The future of research on entrepreneurial intentions

The Fu u e o Resea ch on En ep eneu ial In en ions Alain Fayollea, E.M. Lyon Business School, F ance F ancisco Liñánb, Uni . Se ille, Spain Oc obe 2013 The 2nd GIKA Con e ence (2013) hos ed a p e ious e sion o his pape , and we hank pa icipan s o hei commen s. We a e mos g a e ul o he gues edi o s o hei guidance and suppo , and also o he anonymous e iewe s o hei insigh ul ecommenda ions, which ha e con ibu ed o enhancing he quali y o he pape . a Di ec o o En ep eneu ship Resea ch Cen e , 23 A enue Guy de Collongue, 69134- Ecully (F ance). Tel.: + 33 (0)4 78.33.70.32 ; email: [email protected]; b Dep . Economia Aplicada I, A . Ramon y Cajal, 1. 41018-Se ille (Spain). Tel.: +34 9545.54487; email: [email p o ec ed] 2 Abs ac En ep eneu ial in en ion is a apidly e ol ing ield o esea ch, wi h a g owing numbe o s udies using en ep eneu ial in en ion as a powe ul heo e ical amewo k. Some au ho s, howe e , a e now calling o schola s o e hink he u u e o esea ch on en ep eneu ial in en ions. This pape add esses his issue and, on he basis o a numbe o knowledge gaps in he li e a u e, p oposes u u e di ec ions o esea ch. 1. In oduc ion The publica ion o Shapi o’s seminal wo ks some 30 yea s ago (Shape o 1984; Shape o & Sokol 1982) ma ks he poin a which he li e a u e on en ep eneu ial in en ions begins i s cu en pe iod o apid g ow h. Soon a e ha , some independen con ibu ions eme ge in he ield o en ep eneu ship, as mo e au ho s begin o ecognize he po en ial alue o he in en ion app oach (Bi d 1988). A shi in he ocus o en ep eneu ship esea ch owa d a p ocess iew (Ga ne 1985, 1989; Sha e & Sco 1991) undoub edly con ibu es o his de elopmen . The e olu ion o he li e a u e on en ep eneu ial in en ion is a p ime example o he success ul in eg a ion o heo ies om a neighbo ing ield in o he s udy o en ep eneu ship. In his pa icula case, he heo ies shi ing o he en ep eneu ship ield belong o he a ea o social psychology, namely cogni i e psychology. The speed o his in eg a ion p ocess is ema kable, as publica ion o he i s con ibu ions om he ield o psychology almos coincides wi h he ea ly de elopmen s o he concep o en ep eneu ial in en ion in he ield o en ep eneu ship. This phenomenon is ue o , o ins ance, he concep o sel -e icacy (Bandu a 1982, 1997), and he heo y o planned beha io (Ajzen 1991) and i s an eceden s (Ajzen & Fishbein 1980). 3 Since he ea ly nine ies, an inc easing numbe o con ibu ions employ en ep eneu ial in en ion models (Kol e eid 1996a, 1996b; K uege 1993), con i ming he applicabili y o he concep in di e en se ings (Au io, Keeley, Klo s en, Pa ke , & Hay 2001; Liñán & Chen 2009; Tkache & Kol e eid 1999). Al hough no speci ic wo k econciles al e na i e models in o a single one, au ho s show he compa ibili y o in en ion-based models (Boyd & Vozikis 1994; K uege , Reilly, & Ca s ud 2000). This app oach he e o e consolida es he subjec wi hin he gene al ca ego y o en ep eneu ial in en ion models, Ajzen’s (1991) heo y o planned beha io p o iding he p edominan speci ica ion. Wi h he publica ion o mo e and mo e s udies using en ep eneu ial in en ion as a amewo k, howe e , new applica ions, misma ches and speci ica ions eme ge (Ca s ud & B ännback 2009, 2011; K uege 2007, 2009; K uege & Day 2010). K uege (2009) conside s en ep eneu ial in en ions o be dead and claims long li e en ep eneu ial in en ions, calling o a deep e hinking o esea ch on he ma e . Liñán and Fayolle ( o hcoming) unde line a lack o sys emiza ion and ca ego iza ion wi hin his s eam o esea ch, o e ing a sys ema ic e iew o he li e a u e. Taking K uege ’s