Sustainability in early modern China through the evolution of the Jesuit accommodation method

sustainability Article Sustainability in Early Modern China through the Evolution of the Jesuit Accommodation Method Inmaculada Rodriguez-Cunill 1, Miguel Gutierrez-Villarrubia 1, Francisco Salguero-Andujar 2 and Joseph Cabeza-Lainez 3,*   Citation: Rodriguez-Cunill, I.; Gutierrez-Villarrubia, M.; Salguero-Andujar, F.; Cabeza-Lainez, J. Sustainability in Early Modern China through the Evolution of the Jesuit Accommodation Method. Sustainability 2021,13, 11729. https:// doi.org/10.3390/su132111729 Academic Editors: Nikos A. Salingaros, Alexandros A. Lavdas, Michael W. Mehaffy and Ann Sussman Received: 12 September 2021 Accepted: 22 October 2021 Published: 23 October 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 1Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Sevilla, Calle Laraña 3, 41003 Sevilla, Spain; [email protected] (I.R.-C.); [email protected] (M.G.-V.) 2 Campus de El Carmen, School of Engineering, University of Huelva, 21007 Huelva, Spain; [email protected] 3Department of Composition, School of Architecture, University of Sevilla, 41012 Sevilla, Spain *Correspondence: cr[email protected]; Tel.: +34-95-490-6793 Abstract: This article clarifies the often overlooked facts attributed to European missionaries in Asia, especially Jesuits, who acted as catalysts of a kind of nuanced acculturation named Accommodatio (adaptation). To a great extent, they became harbingers of culture and science more than faith itself to the dismay of many, including the Roman Church. Such cultural and scientific transference was actually two-pronged, for simultaneously they presented in Europe unique findings related to language, e.g., the Chinese characters (considered to be the sole natural language), geography, cosmology and even governance. Here we try to prove that such procedure contributed positively to the modern scientific notions of sustainability and to provide the kind of accoutrements that model the modern world as we know it. However, in the process, many Jesuits clearly became sinified and eventually acculturated. Keywords: Asian architecture; Asian heritage; China; Japan; urban design; garden and landscape design; reformation of the arts 1. Introduction Arguably, due to a variety of circumstances, the encounter of Western missionaries with the far East, particularly with China and Japan, was in many ways different to that in the Americas. The political and social system, the warfare and moreover the cultural stance with a large Imperial Body of Scholars which mastered the ancient and paramount invention of printed word was considered to have evolved much more in East Asia than in the New Continent [ 1 ]. The Jesuits, an early presence in the area through the evangelization work of Francis Xavier [ 2 ], soon realized this fact and acted in accordance. From the 1600s, all the envoys to China had to be versed in mathematics and astronomy in order to be allowed to penetrate in that forbidden realm. Most of them had studied the famous Aula de Sfaera under magister Clavius, a rudimentary geometric system to decipher the mysteries of the earth globe and the sun movement, mainly intended for navigation [3]. It is important to stress that Xavier decided on his own will to pursue the evangelization of China as a prerequisite to fully attain the desired conversions in Japan, a fact that paradoxically led to his passing away due to illness and derelictionL in the tropical island of SangChuan [ 2 ] ( 上川 ). In the wake of an epic pursuit, Matteo Ricci [4] (Figure 1) continued his goal and performed in retrospect, a thorough process of acculturation that included writing in Chinese of a notable literary standard and being renowned as “the wise man from the West”. He acknowledged the high level of erudition achieved by Chinese Confucian and Buddhist Scholars and often engaged in lengthy discussions with their representatives and counterparts. Although, it must be said that the premises were not alike for Daoist priests [4]. Sustainability 2021,13, 11729. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111729 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 2 of 25 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 25 Figure 1. Adam Schall (left) and Matteo Ricci (right) holding the map of China. China Monumentis by Athanassius Kircher, 1667. In their “Letters” (Lettera della Cina, Lettres edifiantes et curieuses), a complete body of knowledge is enshrined. Much can be gained from its detailed study [5]. These illustrated actions were undertaken in China, Japan, India, Tibet and Vietnam with outstanding results such us compiling a new quốc ngữ. (Vietnamese romanized language) by Alexandre Rhodes and his companions. Other times, like in China, the missionaries erected temples, gardens and even palaces to the Emperor [6]. In Kyūshū (九州), Japan, several wooden churches now protected as heritage were built [7]. In conclusion, the intellectual emphasis on the Jesuit’s accommodation method [8] derived not merely from their own intellectual inclinations, but also from what they perceived in the character of the Japanese and the Chinese. In the following sections we describe how and why the whole process took place and in which way it came to transform sustainability as we know it today. 2. Accomodatio Method To comprehend the Accommodatio method used by the Society of Jesus in East Asia, it is necessary to understand the modus operandi by which the Catholic Church had spread itself throughout the world in that era of discoveries. Unlike America’s Spanish dominions, a high-handed imposition of Western culture on China and Japan did not seem to be feasible. The embedded characteristics of diplomacy and structural complexity in Chinese and Japanese societies prevented European entry to social life [9] as, for instance, inter-marriages were ruled out. Figure 1. Adam Schall (left) and Matteo Ricci (right) holding the map of China. China Monumentis by Athanassius Kircher, 1667. In their “Letters” (Lettera della Cina, Lettres edifiantes et curieuses), a complete body of knowledge is enshrined. Much can be gained from its detailed study [ 5 ]. These illustrated actions were undertaken in China, Japan, India, Tibet and Vietnam with outstanding results such us compiling a new quốc ngữ. (Vietnamese romanized language) by Alexandre Rhodes and his companions. Other times, like in China, the missionaries erected temples, gardens and even palaces to the Emperor [ 6 ]. In Ky ¯ ush ¯ u ( 九州 ), Japan, several wooden churches now protected as heritage were built [7]. In conclusion, the intellectual emphasis on the Jesuit’s accommodation method [ 8 ] derived not merely from their own intellectual inclinations, but also from what they perceived in the character of the Japanese and the Chinese. In the following sections we describe how and why the whole process took place and in which way it came to transform sustainability as we know it today. 2. Accomodatio Method To comprehend the Accommodatio method used by the Society of Jesus in East Asia, it is necessary to understand the modus operandi by which the Catholic Church had spread itself throughout the world in that era of discoveries. Unlike America’s Spanish dominions, a high-handed imposition of Western culture on China and Japan did not seem to be feasible. The embedded characteristics of diplomacy and structural complexity in Chinese and Japanese societies prevented European entry to social life [9] as, for instance, inter-marriages were ruled out. Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 3 of 25 The accommodation assumed inculturation as a sophisticated intellectual method of penetration into the Far East. Jesuit Missionaries were not agents of colonialism, but they studied those complex civilizations, with their different morality, their refinement, their hierarchies and divergent paradigms [ 10 ]. In Alessandro Valignano’s Advertimentos e avisos dos costumes e catangues de Japão(one of the main writings on Accomodatio) [ 11 ], three main points stand out: adaptation, emulation and familiarization. • Adaptation implied trying to assimilate the European and catholic paradigms with Asian equivalents (e.g., The Buddha Danichi Nyora 大日如来 with Deus; the use of tatami or rice-straw mats as furnishings for religious venues). • Emulation or following of the Asian culture costumes and habits (Katagi in Japanese). • Familiarization: the missionaries needed to be incorporated and belong to the social context. Obviously, Accommodatio was more than an innocent adaption to the local culture or to the intention of purely humanistic understanding. The ultimate interest for the Society of Jesus was the evangelization, while Asian objectives may have recalled political agendas. 