Circular Material Usage Strategies—Principles

Chap e 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples Paulo San os ,AimeeBy ne , Fe ha Ka aca , Paola Villo ia , Me cedes del Rio , Rocío Pineda-Ma os , and Genesis Camila Ce an es Puma Abs ac The cons uc ion indus y signi ican ly con ibu es o global g eenhouse gas emissions, aw ma e ial ex ac ion, and was e p oduc ion. Implemen ing ci cula economy (CE) p inciples in his sec o could g ea ly educe hese impac s. Howe e , adop ion wi hin he indus y emains slow due o ba ie s such as limi ed knowledge and expe ience. This chap e aims o assess and help o e come hese obs acles by p o iding a comp ehensi e analysis o ci cula ma e ial usage p inciples and s a e- giesincons uc ion.I alsohighligh soppo uni iesandenable so change,including inno a ions and eme ging echnologies in ecycling, digi iza ion, obo ic sys ems, new ma e ials, and p ocessing echniques. Fou case s udies illus a e he applica ion o ci cula heo y h ough a Bio-Building, U ban Mining and Recycling (UMAR) Expe imen al Uni , Open-spaced apa men , and an “Escuela Poli écnica Supe io ”. The conclusions emphasize he need o s ong egula o y amewo ks, awa eness ini ia i es, and in e na ional coope a ion. In eg a ing echnological ad ancemen s P. San os (B ) Ci il Enginee ing Depa men , ISISE, ARISE, Uni e si y o Coimb a, Coimb a, Po ugal e-mail: [email p o ec ed] A. By ne O ice o he Vice P esiden o Sus ainabili y, Technological Uni e si y Dublin, G angego man, I eland P. Villo ia ·M. del Rio Escuela Técnica Supe io de Edi icación, Uni e sidad Poli écnica de Mad id, Mad id, Spain F. Ka aca Depa men o Ci il and En i onmen al Enginee ing, School o Enginee ing and Digi al Sciences, Naza baye Uni e si y, As ana, Kazakhs an R. Pineda-Ma os Depa amen o de Ingenie ía Ae oespacial y Mecánica de Fluidos, Escuela Técnica Supe io de Ingenie ía Ag onómica, Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se illa, Spain G. C. Ce an es Puma ISISE, ARISE, Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Minho, 4804-533 Guima ães, Po ugal © The Au ho (s) 2025 L. B agança e al. (eds.), Ci cula Economy Design and Managemen in he Buil En i onmen , Sp inge T ac s in Ci il Enginee ing, h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-73490-8_7 175 176 P. San os e al. like AI, obo ics, and blockchain is c ucial o op imizing was e managemen . Addi- ionally, educa ion on ci cula p ac ices is i al. By os e ing global collabo a ion, s anda dizing ci cula cons uc ion app oaches can lead o a mo e sus ainable and esilien building indus y. Keywo ds Ci cula economy ·Buildings ·Ci cula ma e ials ·S a egies · P inciples ·O e iew One o he main was e lows in he Eu opean Union (EU) is cons uc ion and demo- li ion was e (CDW), ep esen ing in 2018 a ound 36% o o al was e gene a ed [1]. Besides soils, conc e e, b icks, gypsum, wood, glass, me als, plas ic and sol en s a e he mos o en CDW ound in he EU-27 coun ies [2], exhibi ing no only a high esou ce alue, bu also a high po en ial o e-use and ecycling [1]. E en wi h high inancial penal ies, illegal ly- ipping o CDW con inues o ake place (Fig. 7.1). In his con ex , he EU has made he managemen o CDW a p io i y [3] and he Was e F amewo k Di ec i e (WFD) 2008/98/EC [4] imposed a manda o y eco e y a ge (70% eco e y a e o CDW in weigh by 2020). Included in hese eco e y ac i i ies a e “ he p epa a ion o non-haza dous CDW o e-use, ecycling and o he ma e ial eco e y, including back illing ope a ions” [1]. This chap e p esen s an upda ed e iew o ci cula ma e ial usage p inciples and s a egies wi hin he cons uc ion sec o . Fi s , some basic concep s abou ci cula economy and ma e ial usage a e p esen ed as an in oduc o y amewo k. Nex , he main p inciples o ci cula ma e ial usage a he design s age a e desc ibed. A e , he ci cula ma e ial usage s a egies and p inciples in cons uc ion ac i i ies a e p esen ed, including: ex ending li espan and end-o -li e s a egies, collabo a- i e app oaches and business models, echnological inno a ions, main ba ie s and enable s o ci cula ma e ial usage. Finally, o conclude his subsec ion, some bes Fig. 7.1 Cons uc ion and demo ion was e illegally disca ded in he middle o a o es 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 177 p ac ices ela ed o he p e ious heo e ical concep s abou ci cula ma e ial usage in he building indus y, a e illus a ed using some selec ed case s udies. 7.1 Unde s anding Ci cula Economy and Ma e ial Usage Sec ion The ci cula economy (CE) is a model o p oduc ion and consump ion which ocuses on e aining exis ing ma e ials and p oduc s as long as possible and educing was e [5]. Ci cula i y aims o mo e away om he adi ional linea model o ‘ ake-make- dispose’ whe e ma e ials a e ex ac ed, manu ac u ed in o p oduc s, and ul ima ely disposed o . Ins ead, i ocuses on c ea ing a closed-loop sys em whe e ma e ials a e con inuously eused, ecycled, o egene a ed o minimize he need o new esou ces and educe he en i onmen al impac . In he buil en i onmen , he e is no clea and accep ed de ini ion o a CE [6]. Howe e , a ci cula buil en i onmen can be a sus ainable app oach which ca e s o he g owing needs o he sec o wi hou causing addi ional de imen al impac s on he en i onmen . The EU has ag eed o educe g eenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 (o 1990 le els) and o become ca bon neu al by 2050 [7]. Al hough igu es luc ua e yea on yea , he Ci cula Economy Ac ion Plan [8] a ibu es 50% o ex ac ed ma e ial and 35% o he EU’s was e gene a ion o cons uc ion. The sec o accoun s o 5–12% o o al g eenhouse gas emissions h ough ma e ial ex ac ion, cons uc ion p oduc manu ac u e, and building wo k. This includes cemen , aluminium, s eel, b ick and glass p oduc ion which accoun o app oxima ely 9% o global ene gy ela ed CO2 emissions [9]. Con ounding his issue, 10–15% o building ma e ial is was ed du ing cons uc ion and he majo i y o demoli ion was e is cu en ly land illed in he EU [10]. Na ional cons uc ion and demoli ion was e (CDW) ecycling a es a y g ea ly ac oss Eu ope, om 10 o 90% [11]. A CE has he po en ial o educe global CO2 emissions om building ma e ials by 38% by 2050 [12,13]. Acco ding o he Ellen MacA hu Founda ion [14] he h ee p inciples o a CE a e: he elimina ion o was e and pollu ion, he use o ci cula p oduc s and ma e ials and hi dly, he egene a ion o na u e. Wi hin hese p inciples, he e a e se e al subca ego ies and concep s which will be discussed below. 