call as a s a ing poin , and on he basis o Liñán and Fayolle’s ex ensi e e iew o he li e a u e, his pape ’s pu pose is o de elop ideas and hough s o sugges new di ec ions o u u e esea ch. 2. New di ec ions o en ep eneu ial in en ion esea ch The p oposal o new ideas and esea ch pe spec i es on en ep eneu ial in en ions d aws on he esea ch ca ego ies, o concep ual app oaches, se ou in Liñán and Fayolle’s ( o hcoming) e iew o he li e a u e. 4 a) The i s ca ego y co e s pape s s udying he co e en ep eneu ial in en ion model, ei he deepening knowledge o some heo e ical nuances, o analyzing me hodological issues. b) The second ca ego y analyzes he ole o pe sonal-le el a iables in he con igu a ion o en ep eneu ial in en ions. c) A hi d g oup o pape s add esses he in e ela ionship be ween en ep eneu ship educa ion and he en ep eneu ial in en ion o i s pa icipan s. d) The ole con ex and ins i u ions play in he con igu a ion o en ep eneu ial in en ions cons i u es he ou h ca ego y. e) Finally, a i h esea ch app oach conside s he en ep eneu ial p ocess and he in en ion–beha io link. The au ho s link hei p oposals o he gaps ha each o hese ca ego ies highligh s. 2.1. Co e model, me hodological, and heo e ical issues Th ee models p ima ily se e as a guide o an unde s anding o he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial in en ions: 1) Bi d’s (1988) model o implemen ing en ep eneu ial ideas; 2) Shape o and Sokol’s (1982) model o he en ep eneu ial e en ; and 3) Ajzen’s (1991) heo y o planned beha io (Ca s ud & B annback 2009; Shook, P iem, & Mcgee 2003). Empi ical e idence suppo s he applicabili y o Shape o and Sokol’s model, and he heo y o planned beha io o he ield o en ep eneu ship (K uege e al. 2000; K uege & B azeal 1994); howe e , s angely enough, he li e a u e has ye o alida e Bi d’s model empi ically (Shook e al. 2003). The au ho s sugges a eas o u he esea ch o alida e his model and hus o e a new heo e ical a enue o expanding esea ch on en ep eneu ial in en ion. 5 As p e ious wo ks (K uege 2009; Liñán & Fayolle, o hcoming; Shook e al. 2003) poin ou , key de ini ional challenges emain. To add ess his issue, esea che s should de ine and explain p ecisely wha hey mean by en ep eneu ial in en ion. Fu u e esea ch also ough o in es iga e in en ion in a wide ange o en ep eneu ial scena ios, by ying o cap u e and documen , o example, co po a e en ep eneu ship in en ion (Fini, G imaldi, Ma zocchi, & Sob e o 2012), social en ep eneu ship in en ion (Nga & Shamugana han 2010), academic en ep eneu ship in en ion (Goe hne , Obschonka, Silbe eisen, & Can ne 2012), and amily en ep eneu ship in en ion (Zellwege , Siege , & Hal e 2011). As K uege s a es (2009, p. 53), “The cons uc o in en ions appea s o be deeply undamen al o human decision making and, as such, i should a o d us mul iple ui ul oppo uni ies o explo e he connec ion be ween in en and a as a ay o o he heo ies and models ha ela e o decision making unde isk and unce ain y.” This iew opens he doo o he de elopmen o in eg a i e and mo e sophis ica ed heo e ical models o he en ep eneu ial p ocess, linking in en ion-based models wi h p ospec heo y (Kahneman & T e sky 1979) o e ec ua ion heo y (Sa as a hy 2001). New esea ch may also conside in e ac ion (Fi zsimmons & Douglas 2011), media ion (Ba Ni , Wa son, & Hu chins 2011) and mode a ion (Pollack, Vanepps, & Hayes 2012) e ec s. Finally, a he me hodological le el, a need exis s o encou age esea ch using samples o would-be en ep eneu s o nascen en ep eneu s, and longi udinal da a o iden i y causal o de in he en ep eneu ial p ocess (Kessle and F ank 2009). Following a sugges ion by Shook e al. (2003), esea che s should also a emp o iangula e hei indings using mul i-me hod s udies. 