Use of barley straw residues to avoid high erosion and runoff rates on persimmon plantations in Eastern Spain under low frequency-high magnitude simulated rainfall events

Documen downloaded om: This pape mus be ci ed as: The inal publica ion is a ailable a Copy igh Addi ional In o ma ion h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1071/SR15092 h p://hdl.handle.ne /10251/77484 CSIRO Publishing Ce dà, A.; González-Pelayo, Ó.; Giménez Mo e a, A.; Jo dán, A.; Pe ei a, P.; No a a, A.; B e ik, EC.... (2016). Use o ba ley s aw esidues o a oid high e osion and uno a es on pe simmon plan a ions in Eas e n Spain unde low equency-high magni ude simula ed ain all e en s. Soil Resea ch. 54(2):154-165. doi:10.1071/SR15092. The use o ba ley s aw esidues o a oid high e osion and 1 uno a es on pe simmon plan a ions in Eas e n Spain unde low equency – high magni ude simula ed ain all e en s A emi Ce dà (1) Ósca González-Pelayo (1), An onio Giménez-Mo e a (2), An onio Jo dán (3), Paulo Pe ei a (4), Aga a No a a (5), E ic C. B e ik (6), Massimo P osdocimi (7), Majid Mahmoodabadi (8), Saskia Keess a (9), Fuensan a Ga cía O enes (10), Coen Ri sema (9) (1) Soil E osion and Deg ada ion Resea ch G oup, Depa men o Geog aphy, Uni e si y o Valencia, Valencia, Spain. osca .gonzalez-pelay[email p o ec ed] and a emio.ce da@u .es / www.soile osion.eu (2) Depa amen o de Economía y Ciencias Sociales, Escuela poli écnica supe io de Alcoy, Uni e sidad Poli écnica de Valencia, Paseo del Viaduc o, 1 03801 Alcoy, Alican e, Spain. angimo1@doc o .up .es (3) MED_Soil Resea ch G oup. Dep. o C ys allog aphy, Mine alogy and Ag icul u al Chemis y, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain. [email p o ec ed] (4) Depa men o En i onmen al Policy, Mykolas Rome is Uni e si y, A ei ies g. 20, LT-08303 Vilnius, Li huania.pau[email p o ec ed] (5) Dipa imen o dei Sis emi Ag o-ambien ali, Uni e si y o Pale mo, iale delle scienze –I aly, aga ano a [email protected] (6) Depa men o Na u al Sciences, Dickinson S a e Uni e si y, Dickinson, ND, USA e ic.b e ik@dickinsons a e.edu (7) Depa men o Land, En i onmen , Ag icul u e and Fo es y, Uni e si y o Pado a, Ag ipolis, Viale dell'Uni e si à 16, 35020 Legna o (PD), I aly. massimo.p [email protected] Ce d, A emi, Ósca González-Pelayo, An onio Gimnez-Mo e a, An onio Jo dán, Paulo Pe ei a, Aga a No a a, E ic C. B e ik, Massimo P osdocimi, Majid Mahmoodabadi, Saskia Keess a, Fuensan a Ga cía O enes, and Coen Ri sema. The use o ba ley s aw esidues o a oid high e osion and uno a es on pe simmon plan a ions in Eas e n Spain unde low equency – high magni ude simula ed ain all e en s. Soil Resea ch. in p ess. (8) Dep. o Soil Sci. Ag icul u e Facul y, Shahid Bahona Uni e si y o Ke man, P. O. Box. 76169133, Ke man, I an. mahmo[email p o ec ed] (9) Soil Physics and Land Managemen G oup, Wageningen Uni e si y, 27 D oe endaalses eeg 4, 6708PB Wageningen, The Ne he lands saskia.keess a@wu .nl and coen. i se[email p o ec ed] (10) En i onmen al Soil Science G oup. Depa men o Ag ochemis y and En i onmen . Miguel He nández Uni e si y, A da. de la Uni e sidad s/n, Elche, Alican e, Spain, uensan a.g[email p o ec ed] Abs ac Soil and wa e losses due o ag icul u al mismanagemen a e high and non-sus ainable in many o cha ds. An expe imen was se up using ain all simula ion expe imen s a 78 mm h-1 o e one hou on 20 pai ed plo s o 2 m2 (ba e and s aw co e ed) in new pe simmon plan a ions in Eas e n Spain. The e ec s o a s aw co e on he con ol o soil and wa e losses was assessed. An addi ion o 60% s aw co e (75 g m-2) esul ed in delayed ponding and uno gene a ion and as a consequence