7.1.1 Elimina ing Was e and Pollu ion The i s p inciple aims o mo e away om a linea sys em whe eby aw ma e- ials a e ex ac ed, consumed and e en ually h own la gely in o land ills and incin- e a o s. In ci cula design, aw ma e ials use is minimized, and ma e ials can be designed o emain in use o mul iple cycles by ollowing he R p inciples. The e a e many e sions o he R p inciples o a CE which a e based on he o iginal 3; 178 P. San os e al. Fig. 7.2 Ci cula i y hie a chy o p inciples in he p oduc chain wi h examples om cons uc ion. Based on a able by Po ing e al. [19] Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This can hen be subdi ided mul iple imes o make o up o 14 and e en 22 Rs [15,16]. Reike e al. [17] iden i ied 38 “ e-” wo ds, as lis ed nex by alphabe ic o de : “ e-assembly, ecap u e, econdi ioning, ecollec , eco e , ec ea e, ec i y, ecycle, edesign, edis ibu e, educe, e-en ision, e i , e u bish, e use, ema ke , emanu ac u e, eno a e, epai , eplacemen , ep ocess, ep oduce, epu pose, esale, esell, e-se ice, es o a ion, esyn hesize, e hink, e ie e, e o i , e og ade, e u n, euse, eu ilize, e enue, e e se and e i alize”. Ten o he mos common include: Re use/Rejec , Re hink, Reduce, Reuse, Repai , Re u bish,Remanu ac u e,Repu pose,RecycleandReco e .Figu e7.2indica es he hie a chy o hese, p io i ized om 1 o 10 based on maximizing esou ce e iciency, minimizing was e gene a ion, and highes alue c ea ion and e en ion. Recycling and eco e y a e anked lowes because o he loss o complex s a e and he need o highe ene gy inpu s [18]. 7.1.2 Use o Ci cula P oduc s and Ma e ials Ci cula Ma e ials used wi hin cons uc ion can be la gely di ided in o wo g oups; low o ze o-ca bon ma e ials such as wood and eused o eco e ed ma e ials wi h minimal ep ocessing o anspo - ela ed emissions [20]. The echnical cycle and he biological cycle suppo ci cula ma e ial use and a e illus a ed in Fig. 7.3. The echnical cycle on he igh in ol es ma e ials such as me als, conc e e, plas- ics, glass, o syn he ic composi es in building p oduc s. A he end o a s uc u e’s li e, o cons uc ion p oduc s’ li e, hese ma e ials a e eco e ed om he demoli- ion o decons uc ion p ocess, so ed and p ocessed be o e being ep ocessed o eused in cons uc ion o o he applica ions. The inne loops in he Fig. 7.3 bu e ly 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 179 Fig. 7.3 Ci cula economy bu e ly diag am in e p e ed o he cons uc ion indus y by O enhaus [22] diag am applied o he cons uc ion indus y, e ain mos alue in he ma e ial o p oduc . This is based on he mo e gene al ci cula economy bu e ly diag am [21], in which he inne mos loop, ‘Main enance’, p olongs he li e o he ma e ial o p oduc . This is ollowed by ‘Reusing’ and ‘Redis ibu ing’ which keeps ma e ials in hei o iginal o m and displaces he need o manu ac u e new i ems o ex ac new ma e ials. ‘Re u bishing’ and ‘Remanu ac u ing’ hen include some p ocessing and he ou mos loop, ‘Recycling’, is a las eso when o he op ions a e no possible. The biological cycle, o bio-loop, only includes ma e ials ha can be sa ely egen- e a edin he biosphe e ia compos ing o anae obic diges ion suchas imbe , bamboo o s aw. Ma e ials om he echnical cycle can end up in he biological cycle, once hey can no longe make a p oduc . The inne loops o he le side o he bu e ly diag am shows he ‘cascading p inciple’ which is he cascading use o enewable esou ces, wi h se e al euse and ecycling cycles [23]. Fo he cons uc ion indus y, hisismos applicable o imbe ,whichcouldbegini s i s p oduc li eassolid imbe beams and end i s i h li e being incine a ed o ene gy eco e y [24]. Cascading ensu es ha biogenic ca bon emains in he sys em o a longe pe iod o ime, esul ing in lowe en i onmen al bu dens and can suppo o he indus ies such as a ming ia eeds ock o soil e ilize [25]. 180 P. San os e al. 7.1.3 Regene a e Na u e Ci cula cons uc ion can con ibu e o he egene a ion o na u e by inco po a ing s a egies ha suppo ecological es o a ion, biodi e si y enhancemen , and sus ain- able land managemen p ac ices. The a o emen ioned biological cycle con ibu es o biodi e si y and ecosys em heal h by p omo ing he use o enewable ma e ials ha can be eg own and eplenished. Main aining ma e ials in use also con ibu es o his p inciple as less land is equi ed o sou cing i gin aw ma e ials, which allows mo e land o be e u ned o na u e. While ci cula cons uc ion ma e ials hold g ea po en ial o sus ainable and esou ce-e icien building p ac ices, he e a e se e al challenges ha need o be add essed o acili a e widesp ead adop ion. The de ails o he challenges aced can be speci ic o each s akeholde ’s ole. Howe e , hey can be b oadly g ouped as economic, in o ma ional, ins i u ional, poli ical and echnical challenges [26] wi h commonly encoun e ed subca ego ies lis ed in Table 7.1. A key challenge in he sec o is he olume o exis ing buildings no designed o decons uc ion, con aining oxic ma e ials, and lacking de ailed documen a ion [28]. Reused ma e ials equi e addi ional ime and mo e quali ied labou , and he e is a lack o ma ke mechanisms o aid eco e y [6]. A sys em needs o be de eloped Table 