2.1. The Formation of Christian Towns and Arts, Nagasaki, Nanban School and Macau The town of Nagasaki ( 長崎 ) was pivotal in the enactment of acculturations hereby discussed and we would like to depict the territorial and urban reasons for this singularity. The enclave was Iberian in origin and foundation, but later developed in a Japanese fashion until today (Figure 2). The secular isolation of the Japanese archipelago, called by many as sakoku ( 鎖国 ), which can be translated as “enchained country”, implies that Western influences were not very deep or lasting and hence the originality of this town. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 25 The accommodation assumed inculturation as a sophisticated intellectual method of penetration into the Far East. Jesuit Missionaries were not agents of colonialism, but they studied those complex civilizations, with their different morality, their refinement, their hierarchies and divergent paradigms [10]. In Alessandro Valignano’s Advertimentos e avisos dos costumes e catangues de Japão (one of the main writings on Accomodatio) [11], three main points stand out: adaptation, emulation and familiarization. • Adaptation implied trying to assimilate the European and catholic paradigms with Asian equivalents (e.g., The Buddha Danichi Nyora 大日如来 with Deus; the use of tatami or rice-straw mats as furnishings for religious venues). • Emulation or following of the Asian culture costumes and habits (Katagi in Japanese). • Familiarization: the missionaries needed to be incorporated and belong to the social context. Obviously, Accommodatio was more than an innocent adaption to the local culture or to the intention of purely humanistic understanding. The ultimate interest for the Society of Jesus was the evangelization, while Asian objectives may have recalled political agendas. 2.1. The Formation of Christian Towns and Arts, Nagasaki, Nanban School and Macau The town of Nagasaki (長崎) was pivotal in the enactment of acculturations hereby discussed and we would like to depict the territorial and urban reasons for this singularity. The enclave was Iberian in origin and foundation, but later developed in a Japanese fashion until today (Figure 2). The secular isolation of the Japanese archipelago, called by many as sakoku (鎖国), which can be translated as “enchained country”, implies that Western influences were not very deep or lasting and hence the originality of this town. Figure 2. Ports used by Portuguese Merchants to trade with Japan. Source: Gutierrez-Villarrubia. 2021. In fact, it is in Nanban bijutsu (南蛮美術) or Nanban Art and their moods, where the effervescence generated by the cultural encounter between East and West is reflected. Language terms (pan (麺麭) bread, tabako (煙草) tobacco, marumero (榲桲) or quince), gastronomy and moreover artistic objects of great beauty become relics of a rich history in time. How did the Japanese, who were the first to be in contact with missionaries from Europe, envision a brighter prospective? To answer this question, we have judged it necessary to divide the explication into three parts: Figure 2. Ports used by Portuguese Merchants to trade with Japan. Source: Gutierrez-Villarrubia. 2021. In fact, it is in Nanban bijutsu ( 南蛮美術 ) or Nanban Art and their moods, where the effervescence generated by the cultural encounter between East and West is reflected. Language terms (pan ( 麺麭 ) bread, tabako ( 煙草 ) tobacco, marumero ( 榲桲 ) or quince), gastronomy and moreover artistic objects of great beauty become relics of a rich history in time. How did the Japanese, who were the first to be in contact with missionaries from Europe, envision a brighter prospective? To answer this question, we have judged it necessary to divide the explication into three parts: 2.2. The Nanban Paintings First, we focus on the Nanban paintings, literally the paintings of the ‘Southern barbarians’ (considering the typical Chinese division of the territory according to the four cardinal Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 4 of 25 points), and how we can identify an early attempt to achieve a better atmosphere, thanks to the Japanese fascination for images brought overseas by the members of the Jesus Society. The evangelization of the Jesuits brought forth an interesting process of acculturation, based on the premises of Accommodatio. The ingredients of Accommodatio were persuasion within a propaganda framework of images, essential to carry out the Counter-Reformation process. To perform this, the vow of obedience was necessary, but also to encourage the inventive capacity of the missionaries in adaptation to the customs of the people. The instruction of these religious explorers included astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, geography and training in instruments that would help to create maps. In our opinion, the idea of Accommodatio has another very interesting aspect to understand the art produced by the Japanese, in relation to the concepts here discussed: transcendence. Not only transcendence as a spiritual value encompassed in Christian beliefs, but in the very act of painting, where the right side of the brain is exercised and we are immersed, as creators, in a non-linear temporal concept. The remoteness undoubtedly helps to convey the image of alien spaces, sieved through the lens of those who had never trodden on them, with a sometimes-fanciful bias, which gives us, in turn, many clues about how a possible future was imagined. However, in order to be aware of remoteness, it is first necessary to know that that other exists: such, no less, is the feat attained by the missionaries. This method is in frank opposition to the colonizing frenzy that spread two centuries later on the whole planet. Today we refuse to accept the Eurocentric pride in the phrase “They cannot represent themselves: they must be represented”. Seeing the other as an enemy prevents us to build a more sustainable world, as the famous etching Die Gelbe Gefahr (The Yellow Peril) depicts, even with a Buddha included in the background [12]. From mid-16th century (1570), the Portuguese established the end-line of their trade route at the Nagasaki Bay. Shared art and techniques were positive products that endured, even after the short century of contact between the Jesuits and the Japanese people had ended. When the Portuguese landed, the Kano school had achieved a new exaltation of idealistic Nipponese art. In this context, an expedition began and would culminate in Japan. Francis Xavier (1506–1552) set sail from Portugal in 1541 bound for the East Indies [13]. Japan had already experienced the first contact with Europe seven years earlier with the arrival of a Portuguese ship on the shores of Ky ¯ ush ¯ u. In 1549, Francis Xavier alights on Kagoshima ( 鹿児島 ). Soon, he would realize that for the evangelization of the archipelago he would need to open up to the people and satisfy the questions of the curious Japanese individuals [ 7 ]. In order to be allowed to preach, he could not present himself emptyhanded before a feudal lord or daimy ¯ o ( 大名 ). He relates that the Christianized Japanese, Paulo da Santa Fe went to speak with daimy ¯ o ¯ Ouchi Yoshitaka (1507–1551), 大内義隆 to whom he gifted an image of the Virgin [7]. Francis Xavier’s letters speak of the amazement of the daimy ¯ owith religious fervor, but the important thing about it, is that Xavier earns the respect of the daimy ¯ o ¯ Ouchi Yoshitaka with the sample of an etching of a surprising figurative level for the Japanese. However, after the amazement, the Japanese wanted to reflect those distant worlds by two-dimensional means. The first screens painted with elements from afar were still made with Japanese techniques, in this case on washi ( 和紙 rice-straw) paper. They reflect an initial trend in which Japanese artists used traditional painting to describe large European cities [14]. In the famous Nanban By ¯ obu ( 屛風 folding screen) of Rome (Figure 3), it is easy to recognize the figures of important ancient monuments like the Pantheon and Castell Sant’Angelo near the Vatican. From the first objects and works that Xavier brought to Japanese lands, so much interest was aroused that a greater number of works was necessary for the evangelizing quest. They imported from Europe large amounts of engravings, oilpaintings, carvings and furniture for the decoration of churches and for commitments with powerful individuals as well [ 15 ]. It is very likely that the references to depict those cities, Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 5 of 25 came from the “guidebook” of the time, the book Civitates Orbis Terrarum, dedicated to the famous capitals of the world. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 25 Japanese lands, so much interest was aroused that a greater number of works was necessary for the evangelizing quest. They imported from Europe large amounts of engravings, oil-paintings, carvings and furniture for the decoration of churches and for commitments with powerful individuals as well [15]. It is very likely that the references to depict those cities, came from the “guidebook” of the time, the book Civitates Orbis Terrarum, dedicated to the famous capitals of the world. In three of these four screens, it is evident that the Civitates was used as a model, even in the screen of Lisbon, where the width of the image is narrowed to fit the frame, but the same point of view in the perspective remains. The last screen was dedicated to Istanbul [16]. Figure 3. The screen representing Rome. Rome Byōbu (16th century). Ikenaga collection, Kōbe-shir- itsu Hakubutsukan (神戸市立博物館, Kobe City Museum). This is not the case of Seville, which seems a tale apart from the four pictures that had been created throughout the different editions of Civitates. We can see how the Japanese culture itself was projected in the imagination of a city. As we know, the Latin name for Seville is Hispalis, which comes from the Phoenician root “pal”, meaning ‘flat’. That is in truth a typical feature of this town. It does not possess any mountain range to protect it, as would be appropriate for the foundation of capitals in Chinese geomancy called Feng Shui (風水) or Hōgaku (方角 in Japanese. However, the anonymous artist represented this new world as it would be coherent for his own culture [17]. In those capitals that followed the prescriptions of Feng Shui, the favorable orientation is extended towards the south, the city is protected from the north by soaring mountains, and defended in the east and the west through lakes or hills. There is a constant presence of the so-called Four Mythological Guardians, Four Heavenly Kings or Shitennō (四天王) [14]. With invented mountains (Figure 4), an enclave was imagined in this screen of Seville, that elicits the charm and wonder of combining East and West. Moreover, the construction and garrisoning of the city gates is endowed in East Asia with enormous significance and mysticism. In summary, the author of these paintings made such renowned capitals remain protected according to his own imagination. This can be interpreted as an attempt to build a much more idyllic and pristine new world, since precisely the plague (and typhus) ravaged the city of Seville in five notorious outbreaks during the sixteenth century (1507, 1524, 1568, 1582 and 1599) and the population was greatly decimated. We often wonder if its disposition, so contrary to geomancy, which eventually embodies a considerable degree of traditional building lore, had something to do with the said epidemics. It is also Figure 3. The screen representing Rome. Rome By ¯ obu (16th century). Ikenaga collection, K ¯ obeshiritsu Hakubutsukan (神戸市立博物館, Kobe City Museum). In three of these four screens, it is evident that the Civitates was used as a model, even in the screen of Lisbon, where the width of the image is narrowed to fit the frame, but the same point of view in the perspective remains. The last screen was dedicated to Istanbul [16]. This is not the case of Seville, which seems a tale apart from the four pictures that had been created throughout the different editions of Civitates. We can see how the Japanese culture itself was projected in the imagination of a city. As we know, the Latin name for Seville is Hispalis, which comes from the Phoenician root “pal”, meaning ‘flat’. That is in truth a typical feature of this town. It does not possess any mountain range to protect it, as would be appropriate for the foundation of capitals in Chinese geomancy called Feng Shui ( 風水 ) or H ¯ ogaku ( 方角 in Japanese. However, the anonymous artist represented this new world as it would be coherent for his own culture [17]. In those capitals that followed the prescriptions of Feng Shui, the favorable orientation is extended towards the south, the city is protected from the north by soaring mountains, and defended in the east and the west through lakes or hills. There is a constant presence of the so-called Four Mythological Guardians, Four Heavenly Kings or Shitenn ¯ o ( 四天王 ) [ 14 ]. With invented mountains (Figure 4), an enclave was imagined in this screen of Seville, that elicits the charm and wonder of combining East and West. Moreover, the construction and garrisoning of the city gates is endowed in East Asia with enormous significance and mysticism. In summary, the author of these paintings made such renowned capitals remain protected according to his own imagination. This can be interpreted as an attempt to build a much more idyllic and pristine new world, since precisely the plague (and typhus) ravaged the city of Seville in five notorious outbreaks during the sixteenth century (1507, 1524, 1568, 1582 and 1599) and the population was greatly decimated. We often wonder if its disposition, so contrary to geomancy, which eventually embodies a considerable degree of traditional building lore, had something to do with the said epidemics. It is also evident that the Nipponese artists learned about a different way to create towns, less rigid and at times more sustainable because this kind of use of the land is certainly advantageous. On the other hand, the missionaries acknowledged the importance of orientation and Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 6 of 25 respect for nature in city planning—a fact unheard of, that they took good care to transmit to Europe. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25 evident that the Nipponese artists learned about a different way to create towns, less rigid and at times more sustainable because this kind of use of the land is certainly advantageous. On the other hand, the missionaries acknowledged the importance of orientation and respect for nature in city planning—a fact unheard of, that they took good care to transmit to Europe. Figure 4. The view of Sevilla in one of the Four known Nanban Screens. Seville Byōbu (16th century). Ikenaga collection, Kōbe-shiritsu Hakubutsukan (神戸市立博物館, Kobe City Museum). 2.3. Nagasaki, towards a Nanban Urbanism? It is in the founding and evolution of the town of Nagasaki where acculturation between East and West materialized more deeply. Located in a natural haven of Kyūshū Island, it lies in the southernmost of the five main islands of Japan. Shortly after arriving on Japanese soil for the first time (1542), on the tiny southern island of Tanegashima (種子島) (the main reason why they were called Nanban, or southern barbarians), Portuguese merchants began trading with existing ports, such as Hirado (平戸), Funai (府内), Yokoseura (横瀬浦), Sakai (堺), Fukuda (福田), Yamaguchi (山口), Kagoshima, etc. However, none of these enterprises was in the end auspicious, due to several misadventures, namely, typhoons, fires, riots or clashes between different lords and so forth [7]. However, to understand the tenacity of the Portuguese peddlers, we must realize that, for first time, the Earth had been interconnected through the Spanish and Portuguese routes, linking distant cities around the globe like Seville, Lisbon, Goa, Macau, Acapulco or Lima. For them, Japan and especially Nagasaki were a necessary step to complete the circle. Why was the relationship between the Iberian-Europeans and the Japanese successful? Europeans aspired to global hegemony, not always through religion or straight conquest, but also through international trade [12]. In addition, the agents of the Catholic Faith also sought for evangelization of the lands that they already encountered, through missionaries like the Jesuits. To be sure, the Japanese, for their part, were interested in trade, especially for technological advances, which could incline the balance in favor of some kinglet in a feudal period like the Sengoku (戦国) era. All this would culminate with the founding of the city and port of Nagasaki as a bridge in between two cultures. On the one hand, the daimyō Ōmura Sumitada (大村純忠 , 1533–1587) and Bernardo Nagasaki Jinzaemon Sumikage (甚左衛門炭影). On the other, the Portuguese merchants and the Jesuits Luis de Almeida (1525–1583), Cosme de Torres Figure 4. The view of Sevilla in one of the Four known Nanban Screens. Seville By ¯ obu (16th century). Ikenaga collection, K¯ obe-shiritsu Hakubutsukan (神戸市立博物館, Kobe City Museum). 