educed wa e losses om 60 o 13% o he o al ain all. The s aw co e educed aind op impac and as a consequence sedimen de achmen om 1,014 o 47 g pe plo in one hou . The e osion a e was educed om 5.1 o 0.2 Mg ha-1 h-1. The s aw mulch was ound o be ex emely e icien in educing soil e osion a es. Keywo ds: pe simmon plan a ions, managemen , e osion, hyd ology, ain all simula ion. In oduc ion Soil e osion is widely known o be one o he igge ing ac o s o land deg ada ion and dese i ica ion wo ldwide (Bai e al., 2013; Izzo e al., 2013; Wang e al., 2013; Ja a i and Bakhshandehmeh , 2013; Zhao e al., 2013; Ola e al., 2015; Yan e al., 2015). High and non-sus ainable e osion a es a e due o human mismanagemen o soils and hei ege a ion co e due o g azing (Ce dà and La ee, 1999; Meku ia and Aynekulu, 2013; Angassa, 2014), o es i es (González-Pelayo e al., 2010), mining (Ma ín-Mo eno e al., 2015) and ag icul u e (B e ik, 2009; Ce dà e al., 2009a; 2009c; Leh e al., 2013; Liesko ský and Kende essy, 2014; Yuan e al., 2015). Ag icul u e causes highe sedimen yields om he con inen s han any o he single sou ce due o ploughing, emo al o he o iginal ege a ion, soil dis u bance and he use o pes icides and he bicides ha educe biological ac i i y in soils, lowe o e all ege a ion co e , he lack o e aces in sloping e ain, deple ion o o ganic ma e , and soil compac ion and sealing (Ce dà e al., 2009c; No a a e al., 2011; Laudicina e al., 2012). This ela ionship is now well known. Ci iliza ions ha e ailed h oughou human his o y due o e osion (B e ik and Ha emink, 2010), and e osion con inues o nega i ely a ec ci iliza ions in all egions o he wo ld (Cos a, 1975; Pimen el e al., 1987; O’ha a e al., 1993; Shi and Shao, 2000; Ce dà e al., 2007). O cha ds, mo e han ce eal and ege able p oduc ion, a e sou ces o sedimen s om ag icul u al land due o he lack o ege a ion co e o e la ge a eas o he ield (Dabasish-Saha e al., 2014). The compac ion o soils as a consequence o hea y machine y passes, soil deg ada ion due o he weakening o soil s uc u e, and ela ed o ganic ma e deple ion also a ec s sedimen p oduc ion (Fialho and Zinn, 2014; Pa as-Alcán a a e al., 2014). Soil e osion has been ound o be high in oli e (Olea eu opaea) o cha ds (Gómez e al., 2003; VanWalleghem e al., 2010), new ci us plan a ions (Ce dà e al., 2009b; Li e al., 2015), a ocado (Pe sea Ame icana) o cha ds (A ucha e al., 2013) and ineya ds (No a a e al., 2013; Cos an ini e al., 2015; Ta olli e al., 2015). O he ypes o o cha ds such as almonds (P unus dulcis) (Faulkne e al., 1995) and ap ico s (P unus a meniaca) (Ab isque a e al., 2007) ha e also shown high e osion a es, bu he e is li le in o ma ion on soil e osion a es in o cha ds compa ed o o he ag icul u al se ings, and no esea ch has been epo ed o pea s (Py us sp.), apples (Malus pumila), che ies (P unus sp.) o pe simmons (Dyospi us sp.), e en hough ui p oduc ion is g owing and he land a ea co e ed by a ious ui and ci us o cha ds and ineya ds is hea ily managed wi h machine y and pes icides leading o soil damage and deg ada ion. Annual wo ld pe simmon p oduc ion in 2013 was 4.6 million onnes wi h China p oducing abou 78% o he o al wo ld yield (FAO, 2015). Ko ea and Japan a e he second and he hi d leading p oduce s espec i ely wi h 0.35 and 0.21 million onnes p oduced in 2013, and combined he h ee Asian coun ies ep esen ed mo e han 90% o 2013 wo ld p oduc ion (FAO, 2015). Spain p oduces 0.1 million onnes annually bu he e has been a sudden inc ease in he p oduc ion o and land used o pe simmon p oduc ion, making Spain an eme ging p oduce and expo e o pe simmons as a new p oduc o he Eu opean ma ke