7.1 Challenge a eas o a ci cula buil en i onmen compiled om e iew a icles [6,26, 27] Challenge subca ego ies Challenge Economic – Lack o g an s/unclea inancial case – Lack o inancial aid, incen i es o sho - e m bene i s – Low alue o ci cula ma e ials – Cos o up on in es men In o ma ional – Lack o esea ch, educa ion and in o ma ion – Lack o awa eness, in e es and knowledge – Lack o bes p ac ice case s udies and leade ship Ins i u ional/s uc u al – Lack o s a egic ision and collabo a i e pla o ms – F agmen ed supply chains – Lack o ma ke mechanisms o eco e y Poli ical – Lack o egula o y ins umen s/ egula o y p essu e – Lack o ax ac ions – Lack o ci cula ision Technological – Lack o in eg a ed p ocesses, ools, and p ac ices – Lack o an in o ma ion managemen sys em – Complexi y o buildings – Technology and in as uc u e eadiness 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 181 which suppo s he use o ci cula ma e ials which includes quali y assu ance, s an- da diza ion, ce i ica ion and classi ica ion, mechanisms o anspo and s o age and access o he ma ke [26,29]. Finances, o lack o inancial case, we e iden i ied as a leading ba ie o s ake- holde s [6,10,27]. Fo ci cula cons uc ion ma e ials, his includes he high a ail- abili y and low cos [27] o i gin aw ma e ial, he cos o decons uc ion, he wo k in ol ed in p o iding he ma e ial o euse, he cos o ecycled/ eused ma e ials, and he lack o ewa d o penal y [26]. Ins i u ional o in o ma ional challenges include he lack o guidance and ools, and lack o knowledge [26]. S akeholde s h oughou cons uc ion alue chains in Eu ope a e un amilia wi h how CE p inciples do o could ope a e in he buil en i- onmen , wi h many unable o iden i y i s s eps in ini ia ing he ansi ion o a CE [10]. Add essing hese challenges equi es collabo a i e e o s om a ious s ake- holde s, including policymake s, indus y p o essionals, esea che s, and end use s. O e coming hese ba ie s will pa e he way o a mo e widesp ead adop ion o ci cula cons uc ion ma e ials, howe e he e is a need ini ially o p o ide e idence, compile bes p ac ice examples and de elop guidance. 7.2 Design P inciples o Ci cula Ma e ial Usage 7.2.1 Designing o Ci cula i y The e a e se e al p inciples wi hin he design s age o p omo e ci cula i y in building cons uc ions. These p inciples can be clus e ed in o he ollowing poin s [30,31]: – Design s anda dized p oduc s and ma e ials, using egula and simple modula shapes o a oid was e. – Design o dec ease he need o ex ac and p oduce i gin ma e ials. – Design using eco e ed ma e ials: by de ec ing unused ma e ials om echnical o na u al lows and ans o ming hem in o ci cula ma e ials which can be inco po- a ed wi hin he p oduc ion o new ma e ials and p oduc s, p omo ing he design o ma e ials wi h high ecycled con en . – Design du able ma e ials so ha hey can p olong hei use in he building and he e o e inc ease li e ime and delay he end-o -use cycle. – Design conside ing he se ing p ocedu e o he ma e ials, so ha he ma e ials can be easily disassembled: Ma e ials should be designed hinking ha , when placed in a cons uc ion p ojec , hey should allow decons uc ion and p omo e euse and ecycling. Fo example, using mechanical join s o a oid he use o binde s and adhesi es. 182 P. San os e al. 7.2.2 Ma e ial Selec ion and Managemen The cons uc ion sec o , in pa icula , plays a pi o al ole in ansi ioning owa ds a less esou ce-in ensi e economy by maximizing he use and eco e y o esou ces in building design and cons uc ion. Sus ainable ma e ial sou cing and e icien ecycling echniques a e c ucial o achie ing a ci cula economy. 1. C i e ia o Selec ing Ci cula Ma e ials The EU emphasizes he signi icance o applying ci cula economy (CE) p inciples ac ossall economic sec o s, wi h a pa icula ocuson wa e and ene gyconse a ion, was e p e en ion, ma e ial ecycling, p omo ion o euse and epai , and u iliza ion o seconda y aw ma e ials [32]. CE in he cons uc ion sec o aims o maximize he use and eco e y o esou ces and buildings, educing he en i onmen al impac . Thus, i is o impo ance ha designs aim o ex end he use ul li e o buildings h ough ehabili a ion, using ecy- clable ma e ials; and he usage o new indus ialized long-li e ma e ials based on eco e ed and alued esou ces. Addi ionally, adop ing new indus ialized long-li e ma e ials de i ed om eco e ed and alued esou ces can con ibu e o sus ainable p ac ices [33]. By implemen ing hese ecommenda ions, he cons uc ion sec o can play a pi o al ole in ansi ioning owa ds a less esou ce-in ensi e economy and os e ing ci cula i y. This app oach aligns wi h he b oade objec i es o he CE, such as educing was e gene a ion, conse ing esou ces, and p omo ing sus ainable ma e ial use. 2. Sus ainable Ma e ial Sou cing Rega ding he a ailabili y o aw ma e ials, c i ical aw ma e ials a e o pa icula impo ance as hei g ea economic impo ance o he Eu opean Union (EU); e y sensi i e o supply in e up ion; and being hei ex ac ion o a signi ican impac on he en i onmen . C i ical aw ma e ials—e.g., li hium, a e o en p esen in elec onic de ices. The cu en low ecycling a e o hese ma e ials means ha signi ican economic oppo uni ies a e being los . Thus, he undamen al di ec ions ha he ci cula i y s a egy mus ake a he Eu opean le el a e hose ha conside he need o inco po a e hese ma e ials in o educ ion, euse and ecycling p ac ices. To achie e au onomywi h espec o hesema e ials, heEUp oposes di e si iedand undis o ed access o global aw ma e ials ma ke s, while seeking o educe ex e nal dependence on hese ma e ials as well as he en i onmen al p essu es associa ed wi h hei impo [32]. 