIU, PSMU and POG, a e asso- cia ed wi h each o he ; (ii) whe he symp oms o hese h ee p oblema ic online beha iou s o m dis inc en i ies; and (iii) whe he he e is a ela ionship be ween p oblema ic online beha iou s, symp oms o psychological dis ess (i.e., s ess, anxie y, dep ession), and an indica o o well-being (i.e., emo ional ole limi a ions). Wi h ega d o hese objec i es, he ollowing hypo heses (Hs) we e p oposed. I was hypo hesised ha : • The symp oms o GPIU, PSMU, and POG would be posi i ely associa ed wi h each o he (H1). • The symp oms o PSMU and POG would o m dis inc clus e s o p oblema ic online beha iou symp oms, and he umb ella cons uc s o GPIU would no cons i u e a spe- ci ic diso de (H2). • GPIU, PSMU, and POG would be posi i ely associa ed wi h dep ession, anxie y, s ess and emo ional ole limi a ions (H3). Me hod andMa e ials Pa icipan s andP ocedu e Be ween Oc obe 2022 and May 2023, a c oss-sec ional su ey s udy was conduc ed a a uni e si y in Andalusia, Spain. Uni e si y s uden s we e ec ui ed using con enience sam- pling. The su eys we e dis ibu ed online by he uni e si y’s eaching s a . The inclusion c i e ia we e: (i) being olde han 17yea s, (ii) being en olled in a deg ee p og amme a his uni e si y, (iii) ha ing a sma phone o any o he de ice wi h in e ne access, and (i ) gi ing in o med consen o pa icipa e. Be o e comple ion o he su ey, he pa icipan s we e in o med abou he backg ound and pu pose o he s udy, along wi h ins uc ions on an in o ma ion shee . No c edi o cou se emune a ion was gi en o pa icipa ion. The s udy was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o he uni e si y o he i s h ee au ho s and adhe ed o he Decla a ion o Helsinki. A o al o 807 s uden s (330 males, 466 emales, and 11 nonbina ies) pa icipa ed in he su ey. The mean age o he s uden s was 21.22yea s (SD = 3.68, ange = 17–41yea s). Table1 shows he cha ac e is ics o he pa icipan s. The sample comp ised a highe p opo - ion o emales, bachelo s uden s, hose unde 20yea s o age, enginee ing and a chi ec u e s uden s, hose wi h a medium economic le el, and hose li ing wi h a amily membe . Measu es In addi ion o he sociodemog aphic in o ma ion shown in Table1, he ollowing psycho- me ic measu es we e included in he su ey. In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 Compulsi e In e ne Use Scale (CIUS‑14) The CIUS-14 (Mee ke k e al., 2009; Spanish e sion: Lopez-Fe nandez e al., 2019) was used o assess GPIU. The scale comp ises 14 i ems ocussing on lack o con ol, in ap- e sonal and in e pe sonal con lic s, cogni i e and beha iou al p eoccupa ion, impai ed mood, and wi hd awal symp oms. I ems (e.g., “Do you hink you should use he in e ne less o en?”) a e esponded o on a i e-poin Like scale om 0 (ne e ) o 4 ( e y e- quen ly). Highe sco es e e o a g ea e se e i y o GPIU. I ems and associa ed symp oms can be ound in TableS1 o he Supplemen a y Ma e ial. The CIUS-14 has been ansla ed in o many languages and has used in c oss-cul u al esea ch showing obus psychome ic quali ies (Lopez-Fe nandez e al., 2019). In he p esen s udy, CIUS-14 showed high le els o in e nal consis ency (α = 0.89, ω = 0.89) and an adequa e i (χ2 = 393.12, d = 76; χ2/ d = 5.17; CFI = 0.98; IFI = 0.98; NFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.07). Table 1 Cha ac e is ics o he s udy pa icipan s (N = 807) a Le els de e mined based on an i em ("Conside ing you household income le el") wi h h ee esponse op ions: “We s uggle o make ends mee o ba ely manage wi hou addi ional expenses” (low), “We li e com o ably bu wi hou luxu ies” (medium), and “We a e inancially com o able” (high) Cha ac e is ics F equency % Gende  Male  Female  Non-bina y 330 466 11 40.9 57.7 1.4 Age (yea s) < 20  20–22  22–24  > 24 313 305 93 96 38.8 37.8 11.5 11.9 Educa ional deg ee (cu en ly en olled)  Bachelo  Mas e  Doc o al 720 58 29 89.2 7.2 3.6 Field o knowledge  Sciences  Sciences Heal h sciences  Social sciences  A s and humani ies  Enginee ing and A chi ec u e 130 124 196 88 269 16.1 15.4 24.3 10.9 33.3 Income le ela  Low  Medium  High 174 385 248 21.5 47.7 30.7 Residence  Wi h a amily membe  In a s uden esidence/ la  Wi h a couple/alone 458 287 622 56.6 35.8 7.6 In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 Be gen Social Media Addic ion Scale (BSMAS) The BSMAS (And eassen e al., 2016; Spanish e sion: Vallejos-Flo es e al., 2018) was used o