2.2. In luence o pe sonal-le el a iables on en ep eneu ial in en ion 6 D awing on sugges ions by K uege (2007, 2009), esea ch on en ep eneu ial in en ion could make signi ican p og ess by ying o imp o e he unde s anding o he deep assump ions unde pinning in en ions (Hay on & Cholako a 2012). Assessing he ole and he impo ance o men al p o o ypes, cogni i e sc ip s, men al schemas, and maps may shed ligh on he o ma ion o en ep eneu ial in en ions and he p ocess leading om in en ion o beha io (P abhu, McGui e, D os , & Kwong 2012; Shinna , Giacomin, & Janssen 2012). These concep s will help o gain a be e unde s anding o how human decision making occu s ia au oma ic p ocessing (K uege & Day 2010). 2.3. En ep eneu ship educa ion and in en ion Empi ical esea ch esul s e eal signi ican di e ences in e ms o a i udes and in en ion le els o s uden s who ake pa in en ep eneu ship educa ion p og ams and hose who do no . None heless, whe he and how a gene aliza ion o hose esul s o a ange o se ings may occu emains a pending ques ion (Zhao, Siebe , & Hills 2005). Fu he mo e, acco ding o Fayolle and Gailly (2013), li le knowledge exis s ega ding he po en ial causal link be ween some educa ional a iables (pa icipan selec ion and pas en ep eneu ial exposu e, cou se con en s, pedagogical me hods, eache s’ p o essional p o iles, a ailable esou ces, e c.) and he impac o en ep eneu ship educa ion p og ams on he an eceden s o in en ion and/o beha io (a i udes, alues, skills, e c.). Fo example, igo ous empi ical s udies o answe K uege and Ca s ud’s (1993) ques ion ega ding how he p ocess o d awing up a business plan a ec s in en ions a e non-exis en . How does he ype o pedagogy (ac i e e sus passi e, ace- o- ace e sus dis ance lea ning, using ICT o no , e c.) a ec in en ion le els? How do he p o ile and backg ound o educa o s in luence s uden s’ in en ions? How does he en ep eneu ial in en ion o educa o s impac on hei s uden s’ en ep eneu ial 7 in en ions? How do he con en s o en ep eneu ship educa ion p og ams ( heo e ical e sus p ac ice-based knowledge) bea upon s uden s’ in en ions? Resea ch could also p obe in o issues ela ing o he ecip ocal ela ionships be ween s uden s’ en ep eneu ial in en ions, he quali y o hei en ep eneu ial lea ning and he de elopmen o hei en ep eneu ial compe ences in educa ional se ings (Ma in, McNally & Kay 2013). Conce ning u u e esea ch on en ep eneu ship educa ion using in en ion as an impac ac o , schola s should seek o conduc s udies wi h a high s anda d o me hodological igo . O pa icula impo ance o such s udies is he inclusion o a ea men g oup (s uden s who ecei e en ep eneu ship educa ion) and a con ol g oup (s uden s ou side he en ep eneu ship educa ion sphe e). Conside ing andomiza ion in assignmen o ea men and con ol g oups is also possible o a oid sampling biases. Finally, s udies on his kind o esea ch issue (i.e., he assessmen o en ep eneu ship educa ion), should include measu es o a iables a bo h p e- and pos -in e en ion (Fayolle & Gailly 2013; Ma in e al. 2013). 