An Overview of the Origins and Effectiveness of Commercial Fitness Equipment and Sectoral Corporate Settings: A Critical Review of Literature

applied sciences Article An Overview of the Origins and Effectiveness of Commercial Fitness Equipment and Sectoral Corporate Settings: A Critical Review of Literature Silvio Addolorato 1,* , Jerónimo García-Fernández 2, Leonor Gallardo 1and Jorge García-Unanue 1 1IGOID Research Group, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. Carlos III, s/n, 45071 Toledo, Spain; leonor[email protected] (L.G.); jorge.gar[email protected] (J.G.-U.) 2Physical Education and Sport Department, University of Seville, C/Pirotecnia, s/n, 41013 Seville, Spain; [email protected] *Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 25 January 2020; Accepted: 19 February 2020; Published: 24 February 2020   Abstract: Research Question: Fitness equipment is a worldwide ever-growing phenomenon and its usage is nowadays popular both in human routines and academic investigations. Research Methods: This paper is a literature review aiming fitness equipment in relation to all the available findings connected to the complete product life-cycle phases. Results and Findings: Manufacturing industries, which are active realities of the sector, have not been a major concern for sport researchers within the production applicability sub-field. Past root hypotheses, the current state of the art and future guideline applications are addressed. Selected articles were categorised chronologically, by journal, by geographic area and, extensively, by content. Five thematic areas were included: (1) historical background, (2) creation stages, (3) product features, (4) innovation paths and (5) sectoral environments and marketing processes. Implications: By means of the provided findings, there is an opportunity to widen approaches to study fitness equipment that could be extended to the sector’s enterprise applications and methods of work. Keywords: fitness equipment; fitness industry; life-cycle approach; literature review; manufacturing industries; product design; product development 1. Background Fitness is generally seen as a late 20th-century phenomenon, but it is important to recognise that some of its roots had already evolved more than a century before [ 1 ]. Modern technological fitness equipment has been transformed into a considerable and successful industry, and marketing products and their omnipresence, as human-related machines, play a crucial role [ 2 ]. A modern fitness centre is highly efficient in its use of time and space, both in architecture as well as in the simultaneous use of fitness technologies. Users have learned to monitor their own bodies according to the standards of being ‘fit’. The globalisation of modern fitness culture can be considered an illuminating example of the more embracing momentum toward a global monoculture, and it is a recognisable and adaptable phenomenon worldwide [ 3 ]. The unification and standardisation of fitness (both equipments and practices) have been crucial for the globalisation of the fitness industry [ 4 ]. The historical development of modern gym and fitness culture can be described analytically to understand the emergence of this multi-billion-dollar phenomenon [5,6]. The private sector of the global health club industry experiences continuous growth, and sectoral facilities serve 162 million members worldwide [ 2 ]. The outlook of the fitness industry is promising Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534; doi:10.3390/app10041534 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 2 of 19 and the sector is expected to thrive in the global marketplace, serving consumers with a variety of health and fitness needs. With access to fitness amenities, instructors, personal trainers and coaches and club operators are well positioned to lead a healthier world. ‘Health’ and ‘fitness’ (H&F) are by no means unambiguous terms. The World Earth Organization defined health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of diseases or infirmities [ 7 ]. The term fitness poses similar problems; today it is often equated with muscle size, body contour and the ability to sustain a 30-min exercise bout. It is expected that typical lifestyles of the current and future populations will be opulent and comfortable, as quality of life improves due to the increase in household income and reduction in working hours [ 8 ]. In the meantime, as the standard of living becomes increasingly more comfortable, the toll on physical health becomes magnified as a result of bodily weight issues and insufficient exercise caused by super nutrition and change in work conditions (from physical to mental labour). For this reason, H&F industry is an important contributor to every national preventative health policies against overweight and obesity lifestyles, and