assess PSMU o e he pas yea . The scale comp ises six i ems e lec ing co e addic ion elemen s (i.e., salience, mood modi ica ion, ole ance, wi hd awal, con lic , and elapse) p oposed by G i i hs (2005). I ems (e.g., “Do you eel an u ge o use social media mo e and mo e?”) a e esponded o on a i e-poin Like scale anging om 1 ( e y a ely) o 5 ( e y o en). Highe sco es e e o a g ea e se e i y o PSMU. I ems and asso- cia ed symp oms can be ound in TableS1 o he Supplemen a y Ma e ial. I s obus psy- chome ic p ope ies ha e been e i ied in di e en language e sions (e.g., And eassen e al., 2016; Monacis e al., 2017; Pon es e al., 2016; Za a e e al., 2023). In he p esen s udy, BSMAS showed high le els o in e nal consis ency (α = 0.81, ω = 0.81) and an ade- qua e i (χ2 = 15.70, d = 8; χ2/d = 1.96; CFI = 1.00; IFI = 1.00; NFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.03). In e ne Gaming Diso de Scale–Sho Fo m (IGDS9‑SF) The IGDS9-SF (Pon es & G i i hs, 2015; Spanish e sion: Be anuy e al., 2020) was used o assess POG o e he pas yea . The scale comp ises nine i ems based on he c i e ia o in e ne gaming diso de in he DSM-5 (Ame ican Psychia ic Associa ion, 2013). I ems (e.g., “Do you eel p eoccupied wi h you gaming beha io ?”) a e esponded o on a i e- poin Like scale om 1 (ne e ) o 5 ( e y o en). Highe sco es e e o a highe se e - i y o POG. I ems and associa ed symp oms can be ound in TableS1 o he Supplemen- a y Ma e ial. The IGDS9-SF has been ound o ha e excellen psychome ic p ope ies in di e en languages (Poon e al., 2021). The Spanish IGDS9-SF has been shown o ha e obus psychome ic p ope ies (Be anuy e al., 2020; Maldonado-Mu ciano e al., 2020; Sánchez-Iglesias e al., 2020). In he p esen s udy, IGDS9-SF showed high le els o in e - nal consis ency (α = 0.87, ω = 0.87) and an adequa e i (χ2 = 76.16, d = 27; χ2/d = 2.82; CFI = 1.00; IFI = 1.00; NFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.05). Dep ession, Anxie y, andS ess Scale‑21 (DASS‑21) The DASS-21 (Lo ibond & Lo ibond, 1995; Spanish e sion: Daza e  al., 2002) was used o assess psychological dis ess. The 21-i em scale comp ises h ee subscales, each con aining se en i ems ela ed o dep ession (DASS-D), anxie y (DASS-A), and s ess (DASS-S). I ems (e.g., “I el ha li e was meaningless”) a e esponded o on a ou -poin scale om 0 (did no apply o me a all) o 3 (applied o me e y much, o mos o he ime). A highe sco e indica es g ea e symp oms o psychological dis ess. The Spanish DASS-21 has been shown o ha e obus psychome ic p ope ies (Daza e al., 2002). In he p esen s udy, he h ee DASS-21 subscales showed high le els o in e nal consis - ency (dep ession: α = 0.90, ω = 0.90; anxie y: α = 0.88, ω = 0.88; s ess: α = 0.88, ω = 0.88) and an adequa e i (dep ession: χ2 = 27.69, d = 14, χ2 / d = 1.98, CFI = 1.00; IFI = 1.00; NFI = 1.00; TLI = 1.00; RMSEA = 0.04; anxie y: χ2 = 14.41, d = 14; χ2/d = 1.03; CFI = 1.00; IFI = 1.00; NFI = 1.00; TLI = 1.00; RMSEA = 0.03; s ess: χ2 = 23.10, d = 14; χ2/d = 1.65; CFI = 1.00; IFI = 1.00; NFI = 0.99; TLI = 1.00; RMSEA = 0.04). In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 Sho Fo m 36 Heal h Su ey (SF‑36) (Wa e andShe bou ne, 1992) The SF-36 (Wa e and She bou ne, 1992; Spanish e sion: Vilagu e al., 2005) comp ises 36 i ems and assesses physical and men al heal h. In he p esen s udy, he h ee-i em emo- ional ole limi a ions (ER) subscale was used. I ems (e.g., “Accomplished less han you would like”) a e esponded o on a i e-poin scale om 1(s ongly disag ee) o 5(s ongly ag ee). A highe sco e indica es a highe le el o emo ional ole limi a ions. The psycho- me ic p ope ies o SF-36 has been ound o ha e obus psychome ic p ope ies among gene al popula ions (Su e al., 2014), uni e si y s uden s (Zhang e al., 2012), and Span- ish popula ions (Gi aldo-Rod íguez and López-O ega, 2024). In he p esen s udy, he ER subscale o he SF-36 showed high le els o in e nal consis ency (α = 0.92, ω = 0.93) and an adequa e i (χ2 = 393.12, d = 76; χ2/d = 5.17; CFI = 1.00; IFI = 1.00; NFI = 1.00; TLI = 1.00; RMSEA = 0.04). Assessmen c i e ia Table2 shows he c i e ia used in he assessmen o p oblema ic online beha iou s (GPIU, PSMU, and POG). Pa allels can be seen be ween he i s i e c i e ia (i.e., loss o con- ol elapse, con lic /jeopa diza ion, p eoccupa ion/salience, mood modi ica ion, and wi h- d awal) in all h ee cases and be ween he i s six c i e ia ( he p e ious i e and he addi- ion o ole ance) in he case o PSMU and POG. The scale used o assess POG includes h ee u he c i e ia (i.e., loss o in e es s, con inua ion despi e p oblems, and decep ion). S a is ical Analysis Desc ip i e and bi a ia e da a analysis we e pe o med in Je eys’ Amazing S a is ics P og am (JASP) e sion 0.17.1 (In el) s a is ical so wa e (JASP Team, 2023). Ne wo k da a analysis was pe o med wi h R e sion 4.3.0 (R Co e Team, 2023). Fo he dis ibu- ion o a iables, he absolu e alues o skewness anged om 0.24 (ER) o 2.69 (POG), and he ku osis alues o ku osis anged om 0.16 (GPIU) o 9.38 (POG). Gi en he Table 2 Assessmen ools and c i e ia used o gene alized p oblema ic in e ne use, p oblema ic social media use and p oblema ic online gaming GPIU: gene alized p oblema ic in e ne use, PSMU: p oblema ic social media use, POG: p oblema ic online gaming GPIU PSMU POG Compulsi e In e ne Use Scale (CIUS-14) Be gen Social Media Addic ion Scale (BSMAS) In e ne Gaming Diso de Scale–Sho Fo m (IGDS9-SF) Loss o con ol Relapse Loss o con ol Con lic Con lic Jeopa diza ion P eoccupa ion Salience P eoccupa ion Coping o mood modi ica ion Mood modi ica ion Mood modi ica ion Wi hd awal Wi hd awal Wi hd awal Tole ance Tole ance Loss o in e es s Con inua ion despi e p oblems Decep ion In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 c i e ia o absolu e skewness ≤ 2.0 and absolu e ku osis ≤ 7.0 (Kim, 2013), he dis ibu- ion can be conside ed no mal o all a iables excep o POG. Fi s , means, s anda d de ia ions, ange, eliabili ies (C onbach’s alphas and McDonald’s omegas), con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA), and co ela ions be ween s udy a iables we e calcula ed. Mul i- ple c i e ia we e used o e alua e he CFA i : χ2/d ≤ 2 (Cole, 1987), he compa a i e i index (CFI) ≥ 0.90, an inc emen al i index (IFI) ≥ 0.90, no med i index (NFI) ≥ 0.90, Tucke Lewis index (TLI) ≥ 0.90, and he oo -mean-squa e e o o app oxima ion (RMSEA) < 0.08 (Kline, 2015). As χ2 is a sensi i e sample size, he in e p e a ion o he i o he model was based on an o e all assessmen o he gene al pa e n o all i indi- ces (Ala i e al., 2020). Pea son’s co ela ions we e used o all a iables excep POG, which used Spea man’s co ela ion. The ollowing cu -o poin s we e used o in e p e he s eng h o he associa ions: small < 0.3, medium > 0.3, and la ge > 0.5 (Hemphill, 2003). To examine he ela ionships be ween he p oblema ic online beha iou s s udied, a ne wo k model was calcula ed wi h he 14 GPIU symp oms p esen in CIUS-14, he six PSMU symp oms p esen in BSMAS, and he nine POG symp oms p esen in IGDS9-SF (Ne wo k 1). To examine he ela ionship be ween GPIU, PSMU, and POG, psychological dis ess, and emo ional ole limi a ions, a second ne wo k model was gene a ed (Ne wo k 2). To simpli y he model, he sum sco es o CIUS-14, BSMAS, IGDS9-SF, h ee DASS subscales and he ER subscale o SF-36 we e used ins ead o he symp oms sco es. The qg aph package (Epskamp e al., 2023) was applied o ne wo k isualisa ion and analysis. A Gaussian g aphical model was compu ed using Leas Absolu e Sh inkage and Selec ion Ope a o (GLASSO) based on he Ex ended Bayesian In o ma ion C i e ion (EBIC). GLASSO educes spu ious connec ions be ween nodes (symp oms in Ne wo k 1 and a iables in Ne wo k 2) by minimising small co ela ions o ze o. The EBIC is a good- ness o i me ic o model selec ion, which is adjus ed by a hype pa ame e γ. This hype - pa ame e was se o 0.5 o achie e an op imal balance be ween sensi i i y and speci ici y (Foygel & D on, 2010). The ‘Exclude pai wise me hod’ was used o manage missing da a. Ne wo k isualisa ion ollowed he F uch e man–Reingold algo i hm (F uch e man & Reingold, 1991). Symp oms (Ne wo k 1) and a iables (Ne wo k 2) we e ep esen ed by ‘nodes’ and he ela ionships be ween hem by ‘edges’. Blue edges indica e posi i e links, while ed edges indica e nega i e links. Mo eo e , he s eng h o he link be ween nodes is p esen ed h ough he hickness and colou densi y o he connec ing edge, whe e hicke and dense lines indica e s onge weigh s. In addi ion, he dis ance be ween he nodes showed he ela ionship be ween hem. Finally, he cen e o he ne wo k holds he nodes wi h highe co ela ions, whe eas he edges o he ne wo k ha e he nodes wi h lowe co ela ions. In addi ion, edge weigh s and cen ali y o nodes we e used o desc ibe he ne wo k. The s eng h o he ela