s. The e has been a quick land use change om ci us o cha ds o pe simmon o cha ds in Eas e n Spain, which means much less ege a ion co e as he la e is a deciduous ee ha lea es he soil ba e o 4 mon hs o he yea (Figu e 1). The pe simmon expansion in Eas e n Spain is due o he high p ices and he new ma ke s ha ha e de eloped in Eu ope, B azil and he A abic coun ies. The new chemically managed and highly mechanized plan a ions in Eas e n Spain a e using high doses o he bicides and he lack o ege a ion is igge ing high e osion a es due o he ba e soils. P e ious s udies, in ci us o cha ds, ha e discussed how mulching educed uno and e osion by bu e ing he aind op impac and imp o ing soil physical condi ions (Liu e al., 2014). O he s such as Wakindiki and Danga (2011) desc ibed i s e ec s on nu ien accumula ion in soils, bu ew s udies ha e add essed e ec s o ex eme ain all e en s on soil e osion on new pe simmon plan a ions in semia id condi ions. This pape aims o assess soil e osion a es on hese new pe simmon plan a ions and o es he e iciency o s aw co e o educe soil losses. Fo y ain all simula ion expe imen s we e ca ied ou in 20 pai ed plo s o de e mine he e ec o a 60% s aw co e on soil e osion and uno gene a ion on ag icul u al soils ha we e o iginally ba e. Ma e ials and me hods The esea ch was un in he wes e n Medi e anean basin, wi hin he Canyoles Ri e wa e shed in he La Cos e a dis ic o he Valencia egion (Eas e n Spain), whe e new pe simmon plan a ions a e widely eplacing ci us p oduc ion in d ip-i iga ion and lood-i iga ed c op sys ems. Pa en ma e ials in he a ea belong o C e aceous limes ones and Te ia y deposi s ha de elop Typic Xe o hen (Soil Su ey S a , 2014) soils. Low le els o soil o ganic ma e (SOM) a e ound (< 2%) in ag icul u al land in Eas e n Spain and he Canyoles Ri e wa e shed due o he millennia old ag icul u al use and soil dis u bance by i e, g azing and ploughing, basic pH (8) and loamy soil ex u es ha cha ac e ize he soils o he a ea. The clima e is ypically Medi e anean wi h 3-5 mon hs o summe d ough (June-Sep embe ). Mean annual ain all a he s udy si e is 590 mm and he e a e 41 mean annual days o ain. Rain all is dis ibu ed amongs au umn, win e and sp ing, wi h maximum peak ain in ensi ies du ing he au umn season. The mean annual empe a u e is 14.2ºC while he ho es mon h (Augus ) has a e age empe a u es o 23ºC. Ex eme s o m e en s wi h e u n pe iods o 50 yea s a e ound in his a ea, which is 60 Km om he Medi e anean Sea. Examples o ex eme e en s include mo e han 600 mm o ain all in wo days in 1982 in he Màssis del Ca oig and 800 mm in sligh ly mo e han 24 hou s in Gandia in 1987. Recu en ain all e en s o mo e han 100 mm day-1 make ex eme ain all e en s a key ac o in local soil e osion. A 15 yea old plan a ion o pe simmon (Dyospi us lo us a . Rojo b illan e) was selec ed in Eas e n Spain (Canals Municipali y, La Cos e a Dis ic ) o measu e soil losses on no- ill ba e managemen (he bicide ea men s, called Ba e) and on ba ley s aw co e ed plo s (called S aw) (Figu e 2). Pe simmon ees we e posi ioned in pa allel ows wi h a slope angle and leng h o 2% and 40 me e s, espec i ely. The s aw co e was applied 3 days be o e he ain all expe imen s a doses ha co e ed on a e age 60% o he soil su ace using 75 g o s aw pe m2. Co e in he no- ill ba e ea men s a e aged 3%. Fo y ain all simula ions (RS) conduc ed a 78 mm h-1 ain all in ensi y o one hou we e ca ied ou on pai ed ec angula plo s ha we e 2 m2 (1 m wide x 2 m long); he pai ed plo s we e ba e (20 RS) and co e ed wi h s aw (20 RS). The measu emen s we e ca ied ou du ing July 2014 unde e y d y soil mois u e con en