directly associated with the related human risk factors [ 9 ]. For this reason, every fitness centre plays an important role and, every type of available fitness amenity, is the common mean through which is possible to meet the market demand [10]. This has created a deep awareness of fitness for many people, forcing them to recognise the importance of daily exercise and physical activity. The high annual growth rate in the fitness and athletic equipment market, which is more than 20%, is attributed to this phenomenon [ 11 ]. Fitness equipment can be used to improve cardio-pulmonary function, strengthen leg muscles, consume body fat and improve the physical constitution. It is difficult to make a clear distinction between fitness ‘goods’ and ‘services’, since classes or programmes are hardly ever sold without some material goods and vice versa [ 12 ]. Fitness products mean equipments, classes, programmes and services (incorporating intangible and new ‘concepts’) involving all kinds of fitness accessories and amenities, including guide books, DVDs and tutorial videos [ 12 ]. Evaluating the fitness world, it has been found as a literal sense of a bodily state, in how various attributes of different extraction come to the intelligible as inhabitable worlds [13]. Fitness equipment is an important part of fitness ‘routines’. It has become an unescapable trend due to the rapid development of information technology (IT) and electronic technology, using, for example, photoelectric methods to detect the physiology index of the human body [ 14 ]. According to Dibble [ 15 ], cardio-vascular equipments are more prone to becoming monotonous, muscle-conditioning devices develop themselves into computerised version of strength training machines. Both categories provide users visual and sonar feedback (based on velocity, measuring distance, range of motion, etc.) bring these ‘mature’ products to a new innovative era as well. As globally delivered, H&F services will become more common in the future [ 4 ]. The question of standardising bodily movements thus becomes more relevant and could represent new ways in which human immaterial resources are capitalised. Gymnastics, without material equipment, were defined as too routine, and training with new devices generates strong and bold people [16]. Yet, comparatively speaking, researchers in the field of sports product innovation have largely ignored the importance of manufacturing industries as the source of every apparatus available in every sport facility around the world. The fitness ‘brand’ is independent of the actual product and is unique to the company to which a potential buyer maintains loyalty [ 17 ]. For the same reason, during purchasing choices, sport clubs need to take into consideration several aspects and not only focus on supply management of fitness equipment allocation in relation to industry providers [18]. Against this backdrop, the aim of this paper is to provide a traditional literature analysis on all products’ life-cycle steps: from the historical hypotheses that lead to the initial sectoral milestones, through the state of the art related to the creation ways of works and the quality variables that compose what already exists in international markets, to the innovation processes that currently define and present this industry’s final ‘material’ results inside contexts and societies. Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 3 of 19 For this reason, this research is able to highlight this gap in the knowledge about fitness equipment and what has emerged in published studies in relation to sectoral ‘companies’, simultaneously to all which is defined in literature as product ‘featuring’, ‘innovation’ and ‘technology’ development. The selected objective could also provide and bring practitioners to a newly version of ‘win-win solution’ between academics and corporate settings, in matching and share useful information. The article presents relevant articles published in the last 40 years, the most important age of the fitness industry. In this context, it has been debated whether sports scientists need to enter this fitness industry sub-field more proactively. 