ionship be ween he nodes is indica ed by an edge weigh . The mini- mum absolu e alue o he edge weigh o 0.03 is deemed in e p e able (Is o anu e al., 2017). Cen ali y desc ibes he ela i e signi icance o he a ious nodes wi hin a ne wo k. A cen al node is closely ela ed o o he nodes, and, when ac i a ed, o he symp oms a e likely o be a ec ed as well. On he o he hand, a low cen ali y symp om has ewe links o o he nodes and less impac on he ne wo k. S eng h, be weenness, closeness, and expec ed in luence a e equen ly ci ed measu es o cen ali y (Opsahl e al., 2010). Following his, he edge accu acy and he s abili y o he cen ali y coe icien s o Ne - wo k 1 we e e alua ed using he boo ne package (Epskamp, 2023). The accu acy o edge weigh s was examined using boo s ap 95% non-pa ame ic con idence in e als (CIs). Na owe CIs imply a mo e accu a e es ima e o he edge (Epskamp e al., 2018). The s a- bili y o he cen ali y indices was es ima ed using case-d opping boo s apping (Epskamp In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 & F ied, 2018). This coe icien e lec s he co ela ion be ween he o iginal cen ali y indi- ces (based on he ull da a) and he co ela ion ob ained om he subse o da a ep esen - ing di e en pe cen ages o he o e all sample. Epskamp e al. (2018) sugges ed ha he co ela ion s abili y coe icien should no be below 0.25, and p e e ably i should be abo e 0.5. In he p esen s udy, he s abili y o he cen ali y indices and he edge accu acy o he ne wo k we e examined using he a o emen ioned p ocedu es. Bo h p ocedu es we e es i- ma ed wi h 1000 boo s aps. To in es iga e he communi ies be ween he di e en symp oms o PIU, explo a- o y g aph analysis (EGA) (Golino and Epskamp, 2017) was used. This ne wo k analy ic app oach allows he implemen a ion o a communi y de ec ion algo i hm, acili a ing he empi ical iden i ica ion o clus e s in mul idimensional da a (Ch is ensen, 2020). The Lou- ain communi y de ec ion algo i hm was used since i has been shown o pe o m well wi h o dinal da a (Ch is ensen, 2020). TheEGAne package (Golino & Ch is ensen, 2023) was used o eplica e EGA ne wo ks 1,000 imes wi h andom sample pe mu a ion. The qg aph packagewas used o isualise he median EGA ne wo k. Finally, o examine he b idge cen ali y be ween PIU symp oms, he ne wo k ools pack- age (Jones, 2023)was used o es ima e he b idge s eng h and b idge expec ed in luence (bo h 1-s ep and 2-s ep). Resul s Desc ip i e S a is ics Table3 p esen s desc ip i e s a is ics and bi a ia e co ela ions be ween he psychological a iables. GPIU, PSMU, and POG we e posi i ely co ela ed, wi h a e y s ong co ela- ion be ween GPIU and PSMU, a medium co ela ion be ween GPIU and POG, and a small co ela ion be ween PSMU and POG. GPIU and PSMU showed posi i e medium co ela- ions wi h all h ee subscales o psychological dis ess and wi h emo ional ole limi a ions. Table 3 Means, s anda d de ia ions (SDs) and Pea son/Spea man co ela ions o he s udy a iables (N = 807) GPIU: gene alized p oblema ic In e ne use, PSMU: p oblema ic social media use, POG: p oblema ic online gaming, Dep: dep ession, Anx: anxie y, S : s ess, ER: emo ional ole unc ioning, α: C onbach’s alpha coe icien , ω: omega coe icien , M: mean, SD: s anda d de ia ion, Rg: ange. *p < 0.05 **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001 (2- ailed) Va iable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. GPIU — 2. PSMU 0.72*** — 3. POG 0.36*** 0.21*** — 4. Dep 0.38*** 0.33*** 0.16*** — 5. Anx 0.33*** 0.37*** 0.08* 0.68*** — 6. S 0.32*** 0.34*** 0.07* 0.71*** 0.81*** — 7. ER 0.38*** 0.38*** 0.06 0.60*** 0.57*** 0.58*** — M17.67 11.66 11.61 5.99 5.94 8.23 8.23 SD 9.85 4.68 4.44 5.07 5.14 4.90 4.03 Rg 0 – 52 6 – 30 9—42 0—21 0—21 0—21 3—15 In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 On he o he hand, nega i e connec ions we e ound be ween he POG i ems and some GPIU and PSMU i ems. The mo e p onounced connec ion be ween GPIU and PSMU, compa ed o hese wo o ms o PIU and POG, could indica e ha , despi e he p esence o sha ed elemen s be ween hese p oblema ic beha iou s (B and e al., 2019; Epskamp e al., 2018), he e is some a iabili y be ween hem. This asse ion is u he suppo ed by H2. Rega ding he associa ions be ween he di e en symp oms o each o he diso de s, he s onges connec ions we e es ablished be ween he symp oms o loss con ol/ elapse and con lic , and be ween he symp oms o wi hd