2.3. Nagasaki, towards a Nanban Urbanism? It is in the founding and evolution of the town of Nagasaki where acculturation between East and West materialized more deeply. Located in a natural haven of Ky ¯ ush ¯ u Island, it lies in the southernmost of the five main islands of Japan. Shortly after arriving on Japanese soil for the first time (1542), on the tiny southern island of Tanegashima ( 種子島 ) (the main reason why they were called Nanban, or southern barbarians), Portuguese merchants began trading with existing ports, such as Hirado ( 平戸 ),Funai ( 府内 ),Yokoseura ( 横瀬浦 ),Sakai ( 堺 ),Fukuda ( 福田 ),Yamaguchi ( 山口 ), Kagoshima, etc. However, none of these enterprises was in the end auspicious, due to several misadventures, namely, typhoons, fires, riots or clashes between different lords and so forth [7]. However, to understand the tenacity of the Portuguese peddlers, we must realize that, for first time, the Earth had been interconnected through the Spanish and Portuguese routes, linking distant cities around the globe like Seville, Lisbon, Goa, Macau, Acapulco or Lima. For them, Japan and especially Nagasaki were a necessary step to complete the circle. Why was the relationship between the Iberian-Europeans and the Japanese successful? Europeans aspired to global hegemony, not always through religion or straight conquest, but also through international trade [12]. In addition, the agents of the Catholic Faith also sought for evangelization of the lands that they already encountered, through missionaries like the Jesuits. To be sure, the Japanese, for their part, were interested in trade, especially for technological advances, which could incline the balance in favor of some kinglet in a feudal period like the Sengoku (戦国) era. All this would culminate with the founding of the city and port of Nagasaki as a bridge in between two cultures. On the one hand, the daimy ¯ o ¯ Omura Sumitada ( 大村 純忠 , 1533–1587) and Bernardo Nagasaki Jinzaemon Sumikage ( 甚左衛門炭影 ). On the other, the Portuguese merchants and the Jesuits Luis de Almeida (1525–1583), Cosme de Torres (1510–1570), Gaspar Vilela (1526–1572), Alessandro Valignano (1539–1606), Luis Fróis (1532–1597) and others. The first, in charge of the justice, the second, of teaching and trade. Both entwined to plan a new city [17]. Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 7 of 25 Let us discuss what urban imprint formed as a result in this hybrid city. As mentioned above, traditional Japanese urban planning is based on the precepts of Chinese Feng Shui geomancy, where it is mandatory to face south, the direction of Shujaku ( 朱雀 ) the Crimson Phoenix, and be protected to the east by Seiry ¯ u( 青竜 ) the Turquoise Dragon, the west by Byakko ( 白虎 ) the White Tiger, and from the north with Genbu ( 玄武 ), the Mysterious War of Tortoise and Serpent, while K ¯ ory ¯ u( 黄龍 ) or the yellow dragon stayed hidden at the center [ 18 ]. These Mythological Creatures represent in turn the Shitenn ¯ o. There is also an inauspicious direction to the northeast called kimon ( 鬼門 , which must be protected by mountains and singular temples (Figure 5). Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 25 (1510–1570), Gaspar Vilela (1526–1572), Alessandro Valignano (1539–1606), Luis Fróis (1532–1597) and others. The first, in charge of the justice, the second, of teaching and trade. Both entwined to plan a new city [17]. Let us discuss what urban imprint formed as a result in this hybrid city. As mentioned above, traditional Japanese urban planning is based on the precepts of Chinese Feng Shui geomancy, where it is mandatory to face south, the direction of Shujaku (朱雀) the Crimson Phoenix, and be protected to the east by Seiryū (青竜) the Turquoise Dragon, the west by Byakko (白虎) the White Tiger, and from the north with Genbu (玄武), the Mysterious War of Tortoise and Serpent, while Kōryū (黄龍) or the yellow dragon stayed hidden at the center [18]. These Mythological Creatures represent in turn the Shitennō. There is also an inauspicious direction to the northeast called kimon (鬼門, which must be protected by mountains and singular temples (Figure 5). Figure 5. Orientation of a building or town according to Feng Shui. Design by Gutierrez-Villarrubia. 2021. The so-called diagram of the Nine Palaces, Nine Halls Diagram or Jiǔ gōng tú (九宮 圖), composed by nine square blocks, is also relevant, since the plan of the cities will evolve from this structure [18]. The archetypal city, based in the Chinese capital of Chang’an (長安), would usually be displayed on a plain in an orthogonal grid of lineal streets or machi (町), conceited by mountains to the north, east and west and open to the south. Machi worked not only as circulation and transit streets, but also as linear public spaces and as places of identity as in European neighborhoods. It should be symmetrical, like the human body, with the palace to the north as its head. The rivers should flow without altering their course, from northeast to southwest. The Chinese version has surrounding walls, but its Japanese versions mostly lack significant defensive elements. This Feng Shui urban plan can be observed in Japanese imperial cities such as Nara ( 奈良) and Heian-Kyo (平安京), later re-founded under the name of Kyoto [19]. However, Nagasaki was to be very different from this. The grid still exists, though it becomes curvilinear and deformed. Mountains roughly surround it to the north, east, and west, and it is open to the south, but has little flat terrain, so it grows on a hill and not in a plain. The rivers run from northeast to southeast, but they are altered and crossed by stone bridges (Figure 6). Figure 5. Orientation of a building or town according to Feng Shui. Design by Gutierrez-Villarrubia. 2021. The so-called diagram of the Nine Palaces, Nine Halls Diagram or Ji ˇ u g ¯ ong tú( 九宮圖 ), composed by nine square blocks, is also relevant, since the plan of the cities will evolve from this structure [18]. The archetypal city, based in the Chinese capital of Chang’an ( 長安 ), would usually be displayed on a plain in an orthogonal grid of lineal streets or machi ( 町 ), conceited by mountains to the north, east and west and open to the south. Machi worked not only as circulation and transit streets, but also as linear public spaces and as places of identity as in European neighborhoods. It should be symmetrical, like the human body, with the palace to the north as its head. The rivers should flow without altering their course, from northeast to southwest. The Chinese version has surrounding walls, but its Japanese versions mostly lack significant defensive elements. This Feng Shui urban plan can be observed in Japanese imperial cities such as Nara ( 奈良 ) and Heian-Kyo ( 平安京 ), later re-founded under the name of Kyoto [ 19 ]. However, Nagasaki was to be very different from this. The grid still exists, though it becomes curvilinear and deformed. Mountains roughly surround it to the north, east, and west, and it is open to the south, but has little flat terrain, so it grows on a hill and not in a plain. The rivers run from northeast to southeast, but they are altered and crossed by stone bridges (Figure 6). Such was the pervasive legacy of the Jesuits in Japan: intricate streets, neighborhood organized in parishes around the churches. Stone foundations for seminars, colleges, hospitals, etc. Open urban spaces resembling squares and inner courtyards inside the blocks. A city protected at the harbor by some defensive structures. That is the reason why we still define Nagasaki as “The least Japanese city in Japan” In only a century (Table 1), the acculturation between East and West took place in a brand-new town in Southern Japan. The lessons were permanent for the course of sustainability and even today Nagasaki is a preferred destination for its exoticism and alternative values. However, not only the urban plan of the city itself was a superlative example: Western medicine, books printed in press, Japanese-Portuguese and Latin translations, and the Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 8 of 25 Nanban Art all flourished there over the vanishing of the Christian mission, heralding a much vaunted new era [20]. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 25 Figure 6. Nagasaki City Plan. Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture. Photograph by Cabeza- Lainez. Such was the pervasive legacy of the Jesuits in Japan: intricate streets, neighborhood organized in parishes around the churches. Stone foundations for seminars, colleges, hospitals, etc. Open urban spaces resembling squares and inner courtyards inside the blocks. A city protected at the harbor by some defensive structures. That is the reason why we still define Nagasaki as “The least Japanese city in Japan” In only a century (Table 1), the acculturation between East and West took place in a brandnew town in Southern Japan. The lessons were permanent for the course of sustainability and even today Nagasaki is a preferred destination for its exoticism and alternative values. However, not only the urban plan of the city itself was a superlative example: Western medicine, books printed in press, Japanese-Portuguese and Latin translations, and the Nanban Art all flourished there over the vanishing of the Christian mission, heralding a much vaunted new era [20]. Table 1. Summary of the main events of the mission in Japan until its extinction. Period Year Event Sengoku jidai 1521 Ashikaga Yoshiharu is proclaimed Shōgun 1526 Go-Nara is proclaimed Emperor 1543 Portuguese merchants wrecked in Tanegashima 1546 Ashikaga Yoshiteru is proclaimed Shōgun 1549 Francis Xavier reached Kagoshima Azuchi-Momoyama jidai 1557 Emperor Ōgimachi 1558 Ashikaga Yoshihide is proclaimed Shōgun 1558 Ashikaga Yoshiaki is proclaimed Shōgun 1569 Nagasaki city foundation 1573 Oda Nobunaga entered Kyōto Figure 6. Nagasaki City Plan. Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture. Photograph by Cabeza-Lainez. Table 1. Summary of the main events of the mission in Japan until its extinction. Period Year Event Sengoku jidai 1521 Ashikaga Yoshiharu is proclaimed Sh¯ ogun 1526 Go-Nara is proclaimed Emperor 1543 Portuguese merchants wrecked in Tanegashima 1546 Ashikaga Yoshiteru is proclaimed Sh¯ ogun 1549 Francis Xavier reached Kagoshima Azuchi-Momoyama jidai 1557 Emperor ¯ Ogimachi 1558 Ashikaga Yoshihide is proclaimed Sh¯ ogun 1558 Ashikaga Yoshiaki is proclaimed Sh¯ ogun 1569 Nagasaki city foundation 1573 Oda Nobunaga entered Ky¯ oto 1580 Arima’s Seminary is founded 1586 Go-Y¯ ozei 1587 Purgue Directive Order to the Jesuits 1590 Toyotomi Hideyoshi is proclaimed Kanpaku 1597 26 Christian martyrs of Nagasaki 1599 Sekigahara Battle Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 9 of 25 Table 1. Cont. Period Year Event Edo jidai 1603 Tokugawa Ieyasu is proclaimed Sh¯ ogun 1605 Tokugawa Hidetada is proclaimed Sh¯ ogun 1611 Go-Mizunoo is proclaimed Emperor 1614 Expulsion Directive Order to missionaries 1623 Tokugawa Iemitsu is proclaimed Sh¯ ogun 1629 Meish¯ o is proclaimed Empress 1634 Dejima island is built 1637 Shimabara rebellion 1639 Sakoku-rei 1641 Dutch East India Company (VOC) moved to Dejima 2.4. Architectural Inceptions from Macau To the Eastern Empire of China, the Jesuit Mission arrived by virtue of a misguided happenstance. Before accepting Christendom, the impassive Japanese Abbots inquired Francis Xavier about the reason why the Chinese Scholars had never mentioned Deus in their scriptures or treatises [ 7 ]. Such tautological question provoked a hasty and inordinate evangelic streak that resulted in Xavier’s own decease in the island of SangChuan ( 上川島 ) (the name derives from São João) at the very gates of Macau. The deed was not in vain, since it represented a new dawn for the Western Missions. In order to fulfill their herculean task, they had to inevitably face the grander, superior and more self-centered Empire that ever was [18]. The first realizations that embodied these complex notions and kindred spirits were the Madre de Deus church also known as St. Paul in Macau (Figure 7), the Sao Lorenço church and later the St. Joseph Macanese seminary. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 25 1580 Arima’s Seminary is founded 1586 Go-Yōzei 1587 Purgue Directive Order to the Jesuits 1590 Toyotomi Hideyoshi is proclaimed Kanpaku 1597 26 Christian martyrs of Nagasaki 1599 Sekigahara Battle Edo jidai 1603 Tokugawa Ieyasu is proclaimed Shōgun 1605 Tokugawa Hidetada is proclaimed Shōgun 1611 Go-Mizunoo is proclaimed Emperor 1614 Expulsion Directive Order to missionaries 1623 Tokugawa Iemitsu is proclaimed Shōgun 1629 Meishō is proclaimed Empress 1634 Dejima island is built 1637 Shimabara rebellion 1639 Sakoku-rei 1641 Dutch East India Company (VOC) moved to Dejima 2.4. Architectural Inceptions from Macau To the Eastern Empire of China, the Jesuit Mission arrived by virtue of a misguided happenstance. Before accepting Christendom, the impassive Japanese Abbots inquired Francis Xavier about the reason why the Chinese Scholars had never mentioned Deus in their scriptures or treatises [7]. Such tautological question provoked a hasty and inordinate evangelic streak that resulted in Xavier’s own decease in the island of SangChuan ( 上川島) (the name derives from São João) at the very gates of Macau. The deed was not in vain, since it represented a new dawn for the Western Missions. In order to fulfill their herculean task, they had to inevitably face the grander, superior and more self-centered Empire that ever was [18]. The first realizations that embodied these complex notions and kindred spirits were the Madre de Deus church also known as St. Paul in Macau (Figure 7), the Sao Lorenço church and later the St. Joseph Macanese seminary. Figure 7. Extant façade of the Madre de Deus Church, Macau (Source: J. Cabeza-Lainez). The Madre de Deus church was in all likelihood, the first clerical building made in stone in Asia [21] and as such it incorporated few innovations compared with European traditions. However, being erected in part by Japanese Christians who fled from prosecutions in Japan, in the façade we can recognise oriental motifs like the dragon of multiple Figure 7. Extant façade of the Madre de Deus Church, Macau (Source: J. Cabeza-Lainez). The Madre de Deus church was in all likelihood, the first clerical building made in stone in Asia [ 21 ] and as such it incorporated few innovations compared with European traditions. However, being erected in part by Japanese Christians who fled from prosecutions in Japan, in the façade we can recognise oriental motifs like the dragon of multiple heads and the lotus flower, deemed to provide spiritual protection from foes of any kind. Moreover, the orientation of the said main façade is south, which implies that it was adapted to the Chinese geomancy as explained previously. The western entrance, favoured in most European ancient churches was considered inauspicious and discarded by the Jesuits [ 14 ]. Another pivotal example of the adoption of Chinese cosmology in line Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 16 of 25 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25 Figure 16. A fragment of the lateral wall of the Scrovegni Chapel; notice the frames with biblical scenes in perspective. Source: Cabeza-Lainez. Stained glass and fenestration from early Renaissance periods introduced the practice of framing the void surfaces between windows and using them to depict sundry expedients related to the catholic liturgy, not merely limiting these effigies to altarpieces where the clerics would usually perform, but making them more accessible to the audience. As we have seen elsewhere, framed pictures were unknown in the East, and the same happened to canvas warp. The preferred fabric for painting was silk cloth and sometimes reinforced paper used in scrolls or folding screens. Both were not usually on display, but remained rolled or folded until a visitor required its opening for contemplation. The concept of permanent exhibition of art in frames or murals was a complete and sudden innovation that the Jesuits incorporated for good in Asia. Since the original Nantang was sadly razed, the only source to reconstruct the scenes conceived by Castiglione is a surviving text by Yao YuanZhi. His writings are amazingly accurate, so much so, that the authors have been able to objectively trace back much of the scenery that he described. Yao wrote two texts about the murals [32]. We judged it important to transcribe the final fragment of the first one here: “the table within the room, if you see it at a certain distance is placed in perfect order and you would like to dwell inside but if you go for it you will realize that is only a wall!” “There was no perspective in ancient epochs. Since it is as accurate as this, you can only regret that our ancestors were not able to see it. That is why I had to record this tale.” 