3. Ma e ial E iciency and Recycling Techniques TheEUinsis son heimpo anceo incen i es o headop iono e iciencymeasu es in he use o esou ces and o inc easing ecycling, eco-inno a i e pe o mance, and in es men s in g een p oduc s and se ices [32]. To mo e owa ds an economic model o ma e ial e iciency, economic p io i ies and li es yles mus be in line wi h educing excessi e economic ma e ial dependence by applying he p inciples o ci cula i y—i.e., educe and euse be o e ecycling [32]. Fundamen al aspec s o CE 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 183 Fig. 7.4 Impo an ecycle poin s (Sou ce au ho s, based on Si uación y e olución de la economía ci cula en by Mo a ó e al. [32]) ela ed o ecycling a e: (i) design o ien ed owa ds economy o ma e ials and ene gy, use o ecyclable and enewable ma e ials, and easy disassembly and eplacemen o ma e ials and componen s; and, (ii) ecycling and eco e y o non- eusable ma e ials [33]. Was e p e en ion con inues o pose a majo challenge in all Membe S a es o he EU, including hose wi h high ecycling a es [32]. The use o ecycled ma e ials can con ibu e o pa ially co e ing he o al demand o ma e ials, hus educing he ex ac ion o aw ma e ials. C ea ing e icien seconda y ma e ials ma ke s enables highe alue ecycling cycles since mos ma e ials a e ecycled a e disassembly. The p inciples a e ou lined in Fig. 7.4. 4. Li ecycle Assessmen and Ma e ial Managemen P oduc ion sys ems conce ning e icien use o ma e ials—gi en p io i y o ac i i- ies allowing he de elopmen o CE p inciples om he beginning o he p oduc ion p ocess phases, and no only in i s inal dimensions; i.e., ecycling and econ e - sion o was e—would se e as ecommenda ions aimed a he change o economic models and he ansi ion owa ds a less esou ce-in ensi e economy. E icien use o ma e ials in p oduc ion sys ems is a c i ical aspec o he CE. I is essen ial o p io i ize ac i i ies ha p omo e CE p inciples om he beginning o he p oduc ion p ocess phases, a he han only ocusing on ecycling and econ e sion o was e in i s inal dimensions. 190 P. San os e al. 7.3.2 Collabo a i e App oaches and Business Models In his sec ion, some o he inno a ions in business models ha a e a ec ing he cons uc ion sec o in a ou o CE applied o i s p oduc s a e collec ed. 1. Ci cula Supply Chains and Ne wo ks Cu en ly, he con e sion o adi ional linea supply chains in o ci cula ones o imp o e he managemen o na u al esou ces and educe he olume o was e p oduced is included as one o he goals o he ansi ion o he cons uc ion sec o owa ds CE [82]. The amoun o ma e ial los in demoli ion p ocesses is equi alen o 40% o he o al mass o aw ma e ials ex ac ed in p oduc ion, making he cons uc- ion indus y one o he mos pollu ing indus ies globally [9]. In his sense, one o he mos ambi ious a ge s included in CE is “closing he loop” in he lows o aw ma e ials and esou ces used h oughou he li e cycle o cons uc ion p oduc s [42, 49,83]. Figu e 7.7 p o ides a schema ic o e iew o he ela ionship be ween he s ages wi hin he supply chain and he s akeholde s. In his gene al o e iew, a ansi ion owa ds CE in he building ma e ials supply chain equi es a join e o o all pa icipan s included in he ne wo k [84]. The e- o e, i is necessa y o inc ease anspa ency, a oiding possible weaknesses in he chain and gaps in he ag eemen s. This would gene a e oppo uni ies o indus- ial symbiosis and he in eg a ion o e e se logis ics in manu ac u ing p ocesses, mo ing owa ds a edesign o cu en indus ial p ocesses and imp o ing coo dina- ion be ween esou ces/in en o ies [49]. On he o he hand, he c ea ion o a well- de ined ma ke o CDW would make i possible o inc ease consume demand o hese ecycledp oduc s, mo ing owa dsag eensupplychain ha in eg a es he en i- onmen al cos s de i ed om he p oduc dis ibu ion p ocess [26]. In addi ion, o a ansi ion owa ds ci cula i y in he cons uc ion sec o , i is necessa y o eco e he seconda y aw ma e ials gene a ed in demolished buildings a he end o hei use ul li e and, in u n, o analyse hei iabili y o ecycling, eco e y o einco po a ion Fig. 7.7 Fullsupplychaincycleands akeholde sin ol ed(Sou ce ownelabo a ionbasedon Cheng e al. [82]) 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 191 in he p oduc ion o new p oduc s [85]. A his poin , se e al au ho s ag ee on he impo ance o educing and sepa a ing CDW a sou ce o imp o e i s managemen p ocess [86]. Wi h his sepa a ion a he s a ing poin , he logis ical cos s and en i- onmen al impac in e ms o CO2equi alen emissions de i ed om anspo o he p ocessing plan would be educed, so ha bo h anspo jou neys and anspo ed mass would be educed. 2. Sha ing Economy and P oduc -as-a-Se ice Models Indus ial s a egies o alue c ea ion ha e changed adically in ecen yea s as a consequence o globalisa ion and p og essi e echnological de elopmen [87]. This e olu ion has a ec ed he cons uc ion indus y, which is e ol ing om p oduc p ocu emen -cen ed hinking owa ds p oduc -se ice sys ems (PSS) [88]. In his way, building p oduc manu ac u e s a e o ced o edesign hei manu ac u ing p ocesses and complexi y inc eases in he ea ly s ages o de elopmen o accom- moda e his new business model [89]. By o e ing p oduc -associa ed unc ionali y, manu ac u e s a e obliged o ha e a deep unde s anding o how hei p oduc s beha e a e con inuous use, which p o ides addi ional mo i a ion o imp o e he skills associa ed wi h he enginee ing and p oduc design s ages h ough expe ience [90]. Howe e , as in o he indus ial sec o s, he e mus be a ecep i eness on he pa o consume s when i comes o accep ing his p oduc and se ice model. In his ega d, Fig. 7.8 schema ically shows he ex e nal and in e nal ac o s ound in he li e a u e ha o a ce ain ex en condi ion he accep ance o his business model in cons uc ion. Se e al au ho s ha e wo ked wi h his business model ying o adap di e en p oduc s o his “se i isa ion” p ocess. Examples a e linked o cons uc ion equip- men [87], cons uc ion machine y [90], p e ab ica ed building componen s [91] o building