awal and mood modi ica ion in GPIU and PSMU, be ween he symp oms o salience and ole ance in PSMU, and be ween wi h- d awal and ole ance, p eoccupa ion and wi hd awal, loss o con ol and loss o p e ious in e es s, loss o p e ious in e es s and decep ion, and p eoccupa ion and loss o con ol in POG. These indings sugges ha he e a e g ea e simila i ies be ween GPIU and PSMU han be ween hem and POG. On he o he hand, he assessmen o cen ali y indices showed he ela i e impo ance o he di e en symp oms o GPIU, PSMU, and POG wi hin he b oade ne wo k o he h ee analysed beha iou s (Epskamp e al., 2018). Symp oms wi h mo e equen connec- ions and sho e ajec o ies included: “Use he in e ne o escape om you so ows o ge elie om nega i e eelings” (coping o mood modi ica ion), “Feel es less, us a ed, o i i a ed when you canno use he in e ne ” (wi hd awal), “Look o wa d o you nex in e ne session” (p eoccupa ion) in GPIU, “T ied o cu down on he use o social media wi hou success” ( elapse) and “Become es less o oubled i you ha e been p ohibi ed om using social media” (wi hd awal) in PSMU, and “Con inued you gaming ac i i y despi e knowing i was causing p oblems be ween you and o he people” (con inua ion despi e p oblems) in POG. These symp oms a e mo e equen ly and s ongly connec ed o o he symp oms o p oblema ic online beha iou s and may inc ease he isk o cu en symp oma ology, while inc easing he likelihood o de eloping u he p oblem beha iou s (F ied e al., 2017). Mo eo e , e en he less impac ul symp oms o p oblema ic online beha iou s in he o e - all ne wo k could o e meaning ul insigh s. Fo example, he less in luen ial symp oms iden i ied in he p esen s udy included “Do o he s (e.g., pa ne , child en, pa en s) say you should use he in e ne less” (con lic ) and “A e you sho o sleep because o he in e ne ” (loss o con ol) in GPIU, and “Spen a lo o ime hinking abou social media o planned use o social media” (salience) in PSMU. This means ha hese symp oms may be mo e pe iphe al han in he co e o hei diso de (Wes & B own, 2013). I was also hypo hesised ha each speci ic p oblema ic beha iou in es iga ed in he s udy would o m dis inc clus e s o symp om se e i y a he i em-le el esponses, while he umb ella cons uc s o GPIU would no cons i u e a speci ic diso de (H2). The commu- ni y de ec ion algo i hm showed he exis ence o ou clus e s. One o hem co esponded o he nine i ems o he POG scale, ano he co esponded o he p eoccupa ion i ems and one o he con lic i ems o he GPIU, while wo o he communi ies had mixed i ems om he GPIU and PSMU scales, one ocussing on he i ems o loss o con ol/ elapse and con- lic , and he o he s on salience, ole ance, wi hd awal, and mood modi ica ion. These ind- ings indica e ha H2 was pa ially suppo ed. Fi s , i was shown ha he PSMU and POG i ems o med dis inc i e clus e s. This esul demons a es ha al hough he speci ic p ob- lema ic online beha iou s analysed we e associa ed wi h each o he , hey we e independen psychopa hological en i ies, which is also in line wi h p e ious esea ch using he same me hodological app oach (Li e al., 2023b; Rozgonjuk e al., 2021; Za a e e al., 2022). Fu he mo e, he inding o wo clus e s consis ing o GPIU and PSMU i ems also sup- po s he spec um hypo hesis by sugges ing ha GPIU and PSMU a e no sepa a e en i ies, In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 wi h he o me ac ing as a nonspeci ic diso de . This esul suppo s he idea ha p oblem- a ic online beha iou s a e speci ic (B and e al., 2019; Mon ag e al., 2015) and ha he in e ne is only he medium ha acili a es hem (G i i hs, 2000; Mee ke k e al., 2009; Sha e e al., 2000; S a ce ic & Billieux, 2017). The iden i ica ion o a clus e con aining GPIU-speci ic i ems (Dimension 2) equi es an explana ion. I migh ha e been expec ed ha he p eoccupa ion symp oms o GPIU would align wi h he salience symp oms o PSMU, gi en hei analogous na u e as discussed in he li e a u e (e.g., G i i hs, 2000, 2005; Mee ke k e al. (2009). Howe e , he o mula ion o hese i ems di e s, possibly e e ing o ela ed bu dis inc symp oms. On he o he hand, by iden i ying a speci ic clus e wi h POG i ems, he esul s p o ide e idence o a i m ha POG is a diso de independen o GPIU. This esul is in line wi h he au ho s who conside hese diso de s as sepa a e cons uc s (G i i hs, 2018; Ki ály e al., 2014; Pon es & G i i hs, 2014), as well as wi h p e ious e idence using he