2. Methodology Traditional literature analysis is defined as a method involving a comprehensive search for relevant knowledge and studies on a specific topic, and those identified and selected are then appraised and synthesised [ 19 , 20 ]. The purpose of this type of review is to analyse a large and varied body of literature, in order to understand the current state of the art, in this case regarding -fitness equipmentin relation to other specific independent variables, through an appropriate search in electronic databases. For this review, the search was not limited to sports-related journals but included articles located in the areas of communication, design, engineering, history, IT, management, marketing, medicine and surgery, psychology and human resources (HR), robotics and aerospace and social sciences. The investigation was limited to research articles in a strict sense, including literature reviews, meta-analyses and original papers. The following typologies were excluded (alphabetical order): bibliographic articles and chapters, books, conference abstract, editorial and news articles, manufacturer or corporative catalogues, sectoral letters and extended product’s trademarks (deposited licenses and patents). A key problem encountered during the analysis is that, while there are numerous corporate case studies and internal enterprise surveys (most unpublished or not made public), little is known about the information available in scientific databases. The analysis started in November 2015, and the latest search was performed on 31 May 2017. Data collection was performed by one team of investigators experienced in the management and marketing of products in the H&F sector and sports science. 2.1. Data Sources and Searches Electronic databases, including Sport Discus, Academic Search Complete, MEDLINE, ISI - Web of Science, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, Ergonomic Abstracts, Business Source Premier, Science Direct, Scopus and Google Scholar, were used for the extended literature analysis. This multiple search strategy has been considered as an appropriate strategy due to the eclectic nature and wide range of the targeted literature base (Table 1). - Searches included the following terms: ‘fitness equipment’ and (1) ‘company’, (2) ‘feature’, (3) ‘innovation’ and (4) ‘technology’. The first key word has been kept fixed varying the remaining four by using the Boolean Logic ‘AND’. - The references of each selected article were evaluated to identify other potentially relevant papers that were not included among the indexed databases utilised by using the known ‘snowball’ technique [21,22]. - Bibliographies from the retrieved literature were searched, together with the researcher’s personal files, to add articles related to the purpose of the research. - The searches were limited to articles published in English but were not limited by country of origin. - Relevant industry reports, offered by Europe Active [ 3 ] or IHRSA [ 2 , 6 ], were sought by tracking the latest leading trends and geographical/society’s product applications. Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 4 of 19 Table 1. Traditional literature review criteria and approaches. Criteria Approaches Adopted Main topic Fitness Equipment Related topics (‘AND’) (1) Company, (2) Feature, (3) Innovation and (4) Technology Research method Snowball technique Boundaries defined Title, abstract or key words include topics (first phase) Full-text content articles (second phase, assessed by Jadad scale) Not by investigation areas, not by period/time frame Publications in English 2.2. Study Selection and Methodological Quality Assessment The titles and abstracts obtained were screened to remove irrelevant or duplicated publications. The full-text versions of the remaining papers were then read, analysed and evaluated in detail to identify their eligibility. The inclusion criteria of the selected articles were as follows: - Publications related to the content criteria for ‘fitness equipment’ that were published through academic journals and directly intersected with the topics of ‘company’, ‘feature’, ‘innovation’ and ‘technology’ that should appear in the title, abstract, or keywords. - Where aims were not included in those topics, it has been analysed if has been extensively faced or treated between the offered contents of the full-text version. - Articles published between 1978 (the lower limit was not previously defined at the beginning of the review) and 2017 at the date of the last search performed. - Papers written in English. Once the relevant publications were finalised, the Jadad scale [ 22 , 23 ], was used to systematically determine the quality of the articles for approval and acceptance. Having been done entirely by a single reviser, a high standard of the results was sought for analysis selection. The standard set for selection was all the articles that earned a punctuation of three or more points, which indicates good quality. The chosen scale has the capacity to provide a complete overview of the external and internal validities of papers included in this revision to determine the current state of the art. Being a traditional literature review (and not a systematic one), the process through which these twelve scientific selected databases have been analysed corresponds to the initial sample of material retrieved. The final search, defined by the selection and quality assessments above listed, revealed 73 articles, of which 50 were found applying the previously explained content-related criteria. 