componen s [92]. Impo an ly, he p oduc -as-a-se ice model b ings Fig. 7.8 In e nalandex e nalde e minan so p oduc -as-a-se icemodels(Sou ce ownelabo a ion based on Cook e al. [89]) 192 P. San os e al. ad an ages om an en i onmen al poin o iew, conside ing he ull li e cycle o he p oduc and i s subsequen eco e y possibili ies [93], as well as con inuous imp o emen based on in o ma ion sha ing ha boos s he sus ainabili y o building p oduc s [88]. Finally, and in ela ion o he p oduc -as-a-se ice business model, i is wo h highligh ing how in ecen decades he collabo a i e economy has been encou aged o p omo e sus ainabili y. This concep add esses he possibili y o using high-p iced physical asse s wi hou he need o buy hem, educing was e due o obsolescence o disuse [91]. Fu he mo e, hanks o he ad ancemen o in o ma ion and commu- nica ion echnologies, i is possible o p omo e a mo e democ a ic o ganiza ion and educe in o ma ion asymme ies in a ou o a CE in cons uc ion [94]. 3. Ex ended P oduc Responsibili y Ex ended p oduc esponsibili y (EPR) was i s de ined a he beginning o he cen u y by Lindhq is as a s a egy o p o ec he en i onmen and is in ended o ensu e ha any p oduc manu ac u e akes esponsibili y o i s en i e li e cycle, inco po a ing he s ages o eco e y, ecycling, collec ion and disposal [95]. This app oach would change he cu en p oduc ion model a ec ing he cons uc ion indus y by egula izing and se ing he ules o he p ope managemen o cons uc- ion and demoli ion was e in line wi h he Eu opean G een Deal guidelines [1]. This app oachisal eadybeingadap ed o ce ainp oduc sa ound hewo ld,suchasEu o- pean legisla ion o plas ic p oduc s [96], o ai condi ione s and washing machines in Japan [97]. Howe e , inal cons uc ion p oduc s, unde s ood as ci il in as uc u es o build- ings, a e complex and ailo -made en i ies in each design, which makes i di icul o s anda dize and ace he p o o ypes p oduced o he ma ke [98]. In his sense, i is possible o hink o an EPR localized o he main aw ma e ials used in he elabo a ion o cons uc ion sys ems. Howe e , he use ul li e o hese is a ely less han 50 yea s and i is di icul o manage he inal managemen o hese p oduc s [98]. The e o e,as a as EPR isconce ned,i isnecessa y o examinecu en ini ia i es, egula ions and p ac ices in he cons uc ion sec o o unde s and hei sui abili y and abili y o add ess he issue o end-o -li e managemen o CDW [99]. Only in his way, i will be possible o build a legisla i e amewo k o building and ci il wo ks, buil on he “pollu e pays” p inciple, encou aging p oduce s o inco po a e CE c i e ia in hei manu ac u ing p ocesses, p omo ing eco-design and suppo ing he ecycling, eco e y and inal euse o cons uc ion p oduc s [100,101]. 4. Public–P i a e Pa ne ships and Policy Implica ions Public–p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs) a e a use ul ool in he cons uc ion sec o o le e age public esou ces and p i a e managemen expe ise in mo ing owa ds a ci cula and sus ainable economy [102]. These pa ne ships a e es ablished based on a long- e m ela ionship o us , whe e esou ces, knowledge, skills and sha ed 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 193 Table 7.3 Ad an ages and disad an ages o public–p i a e pa ne ships in he cons uc ion sec o (Sou ce Bao e al. [109]) Ad an ages Disad an ages ✓Public sec o s can alle ia e esponsibili y ✓Long nego ia ion pe iods ✓P i a e sec o s can mode a e in es men ✓Lack o lexibili y ✓Public sec o s can d aw on p i a e sec o expe ise ✓Inequali y o isk and e u n ✓Public–p i a e pa ne ship is s eng hened in he long e m ✓Lack o anspa ency in Ag eemen s esponsibili y o decision-making a e exchanged [103,104]. Howe e , hese pa - ne ships a e no always a ou able and ha e se e al ad an ages and disad an ages ha can be seen in Table 7.3. While i is ue ha PPPs a e commonly accep ed in he de elopmen o acili ies, including design, inancing and implemen a ion [105], such as he supply o d inking wa e in la ge ci ies [106], in was e managemen o a CE he e is s ill a long way o go. In he EU, p og ess is being made owa ds a policy amewo k o p omo e such an ag eemen o educe he en i onmen al impac o he cons uc ion sec o [107]. Howe e , his ansi ion is slow and o en no as e icien as desi ed and making in as uc u e esilien will equi e a change o mindse on he pa o p i a e managemen and las ing suppo om go e nmen s [108]. 7.3.3 Technological Inno a ions o Ci cula Ma e ial Usage CE cons i u es an impulse o imp o ing he p oduc i i y o he cons uc ion sec o wi h a need o in es men in echnology and digi alisa ion. Acco ding o Fe e e al. [33], he scale and e iciency o ne wo ks o ecycled, alued and eco e ed cons uc ion ma e ials a e undamen al o he ollowing poin s ou lined in Fig. 7.9. Inno a ion ecosys ems o boos e-indus ializa ion and sus ainabili y in he cons uc ion sec o ad oca e he p omo ion and suppo o R +D+I (Resea ch, De elopmen and Inno a ion) and knowledge ans e ins umen s on: echnologies 4.0; ecycling and eco e y o ma e ials and componen s which a e mo e complex o ecycle (plas ics, composi es, was e); p oduc i i y imp o emen s in componen manu ac u ing and eco e y (3D, obo ics, A i icial In elligence (AI), In e ne o Things (IoT); new long-las ing ma e ials; and ma e ials aceabili y echnologies (blockchain) [33]. 