ne - wo k analysis app oach (Baggio e al., 2018; Li e al., 2023b). O e all, hese esul s sugges ha GPIU being a gene ic concep ha includes o he speci ic beha iou s such as PSMU (Billieux, 2012; S a ce ic & Billieux, 2017), POG would no be included among hem. The e o e, GPIU and POG, while showing signi ican connec ions be ween some o hei symp oms, a e di e en en i ies. Symp oms wi h he highes b idge cen ali y indices we e con inua ion despi e p ob- lems o POG and symp oms associa ed wi h con lic , p eoccupa ion, coping, and mood modi ica ion o GPIU. These symp oms could heigh en he chances o adop ing c oss- p oblema ic online beha iou s and/o adop ing a new o m o p oblema ic beha iou while disengaging om a p eexis ing one (Za a e e al., 2022). Finally, i was hypo hesised ha GPIU, PSMU, and POG would be posi i ely associa ed wi h dep ession, anxie y, s ess, and emo ional ole limi a ions (H3). The esul s showed ha H3 was pa ially suppo ed. Ne wo k 2 was easonably dense, wi h 61.9% o he nodes showing signi ican connec ions wi h o he nodes. In e ms o signi ican ly connec ed nodes, (i) GPIU was posi i ely associa ed wi h dep ession and emo ional ole limi a ions, (ii) PSMU was posi i ely associa ed wi h anxie y and emo ional ole limi a ions; and (iii) POG was posi i ely associa ed wi h dep ession. In addi ion, he nodes o dep ession, anxie y, and s ess we e connec ed o each o he and o he node o emo ional ole limi a ions. Fu he mo e, i was ound ha he nodes co esponding o he a iables o dep ession, anxie y, and s ess we e cen al in he ne wo k, while emo ional ole limi a ions had a low alue in he s eng h cen al- i y coe icien . Wi h hese esul s and heo e ical models ha explain he de elopmen o p oblema ic online beha iou s (e.g., B and e al., 2019; Ka de el -Win he , 2014), i could be in e - p e ed ha an inc ease in emo ional dis ess would be associa ed wi h he isk o p oblem- a ic use o di e en in e ne ac i i ies, wi h dep essi e symp oms associa ed wi h GPIU and POG and anxie y symp oms wi h PSMU (Chang e al., 2022; Lai e al., 2023; Liu e al., 2021). GPIU and PSMU would, in u n, be associa ed wi h he emo ional ole as an indica o o men al heal h (Machimba ena e al., 2019). Social ela ionships a e p edic o s o posi i e de elopmen a his s age o li e (O’Conno e al., 2011). The e o e, emo ional heal h could be a ec ed when hey a e mainly loca ed in he i ual con ex . Fu he mo e, he inding o a connec ion o emo ional ole limi a ions wi h GPIU and PSMU, bu no POG, could also be ela ed o he na u e o he ac i i y. In hei habi ual connec ion o social ne wo ks, s uden s o en engage passi ely, which has been shown o ha e a mo e p onounced impac on men al heal h han ac i e use (Ve - duyn e al., 2021). On he con a y, many ideogame gen es equi e signi ican cogni i e In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 esou ces (Dale e al., 2020), posing challenges o mee hese demands wi hin speci ic daily con ex s, such as p o essional o academic se ings, which could ac as p o ec i e ac o s o emo ional well-being. Limi a ions The p esen s udy has se e al limi a ions ha should be conside ed when in e p e ing he esul s. Fi s , he sample used, al hough ela i ely la ge in size, came om a single Span- ish uni e si y. This uni e si y has speci ic cha ac e is ics (i.e., la ge size, public eaching, bilingual Spanish–English ins uc ion), and is si ua ed wi hin a speci ic demog aphic con- ex (i.e., u ban popula ion concen a ion, a high p opo ion o young esiden s, signi ican na ional and in e na ional mig a ion, widesp ead access o e ia y educa ion, and medium socioeconomic backg ounds), ha make i se e as a ep esen a i e example o ins i u ions sha ing simila sociocul u al ea u es. Howe e , he limi a ions ela ed o he gene alisabil- i y o he esul s make i ad isable o eplica e he s udy among samples o uni e si y s u- den s om o he egions wi h di e en sociocul u al cha ac e is ics. Fo example, u u e s udies could in es iga e simila ela ionships wi hin popula ions wi h dis inc cha ac e is- ics, such as u al communi ies. In hese se ings, indi iduals may employ di e en coping mechanisms o deal wi h nega i e emo ional s a es, which di e ge om he eliance on he in e ne and i s unc ions. Mo eo e , o add ess he limi a ions associa ed wi h con enience sampling, u u e s udies could employ mo e igo ous sampling me hods, such as andom sampling o a combina ion o