2.3. Data Analysis The rationale for this approach was that, targeted thematic analysis has been considered a useful and flexible tool, which can potentially provide a rich and detailed understanding of eclectic data [ 19 ]. Additionally, this method enables researchers to identify, analyse and report patterns of meaning (themes) across different epistemological and ontological positions. When the selection was ready, findings were organised into five key paragraphs following the traditional product’s steps development [ 24 ]: (a) historical background, (b) creation stages, (c) product features, (d) innovation paths and (e) sectoral environments and marketing processes. This overall categorization has been defined according to the logical life-cycle processes associated with the fitness equipment (especially from the point ‘b’ to ‘e’), with a starting addition (point ‘a’) focused on the origins and roots (formally named as ‘milestones’) of the commercial fitness equipment provided by the selected paper during the analysis. Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 5 of 19 3. Results and Discussion When considering the years of publication, an evident increase in papers on the focused topics of interest was observed. Until the beginning of the 21st century, there is no continuity on production. From 1978 (lower limit defined during the analysis) to 2006, only 14 articles were published (28%). In the last 10 years (from 2007 to 2016), a mean of more than three publications per year (M =3.1) was evidenced, with two peaks during 2011 and 2014 with a mean of 5.5 selected articles (Figure 1). Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19 3. Results and Discussion When considering the years of publication, an evident increase in papers on the focused topics of interest was observed. Until the beginning of the 21st century, there is no continuity on production. From 1978 (lower limit defined during the analysis) to 2006, only 14 articles were published (28%). In the last 10 years (from 2007 to 2016), a mean of more than three publications per year (M = 3.1) was evidenced, with two peaks during 2011 and 2014 with a mean of 5.5 selected articles (Figure 1). Figure 1. Number of publications by year. Regarding the origin of the published papers, the results evidenced a wide diversity of interest areas, as previously listed. Up to 22 journals have been published on the topics investigated. Journals with a greater number of publications were as follows: International Journal of the History of Sport with three articles and Applied Ergonomics, Journal of Sport Management and Managing Leisure (now Managing Sport and Leisure) with two papers each. These nine publications represent more than a third (40.90%) of the journals on the subject studied (Table 2). Table 2. Journal titles and number of related publications. Journal Title Number of Publications per Journal The International Journal of the History of Sport 3 Applied Ergonomics 2 Journal of Sport Management Managing Leisure (now: Managing Sport and Leisure) ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal 1 Acta Astronautica Current Sports Medicine Reports European Business Review European Journal of Cultural Studies European Journal of Marketing Expert Systems with Applications Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography Human Resource Management Journal International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship Journal of Beijing Sport University Journal of Sport History Perceptual and Motor Skills 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1978 1984 1989 1994 1996 1997 1998 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Units Figure 1. Number of publications by year. Regarding the origin of the published papers, the results evidenced a wide diversity of interest areas, as previously listed. Up to 22 journals have been published on the topics investigated. Journals with a greater number of publications were as follows: International Journal of the History of Sport with three articles and Applied Ergonomics, Journal of Sport Management and Managing Leisure (now Managing Sport and Leisure) with two papers each. These nine publications represent more than a third (40.90%) of the journals on the subject studied (Table 2). Table 2. Journal titles and number of related publications. Journal Title Number of Publications per Journal The International Journal of the History of Sport 3 Applied Ergonomics 2 Journal of Sport Management Managing Leisure (now: Managing Sport and Leisure) ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal 1 Acta Astronautica Current Sports Medicine Reports European Business Review European Journal of Cultural Studies European Journal of Marketing Expert Systems with Applications Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography Human Resource