s anging om 4.6 o 7.9% o he whole mon h. These measu emen s a e ep esen a i e o in e ill o pedon scale soil e osion p ocesses since RS we e placed in he ow spaces be ween ees. De ailed in o ma ion abou he ain all simula o se and on he dis ibu ion o ain all pa ame e s can be ound in Ce dà and Doe (2010) and Ce dà and Ju gensen (2011); he ain all simula o is placed a 2 me e s heigh . I uses h ee nozzles (Ha di-1553-12) wi h a cons an ain all in ensi y using deionized wa e . O e land low om he plo a ea was measu ed a 1-min in e als a he plo ou le . E e y en h 1-min uno sample was collec ed o labo a o y analysis in o de o de e mine sedimen concen a ion. Runo a es and sedimen concen a ion we e used o calcula e he sedimen yield, o al uno , uno coe icien , and e osion a es. Pa ame e s such as ime o ponding (Tp, de e mines when he soil is sa u a ed), ime o uno (T , is he ime when uno is ini ia ed), ime o uno - ime o ponding (Tp-T ), ime o uno ou le (T o, is he ime o uno ini ia ion a he plo collec o ), and ime o uno ou le - ime o uno (T o-T ) we e also analysed h ough s a is ical es s as desc ibed below. Vege a ion co e was de e mined wi h 100 pins measu emen in each 2 m2 plo , and soil mois u e was measu ed by means o he desicca ion o soil samples collec ed be o e he simula ed ain all expe imen d ying a 105ºC o 24 hou s. Sedimen concen a ion in he uno was calcula ed a e he desicca ion o he samples in he labo a o y. No mali y o he da a was es ed h ough he Shapi o-Wilk es . The s a is ical di e ences be ween he mean alues o some pa ame e s o he Ba e and S aw ea men s was es ed wi h he T- es (Tp, T , Tp-T , T o, T o-T , uno coe icien , o al uno , sedimen concen a ion, sedimen yield, and soil e osion). Some o he pa ame e s did no mee he assump ion o no mali y (Tp ba e, T ba e, sedimen concen a ion ba e, sedimen yield ba e and e osion ba e), and da a squa e- oo and loga i hmic ans o ma ions we e ca ied ou o achie e no mali y be o e ca ying ou he T- es . Linea co ela ion coe icien s (R2) wi h polynomial, exponen ial and linea i ing we e also calcula ed o assess he ela ionship be ween RS (Tp, T , Tp-T ) and e osion pa ame e s ( o al uno (l), sedimen concen a ion (g l-1), sedimen yield (g) and soil e osion (Mg ha-1 h-1). S a is ical analyses we e compu ed wi h he SPSS 22.0 so wa e package (IBM Co po a ion, A monk, NY, USA). Resul s The soil mois u e in he 0-2 cm dep h in e al p e ious o RS expe imen s was e y low (< 5% in all plo s) and e y homogeneous as he expe imen s we e ca ied ou in an a ea ha is no i iga ed and du ing he Medi e anean summe d ough . The e was no ain in he 45 days p io o he expe imen s. Measu emen s o he ege a ion and li e (s aw) co e (Table 1) showed ha plan s co e ed 2.5% o he ba e plo s, while he s aw plo s had 61.6% co e on a e age (Table 1; p- alue<0.05). The ba e (con ol) plo s had a ege a ion co e anging om 0 o 6% and he s aw plo s anged om 48 o 90% co e . The inc ease in co e educed he aind op impac and as a consequence he Tp inc eased om 64 ( anging om 33 o 96 s) o 309 seconds ( om 201 o 495 s) in ba e and s aw plo s, espec i ely (Table 1). Mic o opog aphy and soil oughness delayed uno gene a ion (T ), which was eached a e 262 seconds on he ba e soils bu ook 815 seconds on he s aw co e ed soils (Table 1; p- alue<0.05). The minimum and maximum T alues we e 234 and 342 s o ba e plo s and 702 and 1,005 s o s aw co e ed plo s (Table 1; p alue<0.05). The di e ences be ween Tp and T show he ime ha is needed o uno o be ini ia ed and is much mo e delayed in he s aw co e ed soils (506 seconds) han on he ba e soils (198 s) (Table 1; p- alue<0.05). The ime o uno ou