mul iple sampling echniques o enhance he ep esen a i e- ness o he sample. Second, only sel - epo ins umen s we e used o collec he da a. These echniques may ha e some limi a ions ela ed o insu iciency and con usion in he unde s anding o he ques ions, social desi abili y, dis o ion o he u h, and/o memo y bias (Ibáñez Agu- i e, 2016). Fo u u e esea ch, quali a i e me hods, such as in e iews and ocus g oups, a e ecommended, which could imp o e he comple eness o he a iables’ assessmen s, by p o iding a nuanced and con ex ual unde s anding o expe iences, pe cep ions, and mean- ings associa ed wi h he s udied a iables. Fu he mo e, he assessmen o a iables could bene i om he use o daily logs o educe ecall bias. Mo eo e , conside ing he endency o no malise p oblema ic online beha iou , i is ecommended ha u u e s udies comple- men sel - epo assessmen s wi h an ex e nal e alua ion. Fo example, he pe spec i e o a oomma e o pa ne could o e addi ional insigh s, acili a ing he c oss- e i ica ion o he in o ma ion p o ided by he indi idual in ques ion. Thi d, in he p esen s udy, only one a iable assessing well-being (i.e., emo ional ole limi a ions) was conside ed. Fu u e esea ch could examine he ela ionships be ween p ob- lema ic online beha iou s and o he po en ially- ela ed men al heal h a iables such as li e sa is ac ion, pe cei ed social suppo , o sel -es eem. Fou h, ne wo k analysis emb aces a o ma i e pe spec i e in unde s anding men al diso de s. Consequen ly, he connec ions be ween a iables a e in e p e ed as causal sys- ems ( an Bo kulo e al., 2015). Howe e , gi en he use o c oss-sec ional da a in he p e- sen s udy, he assump ion o causali y is p ecluded. Subsequen in es iga ions may seek o ackle his issue by u ilising longi udinal o expe imen al designs. This would acili a e he examina ion o di ec ionali y in he ela ionships among p oblema ic online beha iou symp oms and psychological a iables. Fo example, u u e esea ch could in es iga e he ela ionships be ween PIU symp oms and men al heal h a iables a a ious poin s in ime, In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 spanning om childhood o uni e si y yea s, in o de o es ablish he empo al sequence be ween hem. Finally, h ee p oblema ic online beha iou s we e assessed, which, al hough hey a e he mos s udied in he uni e si y s uden popula ion, a e no he only ones on he spec um. Fu u e s udies could include he analysis o o he beha iou s such as p oblema ic online gambling, shopping, o po nog aphy. Theo y‑Based Implica ions The p esen s udy makes impo an heo e ical con ibu ions o he ield o online p oblem beha iou s. The applica ion o he ne wo k analysis app oach o he symp oms o h ee p oblema ic online beha iou s p o ided suppo o concep ions ha a gue ha GPIU is a nonspeci ic diso de , encompassing he en i e spec um o online p oblem beha iou s (Finebe g e al., 2018). The p esen s udy also suppo s he idea ha PSMU and POG a e independen cons uc s ha , al hough hey sha e he same medium (i.e., he in e ne ), hey possess dis inc i e cha ac e is ics ha make hem wo hy o de ailed analysis (Billieux, 2012; S a ce ic & Billieux, 2017). The p esen s udy also p o ided addi ional e idence o concep ions ha sepa a e POG om he PIU spec um (Ki ály e al., 2014). Al hough GPIU and POG a e diso de s ha sha e elemen s, such as he common elemen s o addic i e diso de s (G i i hs, 2005), gaming is an ac i i y ha does no need he online componen o be ealised, and i s p ob- lema ic use de elops om di e en mo i a ions and p ocesses. Mo eo e , he simila i ies be ween GPIU and PSMU may e lec g ea e o e laps be ween hese p oblema ic beha - iou s. Tha is, he unc ions ha social media enable (e.g., main aining social ela ionships) a e one o he main easons why indi iduals use he in e ne (S a is a, 2024), so i may be ha when answe ing CIUS-14, when assessing hei in e ne p oblem beha iou , hey had social media ne wo ks la gely in mind. Fo all hese easons, o u u e esea ch, abandon- ing he s udy o gene alised beha iou in a ou o he analysis o speci ic beha iou s is ad oca ed. P ac ice‑Based Implica ions The indings ha e p ac ical implica ions o he assessmen and in e en ion o hese p ob- lem beha iou s. In e ms o assessmen , he esul s sugges ha al hough hese beha iou s ha e common elemen s (G i i hs, 2005), hey need o be speci ically assessed, bo h in esea ch and in clinical p ac ice. The e o e, i