室內几案，遙而望之，秩如也，可以入矣。即之，則油然壁也。线法古無 之，而其精乃如此，惜古人未之見也，特記之。 The final line is important for the history of art. Not only does it acknowledge the merits of the artist but also the lack of perspective drawing in China and its necessity. In Figures 17 and 18, different computer-graphics interpretations of the first text are presented. Figure 16. A fragment of the lateral wall of the Scrovegni Chapel; notice the frames with biblical scenes in perspective. Source: Cabeza-Lainez. Since the original Nantang was sadly razed, the only source to reconstruct the scenes conceived by Castiglione is a surviving text by Yao YuanZhi. His writings are amazingly accurate, so much so, that the authors have been able to objectively trace back much of the scenery that he described. Yao wrote two texts about the murals [ 32 ]. We judged it important to transcribe the final fragment of the first one here: “the table within the room, if you see it at a certain distance is placed in perfect order and you would like to dwell inside but if you go for it you will realize that is only a wall!” “There was no perspective in ancient epochs. Since it is as accurate as this, you can only regret that our ancestors were not able to see it. That is why I had to record this tale.” 室內几案，遙而望之，秩如也，可以入矣。即之，則油然壁也。线法古無之，而 其精乃如此，惜古人未之見也，特記之。 The final line is important for the history of art. Not only does it acknowledge the merits of the artist but also the lack of perspective drawing in China and its necessity. In Figures 17 and 18, different computer-graphics interpretations of the first text are presented. The spaces and objects hereby represented are Chinese in a way, but they had never been perceived in this form, as for instance, they look much more ordered and perfectly lit than in reality. We believe that the reason for this stylistic audacity is that Castiglione wanted to create an impression of proximity and lightness within the unfamiliar space of a western brick-and-stone robust church. Certainly, he was not capable of producing a real Chinese building with filigree wooden elements, but he would disclose it in such a way that Nantang may not appear as alien to their eyes by virtue of pictorial illusion. In compelling and astonishing the Chinese to the utmost with this miraculous recital of European Art and Architecture, the advantages of a new faith would be self-evident [33]. Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 17 of 25 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 25 Figure 17. Digitally reconstructed detail of the first mural at Nantang featuring a Chinese chamber with typical objects in bifocal perspective. Courtesy of Yulu Yang. The spaces and objects hereby represented are Chinese in a way, but they had never been perceived in this form, as for instance, they look much more ordered and perfectly lit than in reality. We believe that the reason for this stylistic audacity is that Castiglione wanted to create an impression of proximity and lightness within the unfamiliar space of a western brick-and-stone robust church. Certainly, he was not capable of producing a real Chinese building with filigree wooden elements, but he would disclose it in such a way that Nantang may not appear as alien to their eyes by virtue of pictorial illusion. In compelling and astonishing the Chinese to the utmost with this miraculous recital of European Art and Architecture, the advantages of a new faith would be self-evident [33]. Having arrived at this point, we would like to remember that “Still Life” scenes are rarely considered in Japanese or Chinese traditional painting as they were often compared to a “stillborn”. Nature that comprises the Dao must be represented teeming with life at all times [34]. If the Jesuits needed to impress the Court, such inanimate matters should be better avoided, and an impeccable exercise in realistic perspective was to prove effective and reassuring at the same time. (a) (b) Figure 18. Different views of the chambers in a virtual approach to the first mural by G. Castiglione: (a) Aerial perspective; (b) Reverse view of the main chamber. Courtesy of Yulu Yang. The second fresco that Castiglione composed was more figurative. According to Yao, several celestial beings that we consider to be angels, saints and even the Virgin, intervene in a colorful tapestry in order to animate the scene. Perhaps this was a private concession to the Jesuit brothers who had missed such representations a long time, or else we would never know. We are working also in the production of an accurate rendering of this other mural albeit for obvious reasons it has proven to be a lengthy and exacting task. As we have expounded, the artistic skills of the missionaries focused on works previously unnecessary to the Chinese, namely, churches or even recreational divertimentos in the sphere of music, plays or architecture. Occasionally, geography and commented maps of the new worlds were on demand [35]. From time to time, an audacious treatise Figure 17. Digitally reconstructed detail of the first mural at Nantang featuring a Chinese chamber with typical objects in bifocal perspective. Courtesy of Yulu Yang. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 25 Figure 17. Digitally reconstructed detail of the first mural at Nantang featuring a Chinese chamber with typical objects in bifocal perspective. Courtesy of Yulu Yang. The spaces and objects hereby represented are Chinese in a way, but they had never been perceived in this form, as for instance, they look much more ordered and perfectly lit than in reality. We believe that the reason for this stylistic audacity is that Castiglione wanted to create an impression of proximity and lightness within the unfamiliar space of a western brick-and-stone robust church. Certainly, he was not capable of producing a real Chinese building with filigree wooden elements, but he would disclose it in such a way that Nantang may not appear as alien to their eyes by virtue of pictorial illusion. In compelling and astonishing the Chinese to the utmost with this miraculous recital of European Art and Architecture, the advantages of a new faith would be self-evident [33]. Having arrived at this point, we would like to remember that “Still Life” scenes are rarely considered in Japanese or Chinese traditional painting as they were often compared to a “stillborn”. Nature that comprises the Dao must be represented teeming with life at all times [34]. If the Jesuits needed to impress the Court, such inanimate matters should be better avoided, and an impeccable exercise in realistic perspective was to prove effective and reassuring at the same time. (a) (b) Figure 18. Different views of the chambers in a virtual approach to the first mural by G. Castiglione: (a) Aerial perspective; (b) Reverse view of the main chamber. Courtesy of Yulu Yang. The second fresco that Castiglione composed was more figurative. According to Yao, several celestial beings that we consider to be angels, saints and even the Virgin, intervene in a colorful tapestry in order to animate the scene. Perhaps this was a private concession to the Jesuit brothers who had missed such representations a long time, or else we would never know. We are working also in the production of an accurate rendering of this other mural albeit for obvious reasons it has proven to be a lengthy and exacting task. As we have expounded, the artistic skills of the missionaries focused on works previously unnecessary to the Chinese, namely, churches or even recreational divertimentos in the sphere of music, plays or architecture. Occasionally, geography and commented maps of the new worlds were on demand [35]. From time to time, an audacious treatise Figure 18. Different views of the chambers in a virtual approach to the first mural by G. Castiglione: (a) Aerial perspective; (b) Reverse view of the main chamber. Courtesy of Yulu Yang. Having arrived at this point, we would like to remember that “Still Life” scenes are rarely considered in Japanese or Chinese traditional painting as they were often compared to a “stillborn”. Nature that comprises the Dao must be represented teeming with life