1. Ad anced Recycling Technologies Resou ce eco e y as business model and d i e o CE ocuses p ima ily on eco e y o used ma e ials o ene gy om was e—e.g., ecycled s eel and ib es, and ecycled agg ega es o hei use in cons uc ion o in o he sec o s; being indus ial and 194 P. San os e al. Fig. 7.9 Fundamen als in ci cula ma e ial usage (Sou ce own elabo a ion based on Fe e e al. [33]) ene gy symbiosis among complemen a y sec o s essen ial o he adop ion o he CE p inciples [33]. In he con ex o cons uc ion, disassembly and ecycling bes p ac ices a e employed o e alue he use o cons uc ion was e, which is o en conside ed “low alue” ma e ial. Tes ing me hods o disassembly, ea men , and ecycling would help o op imize he eco e y and euse o ma e ials, con ibu ing o he e icien use o esou ces in he p oduc ion p ocess [33]. By implemen ing hese ad anced ecycling echnologies, he cons uc ion indus y can educe was e, minimize he ex ac ion o i gin esou ces, and p omo e a mo e sus ainable app oach o ma e ials managemen . Fu he mo e, hese echnologies enable he ans o ma ion o was e in o aluable esou ces, p omo ing he de elopmen o a CE. Recycled s eel, ib es, and agg ega es can be u ilized in a ious sec o s, including cons uc ion; c ea ing a closed-loop sys em whe e ma e ials a e con inuously eused and ecycled. This no only educes he en i onmen al impac o esou ce ex ac ion bu also con ibu es o he de elopmen o a mo e esou ce-e icien and less was e ul economy [110]. O e all, ad anced ecycling echnologies and esou ce eco e y play a c ucial ole in d i ing he ansi ion owa ds a CE by maximizing he alue o was e ma e ials and minimizing esou ce consump ion. By adop ing hese echnologies and p inciples, indus ies can con ibu e o a mo e sus ainable and esou ce-e icien u u e. 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 195 2. In elligen So ing and Sepa a ion Sys ems In elligen so ing and sepa a ion sys ems a e pi o al in ad ancing he p inciples o he CE by enhancing he e iciency and e ec i eness o was e managemen and esou ce eco e y p ocesses. These sys ems le e age cu ing-edge echnologies such as AI, machine lea ning, compu e ision, and obo ics o accu a ely iden i y, so , and seg ega e di e se ma e ials. This enables hei app op ia e ecycling, euse, o eco e y, he ebyp omo ingsus ainablep ac ices.Byau oma ing heso ingp ocess, hese sys ems enhance he pu i y and quali y o eco e ed ma e ials, augmen ing hei alue o subsequen euse o ecycling. Mo eo e , hey op imize esou ce allo- ca ion by dynamically adjus ing pa ame e s, such as con eyo speed and senso se ings, he eby maximizing e iciency while minimizing was e. These sys ems also play a c i ical ole in de ec ing and elimina ing con aminan s, he eby imp o ing he quali y o eco e ed ma e ials and mi iga ing he isk o c oss-con amina ion. Wi h hei excep ional accu acy and speed in so ing, hey educe manual labou equi e- men s, inc ease h oughpu capaci y, and enable he p ocessing o la ge olumes o was e. Fu he mo e, in elligen so ing sys ems gene a e aluable da a pe aining o was e composi ion, quan i y, and quali y [33]. This da a-d i en app oach acili a es in o med decision-making, p ocess op imiza ion, and he de elopmen o no el ecy- cling echnologies. By in eg a ing in o ci cula supply chains, hese sys ems acili- a e he e icien eco e y and ein oduc ion o ecycled ma e ials, he eby closing he loop in he CE. As echnology con inues o ad ance, hese sys ems a e poised o makesigni ican con ibu ions o esou cee iciency,was e educ ion,andsus ainable ma e ial u iliza ion. 3. Digi alisa ion and Blockchain Applica ions The p omo ion o he gua an eed sys em o componen s and spa e pa s, digi al aceabili y (Eu opean passpo ) and associa ed documen a ion a e equi emen s o he deli e y o sus ainable and ci cula buil en i onmen [33]. Complemen a ily, inancial aid o in es men s by indus ialized and sus ainable cons uc ion compa- nies—e.g., modula design, BIM (Building In o ma ion Modelling), IoT digi aliza- ion, 3D p in ing, cu ing obo ics, …—, and suppo o componen s’ banks and ma e ial passpo s, a e p oposed as d i e s o o e s in public–p i a e collabo a ion [33]. Rega ding ci cula i y o ma e ials, blockchain solu ion o ma e ials passpo emb aces echnology agains he low anspa ency and aceabili y o he ma e ials used—e.g., ib e pla es, s eels, coa ings, acades. Collabo a i e design and manu ac- u ing (BIM, IoT, …) bene i by he a ailabili y o new echnologies which in eg a e design, wi h p oduc ion and deli e y sys ems—JIT (Jus -In-Time) deli e y—a he cons uc ion si e. 4. Robo ic Decons uc ion Technological inno a ions in decons uc ion include ad anced ools and echniques used o disman le and epu pose buildings and s uc u es in a mo e e icien , sus ain- able, and p o i able manne . These inno a ions aim o educe was e, minimize en i- onmen al impac , and imp o e sa e y du ing he decons uc ion p ocess. The use 196 P. San os e al. o obo s o decons uc ion is a p omising app oach ha can imp o e e iciency and sus ainabili y in he cons uc ion indus y. T adi ional demoli ion me hods ha e signi ican isks and en i onmen al impac s, especially in conges ed u ban a eas [111].In Japan, al e na i eme hods using Single-Task Cons uc ion Robo s (STCRs) andsemi-au oma edon-si e ac o iesha ebeende eloped oadd esslegal,economic, and ecological needs. Howe e , implemen ing adi ional indus ial obo s in a decons uc ion en i onmen poses challenges, pa icula ly in e ms o human– obo in e ac ion and collabo a ion. To o e come hese challenges, e icien human– obo collabo a ion is conside ed in he design o decons uc ion STCRs. Addi ionally, he applica ion o he Robo -O ien ed Design me hod can make he ope a ion o he decons uc ion sys em mo e e icien . Building componen s should be compa ible wi h obo ic applica ions, and connec o s and join s be ween componen s should p o ide easy access o equipmen du ing he disassembly phase. The use o obo s o decons uc ion can sa e ene gy, money, and ime while minimizing casual ies and dis u bance o he economic en i onmen [111]. A amewo k o he e alua ion o obo -assis ed, sys emized decons uc ion has been p oposed, which includes pe o - mance indica o s ha can be adjus ed based on s akeholde pe spec i es. O e all, he use o obo s in decons uc ion o e s a scalable and sus ainable solu ion o he indus y. 5. Eme ging Ma e ials and Sus ainable Manu ac u ing P ocesses Inno a ion in ma e ials, sus ainable design, and he de elopmen o al e na i e ech- nologies ha equi e di e en ma e ials can help mi iga e supply isk. Solu ions o educe he ecological oo p in and inc ease ma e ial eco e y o imp o e he sa e y and compe i i eness o p oduc ion p ocesses a e wi hin each. Howe e , global scena ios con inue o p esen g ea e complexi y and compe i ion o na u al esou ces [32]. The du a ion and oo p in s o ca bon dioxide (CO2), wa e and ma e ial consump ion a e lowe in indus ialized sys ems, being he en i onmen al impac o ci cula and sus ainable indus ialized cons uc ion suscep ible o di e en modelling scena ios o ecycling pe cen age [33]. 