is ecommended, o u u e diagnos ic manu- als, o include di e en in e ne -media ed beha iou s, as hey p esen cha ac e is ics ha make hem dis inc i e. In he amewo k o he in e en ion, he esul s o he p esen s udy may be bene i- cial in he ea men o p oblema ic online beha iou s among uni e si y s uden s. Mo e speci ically, based on he esul s p esen ed and aking in o accoun he applica ions in he ne wo k app oach ield (Bo sboom, 2017), i is necessa y o ea symp oma ology, ocus- ing on symp oms o coping o mood modi ica ion, wi hd awal and p eoccupa ion o GPIU, elapse and wi hd awal in PSMU, and con inua ion despi e p oblems in POG, as hey a e cen al in he ne wo k. Addi ionally, o a oid como bidi y and ansmission o symp oms om one o m o ano he , i is ecommended o ea b idging symp oms, con inua ion despi e p oblems o POG, and symp oms associa ed wi h con lic , p eoccupa ion, and In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 coping/mood modi ica ion o GPIU. Finally, e idence o ela ionships be ween p oblem- a ic online beha iou s and symp oms o dep ession, anxie y, and s ess, as well as he cen- ali y o hese a iables in he join ne wo k, sugges s ha ea men o hese symp oms could ha e posi i e e ec s on hese p oblema ic beha iou s. The ul ima e pu pose would be o con ibu e o he well-being o hese s uden s. Conclusion The p esen s udy iden i ied a ne wo k o in e ela ed nodes be ween he symp oms o GPIU, PSMU, and POG, wi h he mos p onounced associa ions obse ed be ween he analogous symp oms o GPIU and PSMU. These symp oms we e g ouped in o ou dis inc dimensions, including one exclusi e o he nine symp oms o POG, ano he ha comp ised p eoccupa ion and a con lic symp om o GPIU, a dimension ha comp ised loss o con- ol/ elapse and con lic symp oms o GPIU and PSMU, and a inal dimension ha com- p ised salience and ole ance symp oms o PSMU and wi hd awal and mood modi ica ion symp oms o GPIU and PSMU. Finally, ele an connec ions be ween dep ession and bo h GPIU and POG, anxie y and PSMU, and emo ional ole limi a ions and bo h GPIU and PSMU we e es ablished. Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s11469- 024- 01296-y. Au ho Con ibu ion Magdalena Sánchez-Fe nández: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, Fo mal analysis, In es iga ion, W i ing—O iginal D a , Funding acquisi ion. Me cedes Bo da-Mas: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion, W i ing—Re iew & Edi ing, Supe ision; F ancisco Ri e a: Me hodology, Fo mal analysis, W i ing—Re iew & Edi ing; Ma k D. G i i hs: Concep ualiza ion, W i ing—Re iew & Edi ing, Supe ision. Funding Funding o open access publishing: Uni e sidad de Se illa/CBUA. This s udy was unded by a esea ch g an om he “VI Plan P opio de In es igación y T ans e encia” o he Uni e sidad de Se illa (VI-PPITUS) awa ded o he i s au ho (MSF). Da a A ailabili y Da a a ailable on eques due o p i acy/e hical es ic ions. Decla a ions Compe ing In e es The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape . MDG has ecei ed esea ch unding om No sk Tipping ( he gambling ope a o owned by he No wegian go e nmen ). MDG has ecei ed unding o a numbe o esea ch p ojec s in he a ea o gambling educa ion o young people, social esponsibili y in gambling and gambling ea men om Gamble Awa e ( o me ly he Responsibili y in Gambling T us ), a cha i able body which unds i s esea ch p og am based on dona ions om he gambling indus y. MDG unde akes consul ancy o a ious gambling companies in he a ea o playe p o ec ion and social esponsibili y in gambling. E hical App o al The s udy was app o ed by he Uni e si y o Se ille Resea ch E hics Commi ee (Comi é de É ica de In es igaciónde la Uni e sidad de Se illa, CEIUS) and adhe ed o he ene s o he Decla a ion o Helsinki (In e nal code: 1346-N-22; Da e o app o al: 28 Sep embe 2022). In o med Consen All p ocedu es ollowed we e in acco dance wi h he e hical s anda ds o he esponsible commi ee on human expe imen a ion (ins i u ional and na ional) and wi h he Helsinki Decla a ion o 1975, as e ised in 2000. In o med consen was ob ained om all pa icipan s o being included in he s udy. In e na ional Jou nal o Men al Heal h and Addic ion 1 3 Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License, which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Com- mons licence, and indica e i changes we e made. 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