le (T o) was 1,222 s in he s aw mulch co e ed plo s and 419 s in he ba e ones (Table 1; p- alue<0.05). T o-T shows he eloci y o he uno , and his is delayed in he soil co e ed wi h s aw (406 s) and much as e in he ba e soils (156 s) (Table 1; p- alue<0.05). Table 2 shows he uno a es, sedimen yield and soil e osion. The uno coe icien dec eased om 60% in he ba e con ol plo s o 29% in he s aw plo s. Runo in he ba e plo s anged om 50 o 72%, meanwhile in he s aw plo s Rc anged om 15 o 45% o he o al ain all. The ba e plo s also con ibu ed uno wi h much highe sedimen concen a ion (10.9 g l-1) in compa ison o he s aw co e ed plo s (1 g l-1). The amoun o uno gene a ed in he ba e plo s had an a e age alue o 93 li es ( anging om 79 o 113 l), while he amoun o uno was much less in he s aw plo s (46 l, anging om 24 o 71 l). Reg ession analyses be ween hyd ological pa ame e s (Figu e 3) shows how T is dependen on he Tp, wi h he ela ionship being s onge in he s aw plo s han in he ba e ones (R2 o 0.34 s 0.06, espec i ely). In ac , he ela ionship o he delay ime be ween ponding and uno (Tp-T ) and T is s onge in he ba e plo s han in he s aw ones (R2 o 0.63 s 0.20, espec i ely) and weake be ween Tp-T and Tp (R2 o 0.24 s 0.36, espec i ely). In he ba e soil plo s he o al sedimen yield was mo e han 1 Kg while i was only 47 g in he s aw co e ed plo s. The alues anged om 546 o 1,971 g in he ba e plo s and 21 o 80 g in he s aw plo s. This esul ed in high e osion a es on he ba e plo s (5.1 Mg ha-1 h-1) in compa ison o he s aw plo s e en s as a consequence o aind op impac and su ace wash. These high e osion a es exceed soil o ma ion a es and a e due o he lack o ege a ion co e as a consequence o he use o he bicides in he soils. S aw mulch co e educed soil losses om 5.1 o 0.2 Mg ha-1 h-1 immedia ely a e s aw applica ion. The use o s aw mulches is e y e icien a educing soil and wa e losses in Medi e anean o cha ds as hey su e om a low ege a ion co e and clima ic condi ions ha induce e y in ense ain all e en s, and as a consequence high e osion a es, which mus be con olled in ag icul u al land o achie e sus ainable p oduc ion. Acknowledgemen s The esea ch p ojec s GL2008-02879/BTE, LEDDRA 243857 and RECARE-FP7 (nº 603498, h p:// eca e- p ojec .eu/) suppo ed his esea ch. Re e ences Ab isque a, J.M., Plana, V., Mounze , O. H., Mendez, J., and Ruiz-Sanchez, M.C., 2007. E ec s o soil illage on uno gene a ion in a Medi e anean ap ico o cha d. Ag icul u al wa e managemen 93(1), 11-18. Angassa, A., 2014. 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Pe simmon o cha ds in Decembe (le ) and Feb ua y ( igh ). Win e is when he soil is ba e o ege a ion and lea es and when he soil e osion isk is highe . Figu e 2. Plo s. To he le he con ol (ba e) plo , o he igh he s aw-co e ed plo . Figu e 3. Rela ionship be ween ime o uno (T ) and ime o ponding (Tp), and delay ime be ween ponding and uno (T -Tp) and ime o ponding (Tp), and wi h ime o uno (T ), o all he da ase s. N=40. Ba e means no- ill ba e (he bicide ea men s), and S aw means ba ley s aw co e ed plo s. Figu e 4. Rela ionship be ween sedimen concen a ion (g l-1) and sedimen yield (g), soil e osion (Mg ha-1 h-1) and uno coe icien (%), and sedimen concen a ion (g l-1) and uno coe icien (%) o all he ain all simula ion da ase s. N=40. Ba e means no- ill ba e (he bicide ea men s), and S aw means ba ley s aw co e ed plo s. Table 1. Values by plo , a e age, maximum and minimum alues, and s anda d de ia ion o he co e (plan s and s aw, %), Time o ponding (Tp), Time o uno (T ), Tp-T , Time o uno ou le (T o) and T - T o in seconds. Ba e means no- ill ba e (he bicide