7.3.4 Ba ie s and Enable s o Ci cula Ma e ial Usage Ex ensi e li e a u e has iden i ied ba ie s and enable s o de eloping a ci cula economy in he cons uc ion sec o . Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha a ci cula economy is a mul idimensional concep , and a close inspec ion o exis ing li e - a u e e eals ha ba ie s and enable s ha e p ima ily ocused on he echnical aspec s o ma e ials and p oduc s. Acco ding o a ecen s udy by Cha e e al. [112], ba ie s o he de elopmen o a ci cula economy in he cons uc ion sec o can be ca ego ized in o six dis inc ypes: economic ( e e ing o ma ke ba ie s), socio- logical (pe aining o cul u al o psychological obs acles), poli ical, o ganiza ional (in ol ing s akeholde s), echnological, and en i onmen al (conce ning ecological impac ). Simila ly, Ababio and Lu [113] iden i ied i e ca ego ies o ba ie s: social 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 197 and cul u al, poli ical and legisla i e, inancial and economic, echnological, and amewo k and heo y ela ed. While esea ch on ba ie s o ci cula economy de elopmen has been ex ensi e, s udies on enable s o he ci cula economy ha e ye o be conduc ed o he same ex en .AbabioandLu [113]ha edepa ed om classi yingandlis ingenable sunde speci ic ca ego ies and ins ead discussed hem unde b oade hemes. Gene ally, enable s a e ela ed o echnology and inno a ion, policy, educa ion and awa eness, as well as inancing and ma ke c ea ion. I is impo an o no e ha a comp ehensi e unde s anding o bo h ba ie s and enable s is c i ical o p omo ing a success ul ansi ion o a ci cula economy in he cons uc ion sec o . This pa o he epo ocuses on he ma e ial usage- ela ed ba ie s o enable s add essed in he li e a u e. They a e discussed unde ou ca ego ies. 1. Economic and Regula o y Ba ie s Nume ous s udies ha e iden i ied insu icien and imma u e ma ke s, as well as a lack o demand o eused and ecycled ma e ials, as he p ima y economic ba ie s o he implemen a ion o ci cula economy p ac ices in he cons uc ion sec o [114–116]. These s udies also sugges ha he cons uc ion indus y is o en c i icized o i s poo lexibili y in adop ing inno a i e p ac ices due o he pe cei ed isk o losing p o i s [112,115]. In he cons uc ion sec o , adop ing CE p ac ices is me wi h a majo challenge— he highe esou ce cos associa ed wi h decons uc ion compa ed o demoli ion. Mo eo e , i gin ma e ials end o be less expensi e han ecycled ma e ials, while ecycling cos s mo e han he disposal o CDW. Un o una ely, he ecen COVID- 19 pandemic has only wo sened hese challenges by s alling economic de elopmen and inc easing he use o single-use ma e ials. The implemen a ion o CE p ac ices in he cons uc ion indus y equi es signi ican in es men s, such as he enewal o equipmen [116]. Mo eo e , ou da ed legisla ion and he lack o s anda dized guides ega ding design and p ocu emen p ocedu es a e majo egula o y ba ie s o CE de elopmen [112,117]. Addi ionally, a lack o go e nmen suppo and he absence o suppo om public ins i u ions ha e been highligh ed as c i ical ba ie s o CE adop ion [112,118]. In o de o p omo e he in eg a ion o ci cula economy p ac ices in he cons uc- ion indus y, i is necessa y o adop new business models and me hods o e alu- a ing asse s ha p io i ize ma e ial alue. Fo ins ance, long- e m in es men s can be made o suppo he ci cula economy business case by u ilizing whole-li e cos ing. Ano he oppo uni y p esen ed by he implemen a ion o ci cula economy p ac ices is he abili y o ans o m he business model in o a p oduc -as-a-se ice con ac (PSS), as no ed by Rizos e al. [119]. Enable s ha ha e been commonly iden i- ied include design-build-ope a e-main ain con ac s and hei a ia ions, acco ding o Ababio and Lu [113]. Fu he mo e, s akeholde s in he cons uc ion indus y ha e epo ed ha implemen ing ci cula economy p ac ices can o e mo e lexible wo king a angemen s, as To gau o e al. [117] epo ed. 198 P. San os e al. 2. Cul u al and Beha iou al Challenges Cul u al and beha iou al changes can p esen signi ican obs acles o he adop ion o inno a i e p ac ices in he cons uc ion indus y. This sec o is known o i s conse a i e na u e and esis ance o new ideas ha challenge exis ing a i udes, cus oms, and belie s. Some o he cul u al issues ha hinde he adop ion o ci cula economy (CE) and sus ainabili y p ac ices among cons uc ion s akeholde s include a lack o awa eness, eluc ance, and isk a e sion. Mo eo e , he e is a p e e ence o i gin cons uc ion ma e ials o e eused and ecycled p oduc s, which is ein o ced by ing ained belie s ha ci cula economy p ac ices a e no easible [112,118]. Se e al s udies ha e in es iga ed s akeholde s’ pe cep ions o he adop ion o CE p ac ices in he cons uc ion indus y. The li e a u e e iewed in his sec ion highligh s ha con ac o s a e hesi an o use e u bished and ecycled ma e ials in hei cons uc ion due o conce ns abou a po en ial dec ease in he quali y o hei p oduc s [27,112,118]. Cus ome s, on he o he hand, may no p e e buildings cons uc ed using old ma e ials. Addi ionally, he quali y o eco e ed ma e ials is o en pe cei ed as in e io o i gin ma e ials, u he uelling scep icism abou he easibili y o CE p ac ices [117]. 