Management Journal International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship Journal of Beijing Sport University Journal of Sport History Perceptual and Motor Skills Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments Scientia Iranica Social Marketing Quarterly Sport Science Review Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 6 of 19 A geographical analysis may also be as enlightening following some sample studies encountered in literature, mostly focused on European [ 25 ] and North American [ 26 ] environments and their revenues, cash flows and profitability. Regarding the geographical distribution from which the selected studies have been performed (both first author and co-author), the most active academics have been in Europe with 41.57% (22 articles) of the total sample assessed, followed by the Asia-Pacific area, with 33.96% (n =18) and North America, with 20.75% (n =11). The lowest representation was in the Middle East, with 3.77% (n =2). No publication matched the established criteria for Africa (including an association for the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) area, as unified by the descriptors for the northern part of the continent) or Latin America (Table 3). Table 3. Numbers and percentages of publications’ geographic areas. Geographic Areas Countries Selected Articles N% Asia—Pacific Australia 1 33.96 China 9 Japan 1 South Korea 3 Taiwan 4 Europe Denmark 1 41.57 Finland 3 France 2 Germany 2 Ireland 1 Norway 2 Sweden 2 The Netherlands 1 UK 8 Middle East Jordan 1 3.77 UAE 1 North America US 11 20.75 The European robust performance, but above all evidently spread in all the continent and confirmed by sectoral investigation, led in first position by the UK with annual revenue of 6.1 billion dollars/year [ 2 , 6 ]. Even in the Asia-Pacific area there is a correlation with the investigation’s findings; these countries are home to maturing industries and current growth, and main examples are found in cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta. For North America, this analysis was represented exclusively by the US; the latest annual revenue obtained was 27.6 billion dollars/year, accounting for more than 35,000 facilities among all states [ 2 ]. No criteria matched studies from Canada. Despite conflicts in several MENA countries, there is a demand for fitness, as consumers seek to exercise and reap the benefits of an active lifestyle. Recently, successful international fitness operators have expanded their operations into this area. 3.1. Historical Background Some investigations encountered through this state of the art analysis, revealed the historical root phases on what defined the fitness equipment categories arriving until how are nowadays internationally labelled. These works came mainly from other literature reviews and are here redacted with a chronology logic for two reasons: (a) to introduce the following paragraphs (product’s life-cycle processes) and (b) to provide the current and updated vision of the fitness equipment sector since its inception (Appendix C). Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 7 of 19 Van Hilvoorde [ 1 ], using a continental European approach, explains that a French visionary named Hyppolite Triat, in the late-19th century, was one of the first to develop fitness ‘ideals’ by opening commercially-exploited gymnasiums in Li è ge, Brussels and Paris. Gymnastics were transformed into theatrical spectacles, planned with the circus groundwork (trapezes, beams, rope ladder and masts), and a complete collection of weights (dumbbells, barbells, Indian clubs, etc.). At the same time, in the Dutch context, Dr. Geraldus Arnoldus Nicolaas Allebe has been cited for his greater relevance. In Germany, evidence has been found of ideas and machines focused on isolated muscular groups but not developed within educational contexts. In sum, in this stage, fitness equipment was ‘freed’ from ideological associations and was neutral with regard to variables such as gender, age and social class (public or private spaces). During the same historical moment, when the first ‘artist-entrepreneurs’ such as MacFadden and Sandow finally arrive to the final audience, the evolution of fitness devices in journals, for sports and physical education have definitively started. In this period, the main communication tools were newspaper advertising, periodicals, books, photography and films. In the late-19th century and the first three decades of the 20th century in Germany, England and North America, distinctions between weight-lifting, bodybuilding, wrestling and circus-strongman performances were not always clearly drawn [ 27 ]. These various disciplines were neither considered nor practiced separately, and they were sometimes even understood as an organic whole. The final goal in training with weights was to increase