ea men s), and S aw means ba ley s aw co e ed plo s. Di e en le e o each pa ame e in pai ed ows (ba e and s aw) means s a is ical signi ican di e ences acco ding o T- es . P. alue <0.05 le el. Plo s Co e (%) Tp (s) T (s) Tp-T T o T o- T N=20 Ba e S aw Ba e S aw Ba e S aw Ba e S aw Ba e S aw Ba e S aw 1 1 65 85 375 234 972 149 597 343 1235 109 263 2 2 58 94 485 342 869 248 384 502 1258 160 389 3 3 78 85 485 234 845 149 360 356 1269 122 424 4 0 56 96 495 238 1005 142 510 365 1325 127 320 5 2 54 75 358 256 865 181 507 365 1145 109 280 6 1 52 82 205 245 849 163 644 345 1203 100 354 7 5 53 74 236 296 789 222 553 409 1421 113 632 8 2 59 65 245 258 745 193 500 402 1025 144 280 9 2 57 45 259 245 856 200 597 436 1254 191 398 10 0 52 48 268 275 851 227 583 495 1325 220 474 11 2 59 49 245 265 725 216 480 456 1259 191 534 12 2 65 45 275 245 854 200 579 425 1268 180 414 13 4 75 60 245 265 789 205 544 401 1302 136 513 14 2 48 90 265 284 702 194 437 436 1020 152 318 15 1 66 75 294 295 768 220 474 441 1143 146 375 16 2 45 33 201 247 828 214 627 501 1074 254 246 17 5 59 39 261 256 702 217 441 410 1194 154 492 18 6 55 48 336 235 735 187 399 434 1239 199 504 19 2 85 45 327 285 795 240 468 434 1305 149 510 20 5 90 47 321 245 762 198 441 415 1167 170 405 A e age 2.5 61.6 64.0 309.1 262.3 815.3 198.3 506.3 418.6 1221.6 156.3 406.3 Max 6 90 96 495 342 1005 248 644 502 1421 254 632 Min 0 45 33 201 234 702 142 360 343 1020 100 246 S d 1.7 12.0 20.3 90.1 27.3 81.0 29.7 82.5 48.2 102.7 40.3 104.8 Table 2. Values by plo , a e age, maximum and minimum alues, and s anda d de ia ion o he uno coe icien (Rc, %), sedimen concen a ion (Sc, g l-1), o al uno (To al R, l), sedimen yield (Sy, g), soil e osion (Se, g m2 h-1) and soil e osion (Se, Mg ha-1). Ba e means no- ill ba e (he bicide ea men s), and S aw means ba ley s aw co e ed plo s. Di e en le e o each pa ame e in pai ed ows (ba e and s aw) means s a is ical signi ican di e ences acco ding o T es . P. alue <0.05 le el. Table 3. S a is ical analyses. Mean (s anda d de ia ion) and ange o da ase s o he ime o ponding (Tp), ime o uno (T ), ime o uno - ime o ponding (Tp-T ), ime o uno ou le (T o), and ime o uno - ime o uno ou le (T -T o), o al uno (l), sedimen concen a ion (g l-1), sedimen yield (g), and e osion (Mg ha-1 h-1) o he ain all simula ion plo s (n=40) o e Ba e (no- ill ba e) and S aw (s aw mulch). Values o all wa e loss pa ame e s a e in seconds. Fo he no mali y assump ion, he Shapi o-Wilk (S-W, p) es s we e applied a he 0.05 signi icance le el and non-no mal pa ame e s we e ans o med o mee no mali y. The pa ame ic T- es was applied o check o di e ences be ween ea men s (in bold). T ea men N Mean (SD) Range K-S S-W T- es Tp (s) Ba e 20 64 (12) 63 0.012 0.063 0.001 S aw 20 309 (20) 294 0.04 0.007 T (s) Ba e 20 262 (27) 108 0.18 0.009 0.001 S aw 20 815 (81) 303 0.2 0.168 Tp-T (s) Ba e 20 198 (30) 106 0.2 0.387 0.001 S aw 20 506 (82) 284 0.2 0.744 T o (s) Ba e 20 419 (48) 159 0.2 0.247 0.001 S aw 20 1222 (103) 401 0.2 0.415 T -T o (s) Ba e 20 156 (40) 154 0.2 0.407 0.001 S aw 20 406 (105) 386 0.2 0.629 Runo coe (%) Ba e 20 60 (6) 22 0.085 0.199 0.001 S aw 20 29 (6) 30 0.088 0.105 To al uno (l) Ba e 20 93 (8) 34 0.084 0.198 0.001 S aw 20 45 (10) 47 0.087 0.105 Sed concen a ion (g l-1) Ba e 20 11 (4) 14 0 0.001 0.001 S aw 20 1 (0,2) 0,6 0.003 0.011 Sed yield (g) Ba e 20 1015 (345) 1425 0.001 0.001 0.001 S aw 20 47 (13) 59 0.2 0.315 E osion (Mg ha-1 h-1) Ba e 20 5 (1.7) 7 0.001 0.001 0.001 S aw 20 0.24 (0.06) 0.3 0.2 0.275 All in- ex e e ences unde lined in blue a e linked o publica ions on Resea chGa e, le ing you access and ead hem immedia ely.