2.4. The ole o con ex and ins i u ions As Wel e (2011, p. 165) ecen ly claims, “The e is g owing ecogni ion in en ep eneu ship esea ch ha economic beha io can be be e unde s ood wi hin i s his o ical, empo al, ins i u ional, spa ial and social con ex .” Thus, a s ong need exis s o examine he he e ogeneous aspec o con ex (Zah a & W igh 2011). Some esea ch se s ou o unde s and en ep eneu ial in en ion in di e en coun ies (Engle, Schlaegel, & Dimi iadi 2011; Liñán, Fe nández, & Rome o 2013; Mo iano, Go gie ski, Laguna, S ephan, & Za a shani 2012). Ne e heless, al hough coun ies a e one sub-dimension o he spa ial con ex , he design o esea ch could also assess he in luence o 8 communi ies, indus ial dis ic s and clus e s (o he sub-dimensions o he spa ial con ex ) on en ep eneu ial in en ion o ma ion (Liñán, U bano, & Gue e o 2011). Mo e impo an ly, u he esea ch could in es iga e he ole o ins i u ions and he way public policies may in luence en ep eneu ial in en ions by changing ins i u ions. Regula i e, no ma i e and cul u al-cogni i e ins i u ions (Shane 2008) in luence, bo h di ec ly and indi ec ly, he pe cep ions ha indi iduals may ha e abou he desi abili y and easibili y o en ep eneu ship. Ins i u ions can bo h cons ain and enable sel - employmen and en ep eneu ship (Wel e & Smallbone 2012). In his con ex , esea che s could s udy he impac o na ional, egional, p o essional and co po a e cul u e on changes in indi idual a i udes owa d en ep eneu ship and en ep eneu ial in en ion. Resea ch could also assess he e ec s o egula i e sys ems and legal policies on in en ions (Engle e al. 2011). S udying inancing and job ma ke s as enable s o cons aine s o en ep eneu ial in en ion o ma ion and de elopmen is also possible. A use ul addi ion o he li e a u e in ol es emba king on an e alua ion o public ini ia i es, incen i es and policies aiming a changing ins i u ions o enable, encou age and acili a e en ep eneu ship h ough hei e ec s on en ep eneu ial in en ion, using a p e- and pos -in e en ion esea ch design. This e alua ion could con ibu e o s eng hening he link be ween en ep eneu ship esea ch and public policy (Zah a & W igh 2011). 2.5. The en ep eneu ial p ocess and he in en ion–beha io link The mos impo an esea ch challenges on en ep eneu ial in en ion a e p obably in his a ea. In en ion-based models ocus on in en ions bu dis ega d he iming o en u e c ea ion (K uege e al. 2000) and, “I may be a ela i ely long o sho ime a e in en de elops be o e a new en u e oppo uni y is e en iden i ied.” (Shook e al. 2003, p. 9 383). Al hough esea ch e eals a high le el o in en ion-beha io co ela ion— om 0.90 o 0.96 (Ajzen, Csasch, & Flood 2009)—a me a-analy ic e iew o 185 s udies using he heo y o planned beha io inds ha , on a e age, beha io al in en ions explain 27% o he a iance in beha io (A mi age & Conne 2001). This poin is c ucial, as in en ion owa d a gi en beha io ough o p edic such beha io wi hin he amewo k o in en ion-based models. In en ep eneu ship esea ch, an u gen need exis s o empi ically and heo e ically in es iga e he in en ion–beha io link. As Bi d s a es (1992, p. 12), “[en ep eneu ial] en u es ake ime o c ea e, wi h many in e ela ed e en s and p ocesses, each wi h di e en ime demands, wea ing oge he du ing o ganiza ion eme gence. The en ep eneu ’s in en ion behind hese e en s and p ocesses aims o sense and di ec he pace, sequence, and synch oniza ion o ac i i ies.” Despi e his s a emen da ing back o he ea ly nine ies, knowledge o he mechanisms and he empo ali ies ha a ec how en ep eneu ial in en ions lead o beha io s is s ill poo (Kau onen, Van Gelde en, & To niko ski 2013; Laspi a B eugs , Heblich, & Pa zel 2012). Consequen ly, new esea ch ideas and pe spec i es o examining he in en ion-beha io link in he ield o en ep eneu ship a e necessa y. In his ega d, wo main and complemen a y di ec ions o u u e esea ch s and ou . En ep eneu ship esea che s could apply implemen a ion in en ion heo y (Gollwi ze 1999) in s udying he link be ween in en ion and beha io . 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