strength and develop an attractive body. These numerous ideas and models were brought together around the turn of the century under the general term of ‘Life Reform Movement’. In these environments, the most utilised means of advertisement were records, lectures, specialist magazines and exercise handbooks. In the past century, between the sixties and seventies, a number of events affected studies about the history of medicine, the body, health and fitness [ 7 ]. The ‘motor’ metaphor was a useful device for studying the body’s physiological and neurological processes. Some of the most useful works concerning H&F were focused on exercise, physical training, sports and athletics. During the same period, a Chinese perspective was provided by Zhang [ 28 ] that divided the national sports industry into three stages: exploratory (1978–1992), formative (1993–1996) and developmental (1997-present). The extrapolated studies also focus on ‘Nordic’ milestones of the fitness industry, from a wider range of view, from the beginning [ 16 ] to the latter half of the 20th century [ 29 ]. The first study addresses the introduction of gymnastics as a subject in the Norwegian school system. The rooms allocation and the choice of equipments were used as instruments to form pupils’ bodies and minds. The equipments already included were: climbing ribs (less than 100-cm-wide sections), ropes, rope ladders, ladders, net ladders, beams, vaulting horses, box horses, bucks, springboards, cushions, balls, jump ropes and mats. In contrast to Central Europe provided version [ 1 ], these equipments must never transform gymnastics into acrobatics and ‘circum-like’ conditions. The second publication [ 29 ] considerable attention to the development and organisation of fitness exercise inside the Scandinavian Peninsula (Denmark, Norway and Sweden). This contribution brings to the actualised vision of the activity forms included in for-profit fitness in three main types: (1) individual training studios, with a variety of physical-amenities, aimed at strengthening specific body segments; (2) group-based trainings (aerobic cardio-works, etc.) focused on cardiorespiratory endurance; and (3) relaxation exercises, not always human-product related, that include a variety of wellness concepts and approaches. These historical roots and milestones bring fitness equipment to the ‘modern era’ of the fitness industry. 3.2. Creation Stages The first step, in the modern age of the fitness industry is, undoubtedly, given by the phases needed to generate, from a cero or basic level, a new piece of training system, or almost define the creation stages in what already exists in the current society (Appendices Aand B). There is evidence that multi-sectorial teamwork is at the foundation of daily life manufacturing industries [ 30 ]. Biomedical mechanics, manufacturing and design engineers, IT specialists and human body practitioners act in unison. Countries around the world typically divide special Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 8 of 19 workout equipments into four creation categories: (1) hydraulic, (2) electric/electromagnetic damping, (3) pneumatic and (4) gravity-mechanical. Always during the concept creation, in relation to the procedures through which is normally to operate inside an enterprise, another classification of products is provided by Fu [ 14 ] that divide equipment between oxygen and aerobic. Currently, it is hard to meet the fitness needs of modern people with ‘traditional’ apparatus so both domestic and international entities have begun to explore more ‘intelligent’ fitness equipment. These categories of machines can collect physiological parameters and providing a wide variety of related functions (virtual channels, explanatory videos, etc.), measure the size of ejection forces, and provide quantified training useful for both trainers and trainees [30]. Products typically follow a cycle of introduction, growth, maturity, decline and termination [ 31 ]. The H&F industry is in the early maturity phase of the sector life-cycle. In this regard, Williams et al. [ 32 ] underline that it is not always easy, depending on the magnitude of the reality in question, to acquire ‘Top of Mind Awareness’ (TOMA) in potential future customers. There are three primary reasons why brand awareness is a component of brand ‘equity’: to increase customer consideration, create effective decision-making and influence the brand association’s (product and/or service) formation. As affirmed by two studies [ 33 , 34 ], manufacturing industries also need to take into account variables related to the final operators, users and facilities in which they, regularly, are purchased. Between these, there are safety practices connected to the hardware’s layouts, with operating procedures and conditions required to correctly apply products in health centres. The four overall factors included in the analysis are the enterprise’s guidelines for safe operations: (1) the importance of spaces for hypothetical hazards, (2) possible barriers for people with physical disabilities, (3) obstacles or stairs to ‘get inside’ the machine and (4) the challenge of creating specific new fitness equipment (supposedly the hardest topic) that does not contradict the previous points. Current recommendations affirm that fitness gyms and private health clubs are an outstanding global business, but new ‘trends’ such as franchising chains, and specific-environment workout spaces are the new frontiers of product creation aimed at final purchase and consolidation [5]. 