3. S akeholde Engagemen and Awa eness In o de o acili a e he widesp ead adop ion o ci cula economy (CE) p ac ices in he cons uc ion indus y, i is impo an o add ess he exis ing cul u al and beha iou al ba ie s. This can be achie ed h ough a a ie y o means, such as educa- ion,awa eness- aising, and cul u al change ini ia i es. By doing so, s akeholde s can wo k owa ds c ea ing a mo e sus ainable and ci cula economy, which would no only bene i he indus y bu also he en i onmen . One e ec i e enabling ool o inc easing awa eness, changing a i udes, and a ec ing beha iou s is dialogue [113]. This can in ol e open and hones commu- nica ion be ween di e en g oups o s akeholde s, including indus y p o essionals, academics, and go e nmen o icials. Th ough dialogue, s akeholde s can gain a be e unde s anding o each o he ’s pe spec i es and wo k collabo a i ely owa ds inding solu ions o indus y challenges. Academic cu icula and p o essional wo kshops a e also impo an enable s o cap u ing CE and i s ange o sus ainable p ac ices [113]. These educa ional oppo u- ni iesp o ides akeholde swi h he equisi eideas and knowledge oadd essindus y challenges. Addi ionally, hey help o ensu e ha indus y p o essionals a e equipped wi h he skills and expe ise needed o implemen sus ainable p ac ices in hei wo k. By in es ing in educa ion and aining oppo uni ies, s akeholde s can wo k owa ds a mo e sus ainable and ci cula economy in he cons uc ion indus y. 4. Go e nmen al Suppo and Incen i es The global cons uc ion indus y is acing a signi ican challenge in emb acing ci cula p ac ices and business models due o he absence o adequa e policies, laws, and amewo ks. The lack o go e nmen suppo , such as inancial aid o ax incen i es, is making i less economically easible o in es in ci cula models, 7 Ci cula Ma e ial Usage S a egies—P inciples 199 and as a esul , discou aging hei adop ion. The absence o egula o y p essu e and s ic laws also ails o es ablish he necessa y u gency o ci cula i y, and he equi ed beha iou al changes in he cons uc ion indus y a e no aking place. This is a p essing issue ha needs o be add essed so ha he cons uc ion indus y can mo e owa ds a mo e sus ainable and ci cula u u e [27]. Sus ainable de elopmen is becoming inc easingly essen ial, and as a esul , ci cula buildings a e gaining popula i y. The main objec i e o ci cula buildings is o os e he idea o “building as a ma e ial bank” [115], whe e he ma e ials used in he cons uc ion a e s o ed and eused when he building’s li e comes o an end. Howe e , his can only be achie ed i he e is a inancial incen i e o design buildings ha can be easily decons uc ed and econs uc ed. I is wo h no ing ha ci cula buildings a e gene ally mo e cos ly han adi ional buildings. The ci cula economy in he cons uc ion indus y is a complex issue ha equi es he in ol emen o all s akeholde s, including go e nmen s, in es o s, designe s, cons uc o s, and use s. The ansi ion owa ds ci cula p ac ices equi es a signi i- can change in mindse and app oach, as well as he adop ion o new echnologies and sys ems. None heless, he bene i s o ci cula i y in he cons uc ion indus y a e a - eaching, including educed was e and ca bon emissions, inc eased esou ce e i- ciency, and imp o ed social and economic ou comes. The e o e, i is essen ial o all s akeholde s o collabo a e and wo k owa ds a mo e sus ainable u u e o he cons uc ion indus y. 7.4 Case S udies and Bes P ac ices 7.4.1 Case S udy 1—Gonsi Sóc a es Bio-building (Ba celona, Spain) Figu e 7.10 shows he Gonsi Sóc a es Bio-Building which was buil by Cons ucía Company. They ollowed he Lean2C adle®ci cula cons uc ion me hodology [120]. Almos all he building ma e ials (99%) we e cha ac e ized and i s compo- nen s we e e iewed, and up o 50 ypes o ma e ials we e in en o ied. Among hese ma e ials, 89% (8,400 ons) will no become was e a hei end-o -li e bu ha e a ci cula way o be ein oduced in o he p oduc ion p ocess. Thus, when he use ul li e o he building ends, hey can be eused, epai ed o ecycled in he way ha is mos con enien a ha ime, allowing hem o p ese e g ea e alue o he nex use [121]. 206 P. San os e al. conse ing esou ces, and os e ing inno a ion. Fu he mo e, in eg a ing hese p in- ciples suppo s he b oade global sus ainabili y agenda, signi ican ly ad ancing CE p ac ices beyond he cons uc ion sec o . This chap e ela ed o implemen ing CE p inciples in he cons uc ion indus y has e ealed c ucial insigh s o enhancing sus ainabili y and educing en i on- men al impac . Howe e , he slow adop ion o hese p inciples is due o indus y- speci ic ba ie s such as limi ed knowledge and expe ience. The e o e, a collec- i e e o o educa e and dissemina e in o ma ion is essen ial o o e come hese obs acles. Emb acing inno a ion o e s a p omising pa h o p omo ing ci cula i y. Success ul case s udies o ci cula p ac ices can p o ide aluable insigh s o wide indus y adop ion. De eloping obus egula o y amewo ks can incen i ize sus ain- able p ac ices, and in eg a ing ad anced echnologies can op imize was e manage- men p ocesses. Educa ion on ci cula p ac ices is i al, and global collabo a ion is essen ial o s anda dizing uni e sally accep ed app oaches. Re e ences 1. Moschen-Schimek J, Kaspe T, Hube -Hume M (2023) C i ical e iew o he eco e y a es o cons uc ion and demoli ion was e in he Eu opean Union—an analysis o in luencing ac o s in selec ed EU coun ies. Was e Manag Else ie L d 167(Decembe 2022):150–164. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.05.020 2. Gio gi S, La agna M, Campioli A (2018) Guidelines o e ec i e and sus ainable ecycling o cons uc ion and demoli ion was e. 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