3.3. Product Features The literature suggests a direct connection among all variables that define, catalogue and divide fitness equipments in the electronic databases in the past decades. Since the beginning of the 21st century, it has become evident that there are few differences among the main bodies of the products (indexed to each single sub-category), brands and marketing promotions [ 35 ]. The barriers of entering and withdrawing in the trades become bigger, and the point of view of the industrial organisation (from theory to the practice) plays a key role. The size and mass of the devices are important parameters [ 36 ], as well as other parameters analysed in the literature (Appendices Aand B). Numerous studies focus on the indispensable physiological, anthropometric and biomechanical paradigms [ 37 ]. H&F devices have wide application: laboratories, training centres, competitive contexts, etc. These are the reasons why these body-related factors are defined as basic knowledge in the field. The versatility, for a product designed with ergonomic criteria, indicates hypothetically high levels of usability. As seen in the visionary approach of Reilly and Thomas [ 38 ], the man-machine interface needs anthropometric data to give correct responses to the users who interface with it. Physiological methods and time-motion analysis have also been evaluated as relevant variables. Starting from ergonomic reasons, and still related to multifunctional applicability, the degrees of freedom of the amenity is defined as important including the rehabilitation active phases [39]. Similarly, for biomechanics, flexibility concerns studies do not directly relate to the material sciences, but rather to the adaptable meaning of the word. Scientific evidence underlines the importance of its effects and the ability to be used in various contexts [ 1 , 40 ]. Still, muscle strengthening, actions (concentric, eccentric, etc.), reactions, the variety of speeds of contractions and muscle recruitments and all the relations with bone concepts have been assessed, through selected devices, by various authors reviewed [ 36 – 38 , 40 , 41 ]. The initial comparison is often related to exercises carried out with free Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 9 of 19 weights and, as a more generic definition provided, the workout against supra-normal loads. Findings reveal that non-electrically powered, yet ‘gravity-independent’ equipment, has similar features to ‘traditional’ equipment known to be effective in producing the desired physiological responses [41]. In relation to the previous feature listed, the quality of usability is mentioned in some studies [ 29 , 33 , 38 , 42 , 43 ]. The main topics highlight the importance of the final user guidelines and response types, depending on the type of customer (lately including senior categories) and the operative capacities when a monitor or display is included in the physical amenity. Other quality variables treated include the educational aspects for H&F professionals, addressing, for example, the application variables needed to make the most of the selected products from each manufacturer in their own context (overall population, population per km2, area in km2, penetration rates, etc.). Five additional tangible quality parameters have been mentioned in most evaluated publications in relation to existing products: (1) attractiveness [ 4 , 38 ], (2) efficiency [ 17 , 43 ], (3) high quality and experienced design control [ 1 , 4 , 42 ], (4) functional and practical linearity [ 1 , 38 ] and (5) specialty and cost [ 30 ]. Additionally, three intangible aspects emerged: (1) beneficial [ 17 ], (2) engagement and (3) ‘magic moments’ during every use of the fitness apparatus [4]. The analysis continues with the environmental parameters in which the products need to be placed and begins with a source evaluation [ 36 ]. The surrounding structure or the external environment is not affected through unnecessary noise or induced vibrations, especially when the evaluated equipment does not have a mechanical system included in the hardware parts. These aspects could indicate the insecurity of the product and cause subordinated issues related to the increase of temperature, humidity and lighting vibrations [42]. Aside from being one of the most discussed topics, sectoral providers already know the importance of the overall safety and hazard prevention related to the physicality of the equipments which is not fundamental only for the health care and rehabilitation applicabilities, but also for the entire population who daily uses the products [ 44 ]. Many studies address this topic to the machines final features [ 1 , 17 , 30 , 33 , 38 , 39 , 43 ]. Evaluations began from preventive acts to avoid hurts and joint injuries during utilisation, until touch the comfort in creating a safe fitness ‘experience’. 3.4. Innovation Paths It is widely accepted that creating quality products and services require a well-trained and skilled workforce, business strategies and polyfunctional abilities that give momentum to the fitness industry innovation [ 45 ]. The factor for successful innovation is not exactly the same for every company [ 46 ]. Sorting and analysing the individual cases can serve as a basis of reference and act as a guidepost for other companies in similar industries during their business development. Subsequently, it is possible to strengthen the enterprise’s capacity in order to accelerate process innovation, reduce dependence on other economies and develop marketing brand strategies to promote and generate more added values [28]. To create an attractive fitness brand, an enterprise does not necessarily need innovation products or services, but something, or someone, with personality and the right preparation to give vitality to the brand [ 12 ]. Since quality of life is rising constantly, the fitness industry has developed quickly due to the high demand worldwide [ 47 ]. A lack of innovation, in addition to other related factors, such as product research and technical development, could restrict the number of members which participate to the delivered course of service practices [ 48 ]. The innovation activity of a sectoral trader (procedure inputs/processes outputs) is separated into three phases: motivation, process and performance [ 46 ]. Through these stages, the enterprise’s competitive advantages and efficiencies can be clearly seen. Thirty years ago, Dibble [ 15 ] made an observation that represents the current reality and could be written today with an eye to the future (p. 74): “The fitness industry is far from exhausted [ . . . ] manufacturers seem taking a rational and scientific approach in designing the next generation of fitness equipment [ . . . ] not satisfied with simple muscular or cardiovascular improvements they are taking steps toward an intelligent workout that Appl. Sci. 2020,10, 1534 16 of 19 IT and virtual reality Yuan et al. (2009), Long et al. (2009), Wang and Su (2012), Parviainen (2011a) Linearity Reilly and Thomas (1978), van Hilvoorde (2008) Safety and comfort practices Burton and Huffman (2007), Kennedy-Armbruster et al. (2011), Lee (2008), Parrot (1996), Reilly and Lees (1984), Reilly and Thomas (1978), Sekendiz et al. (2016), Teng et al. (2014), van Hilvoorde (2008), Wang and Gao (2013), Yoon and Ahn (2015) Size and mass (structure) Davis and Davis (2012), Long et al. (2009) Source type and energy storage Davis and Davis (2012), Wang and Su (2012) Temperature, humidity and light Wang and Gao (2013) Appendix B Resume of Selected Articles on Induced and Transmitted User’s Effects User Effects (Induced or Transmitted) Author/s (Year) Attractivity Parviainen (2011a), Reilly and Thomas (1978) Beneficial Kennedy-Armbruster et al. (2011) Efficiency Kennedy-Armbruster et al. (2011), Yoon and Ahn (2015) Engagement Annesi and Mazas (1997), Parviainen (2011a) Enjoyment Dibble (1989), Mestre et al. (2011) Interaction (on attendance) Annesi and Mazas (1997), Dibble (1989), Mestre et al. (2011) Involvement (on adherence) Annesi and Mazas (1997), Mestre et al. (2011) Physical exhaustion, regulated competition and revitalization Annesi and Mazas (1997) Appendix C Resume of Selected Articles on Named Companies (or Services) on Geographic Basis Authors (Year) Country Named Company/Ies or Workout Concepts Annesi and Mazas (1997) US DiamondBack Fitness, Tectrix Berg and Tesch (1998) Sweden Flywheel Burton and Huffman (2007) US Concept2, Cybex International Inc., FitLinxx, Life Fitness (Brunswick Corp.) Dai (2014) Japan Asics, Mizuno Dibble (1989) US Belton, Cybex International Inc., Hydra-Fitness (Hydra-Gym Athletics), Life Fitness (Brunswick Corp.), Nautilus Inc., Precor Inc., Reebok, StairMaster (Randal Sport/Medical), Universal Kang et al. (2013) South Korea Biodex Inc. Kennedy-Armbruster et al. (2011) US Johnson Health Tech. Co., Ltd. (Matrix branch) McCormack (1999) UK NordicTrack Parviainen (2011a) Finland Les Mills Int. 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