at all times [ 34 ]. If the Jesuits needed to impress the Court, such inanimate matters should be better avoided, and an impeccable exercise in realistic perspective was to prove effective and reassuring at the same time. The second fresco that Castiglione composed was more figurative. According to Yao, several celestial beings that we consider to be angels, saints and even the Virgin, intervene in a colorful tapestry in order to animate the scene. Perhaps this was a private concession to the Jesuit brothers who had missed such representations a long time, or else we would never know. We are working also in the production of an accurate rendering of this other mural albeit for obvious reasons it has proven to be a lengthy and exacting task. As we have expounded, the artistic skills of the missionaries focused on works previously unnecessary to the Chinese, namely, churches or even recreational divertimentos in the sphere of music, plays or architecture. Occasionally, geography and commented maps of the new worlds were on demand [ 35 ]. From time to time, an audacious treatise on mathematics, perspective or painting emerged. This haphazard quest encompassed almost two and a half centuries (1582–1820) of patiently seeping and infusing European Sciences and Arts, lest other more blatant procedures would bring forth turmoil and doom, which nevertheless surfaced near the end [36]. 4. Daoism, Cosmology and Ultimate Incorporation of Nature in Jesuit Expression In the last and most fruitful stage of collaboration and service of the Jesuits to the Empire, during the reign of Qianlong, Castiglione achieved an admirable synthesis which the Court seemed to appreciate. The first example appears in Figure 19. The painter Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 18 of 25 accompanied its sovereign to immortalize whatever events could happen in his august campaigns. Far from the capital, the royal throne could not benefit from the protection of mountains to the north. On that occasion, a piece of furniture with a marble slab that resembles a mountain was placed at the back of the regalia. In this extraordinary painting, Lang Shining reveals the supernatural in the natural, the Tao. We wonder how he could have become acculturated to such an extreme when his conspicuous predecessor Ricci had claimed openly against false adoration and idolatry [4,8,37]. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 25 on mathematics, perspective or painting emerged. This haphazard quest encompassed almost two and a half centuries (1582–1820) of patiently seeping and infusing European Sciences and Arts, lest other more blatant procedures would bring forth turmoil and doom, which nevertheless surfaced near the end [36]. 4. Daoism, Cosmology and Ultimate Incorporation of Nature in Jesuit Expression In the last and most fruitful stage of collaboration and service of the Jesuits to the Empire, during the reign of Qianlong, Castiglione achieved an admirable synthesis which the Court seemed to appreciate. The first example appears in Figure 19. The painter accompanied its sovereign to immortalize whatever events could happen in his august campaigns. Far from the capital, the royal throne could not benefit from the protection of mountains to the north. On that occasion, a piece of furniture with a marble slab that resembles a mountain was placed at the back of the regalia. In this extraordinary painting, Lang Shining reveals the supernatural in the natural, the Tao. We wonder how he could have become acculturated to such an extreme when his conspicuous predecessor Ricci had claimed openly against false adoration and idolatry [4,8,37]. Figure 19. The Emperor Qianlong receives a tribute of horses from the Zhungars. G. Castiglione. Qing Dynasty. Guimet Museum. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Qazak_pay_tribute_to_Qianlong.jpg. Last Accessed: 22 October 2021. Finally, we arrive at the complex of western style in the garden park of YuanMing Yuan, or gardens of perfect clarity, 圓明園. Here, a group of twenty versed Jesuits did their best to demonstrate the quality of Christian Art. Besides the one mentioned above in the construction of the Nantang, we have received the names of Charlier, Cha JouYu, clockmaker and machinist; Pierre Cheron d’Incarville, Tang TeeTong, botanist and landscape gardener; and Martial Cibot, known as Han KouoYing, horticultor and landscape gardener (their remains lie at the Zhalan cemetery). Apparently, a set of twenty pavilions had been commissioned to Castiglione in the north-eastern corner of the YuanMing gardens, the Xiyang Lou 西洋樓 (Western Mansions) to lodge the ever-expanding collection of curios and foreign pieces that the Emperor possessed. It began with the Yuanying guan, 遠瀛觀 (Figure 20), an observatory cum deck whose title translates as “the views of a distant ocean”. Here again we contemplate the twin clocks together with an armillary sphere in the terrace of a splendid pavilion which featured white stone walls with faience yellow and blue tiles on the roofs. A complete architectural fusion of East and West which, while heralding surrealism for its spectral baroque strangeness, notwithstanding, showcased recent discoveries of science in the matter of cosmology [38]. Figure 19. The Emperor Qianlong receives a tribute of horses from the Zhungars. G. Castiglione. Qing Dynasty. Guimet Museum. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Qazak_pay_ tribute_to_Qianlong.jpg. Last Accessed: 22 October 2021. Finally, we arrive at the complex of western style in the garden park of YuanMing Yuan, or gardens of perfect clarity, 圓明園 . Here, a group of twenty versed Jesuits did their best to demonstrate the quality of Christian Art. Besides the one mentioned above in the construction of the Nantang, we have received the names of Charlier, Cha JouYu, clockmaker and machinist; Pierre Cheron d’Incarville, Tang TeeTong, botanist and landscape gardener; and Martial Cibot, known as Han KouoYing, horticultor and landscape gardener (their remains lie at the Zhalan cemetery). Apparently, a set of twenty pavilions had been commissioned to Castiglione in the north-eastern corner of the YuanMing gardens, the Xiyang Lou 西洋樓 (Western Mansions) to lodge the ever-expanding collection of curios and foreign pieces that the Emperor possessed. It began with the Yuanying guan, 遠瀛觀 (Figure 20), an observatory cum deck whose title translates as “the views of a distant ocean”. Here again we contemplate the twin clocks together with an armillary sphere in the terrace of a splendid pavilion which featured white stone walls with faience yellow and blue tiles on the roofs. A complete architectural fusion of East and West which, while heralding surrealism for its spectral baroque strangeness, notwithstanding, showcased recent discoveries of science in the matter of cosmology [ 38 ]. The former pavilion sublimely contrasts with the Haiyan Tang, 海晏堂 (Figure 21), or Pavilion of a Tranquil Sea, a splendid palace accessed through imperial curved stairs at the foot of which lies an ornamental fountain with twelve eerie animal figures dressed as Taoist sages. In fact, the basement of the palace is a massive water reservoir designed by the said Fr. Michael Benoist to induce jets and other hydraulic effects on the adjoining basin [14]. Once again in this case, the extraordinary theme is not solely artistic or stylistic. The fact is that the Jesuits, paragons of modern astronomy in China, indulged in conceiving a grand water-clock in which the “hour-bell” would correspond with sprays of water from the heads of one of the twelve celestial branches of the Chinese horoscope. Since ancient times, not only the years were named after this zodiac as we do now, but the hours of the day were marked by these mythical animals, noon being the horse 午 , or meridian, and Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 19 of 25 midnight the rat 子 . These hours lasted for one hundred and twenty minutes and thus their modern counterparts are called small hours (小時). Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25 Figure 20. The Observatory known as YuanYing Guan in Beijing. G. Castiglione. Source: Photographs by Cabeza Lainez from the explicative panels of the site YuanMing Yuan. Beijing. The former pavilion sublimely contrasts with the Haiyan Tang, 海晏堂 (Figure 21), or Pavilion of a Tranquil Sea, a splendid palace accessed through imperial curved stairs at the foot of which lies an ornamental fountain with twelve eerie animal figures dressed as Taoist sages. In fact, the basement of the palace is a massive water reservoir designed by the said Fr. Michael Benoist to induce jets and other hydraulic effects on the adjoining basin [14]. Figure 21. The pavilion of Haiyan Tang in Beijing. Source: Photographs by Cabeza Lainez from the explicative panels of the site YuanMing Yuan. Beijing. Once again in this case, the extraordinary theme is not solely artistic or stylistic. The fact is that the Jesuits, paragons of modern astronomy in China, indulged in conceiving a grand water-clock in which the “hour-bell” would correspond with sprays of water from the heads of one of the twelve celestial branches of the Chinese horoscope. Since ancient times, not only the years were named after this zodiac as we do now, but the hours of the day were marked by these mythical animals, noon being the horse 午, or meridian, and midnight the rat 子. These hours lasted for one hundred and twenty minutes and thus their modern counterparts are called small hours (小時). Since the typical course order of the hours is, Rat (24 h) Ox (2 h), Tiger (4 h), Hare (6 h), Dragon (8 h) Serpent (10 h), Horse (12 h) Ram (14 h), Ape (16 h), Bird (18 h), Dog (20 h) and Boar (22 h), and they do not appear in this way in the fountain, some scholars argue that the missionaries were ignorant and used these figures just as a mere decoration. A more detailed research conducted by Joseph Cabeza Lainez (Figure 22) reveals that the Figure 20. The Observatory known as YuanYing Guan in Beijing. G. Castiglione. Source: Photographs by Cabeza Lainez from the explicative panels of the site YuanMing Yuan. Beijing. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25 Figure 20. The Observatory known as YuanYing Guan in Beijing. G. Castiglione. Source: Photographs by Cabeza Lainez from the explicative panels of the site YuanMing Yuan. Beijing. The former pavilion sublimely contrasts with the Haiyan Tang, 海晏堂 (Figure 21), or Pavilion of a Tranquil Sea, a splendid palace accessed through imperial curved stairs at the foot of which lies an ornamental fountain with twelve eerie animal figures dressed as Taoist sages. In fact, the basement of the palace is a massive water reservoir designed by the said Fr. Michael Benoist to induce jets and other hydraulic effects on the adjoining basin [14]. Figure 21. The pavilion of Haiyan Tang in Beijing. Source: Photographs by Cabeza Lainez from the explicative panels of the site YuanMing Yuan. Beijing. Once again in this case, the extraordinary theme is not solely artistic or stylistic. The fact is that the Jesuits, paragons of modern astronomy in China, indulged in conceiving a grand water-clock in which the “hour-bell” would correspond with sprays of water from the heads of one of the twelve celestial branches of the Chinese horoscope. Since ancient times, not only the years were named after this zodiac as we do now, but the hours of the day were marked by these mythical animals, noon being the horse 午, or meridian, and midnight the rat 子. These hours lasted for one hundred and twenty minutes and thus their modern counterparts are called small hours (小時). Since the typical course order of the hours is, Rat (24 h) Ox (2 h), Tiger (4 h), Hare (6 h), Dragon (8 h) Serpent (10 h), Horse (12 h) Ram (14 h), Ape (16 h), Bird (18 h), Dog (20 h) and Boar (22 h), and they do not appear in this way in the fountain, some scholars argue that the missionaries were ignorant and used these figures just as a mere decoration. A more detailed research conducted by Joseph Cabeza Lainez (Figure 22) reveals that the Figure 21. The pavilion of Haiyan Tang in Beijing. Source: Photographs by Cabeza Lainez from the explicative panels of the site YuanMing Yuan. Beijing. Since the typical course order of the hours is, Rat (24 h) Ox (2 h), Tiger (4 h), Hare (6 h), Dragon (8 h) Serpent (10 h), Horse (12 h) Ram (14 h), Ape (16 h), Bird (18 h), Dog (20 h) and Boar (22 h), and they do not appear in this way in the fountain, some scholars argue that the missionaries were ignorant and used these figures just as a mere decoration. A more detailed research conducted by Joseph Cabeza Lainez (Figure 22) reveals that the Jesuits were totally aware of the conventions, only they had disposed the figures in two opposing wings to add on to the choreographic effect of the complex and facilitate hydraulic maneuvers [14]. It suffices to say that such finding results paradoxical indeed. The envoys who had precisely arrived to China to accurately predict calendar events, after a century long became transmogrified to the point of measuring time by means of the agonist’s cosmological scheme. In 1933, when modern architect Bruno Taut was forced by the Nazi regime to exile in Japan, he published two books on Japanese architectural culture. In them, being treatises on the vernacular, he had to address the question of geomancy and he drew the following graphic (Figure 23) which uses the same characters as in Figure 22. He explained that these Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 20 of 25 were (in his own words) “the axis of superstition” (aberglaube) commonly employed to design every building in Japan. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 25 Jesuits were totally aware of the conventions, only they had disposed the figures in two opposing wings to add on to the choreographic effect of the complex and facilitate hydraulic maneuvers [14]. Figure 22. The cosmological disposition of the twelve animals in the fountain of HaiYan tang 海晏 堂. The hour of the rat is midnight and the hour of the horse is noon; the order alternates each wing of the basin to add movement. Source Joseph Cabeza-Lainez. It suffices to say that such finding results paradoxical indeed. The envoys who had precisely arrived to China to accurately predict calendar events, after a century long became transmogrified to the point of measuring time by means of the agonist’s cosmological scheme. In 1933, when modern architect Bruno Taut was forced by the Nazi regime to exile in Japan, he published two books on Japanese architectural culture. In them, being treatises on the vernacular, he had to address the question of geomancy and he drew the following graphic (Figure 23) which uses the same characters as in Figure 22. He explained that these were (in his own words) “the axis of superstition” (aberglaube) commonly employed to design every building in Japan. Figure 23. The same disposition reproduced by Bruno Taut under the title “Axis of Superstition”. Notice that he deftly wrote the Chinese characters without having any idea of their meaning. Cabeza-Lainez. Assuming in its entirety the Chinese cosmological system was one of the revealing feats achieved by the missionaries by means of their successful Accommodatio method, that later proved insufficient or condemned to irrelevance. Another would have been to experiment with bold new conceptions of space that defied the Chinese and Japanese no- Figure 22. The cosmological disposition of the twelve animals in the fountain of HaiYan tang 海晏堂 . The hour of the rat is midnight and the hour of the horse is noon; the order alternates each wing of the basin to add movement. Source Joseph Cabeza-Lainez. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 25 Jesuits were totally aware of the conventions, only they had disposed the figures in two opposing wings to add on to the choreographic effect of the complex and facilitate hydraulic maneuvers [14]. Figure 22. The cosmological disposition of the twelve animals in the fountain of HaiYan tang 海晏 堂. The hour of the rat is midnight and the hour of the horse is noon; the order alternates each wing of the basin to add movement. Source Joseph Cabeza-Lainez. It suffices to say that such finding results paradoxical indeed. The envoys who had precisely arrived to China to accurately predict calendar events, after a century long became transmogrified to the point of measuring time by means of the agonist’s cosmological scheme. In 1933, when modern architect Bruno Taut was forced by the Nazi regime to exile in Japan, he published two books on Japanese architectural culture. In them, being treatises on the vernacular, he had to address the question of geomancy and he drew the following graphic (Figure 23) which uses the same characters as in Figure 22. He explained that these were (in his own words) “the axis of superstition” (aberglaube) commonly employed to design every building in Japan. Figure 23. The same disposition reproduced by Bruno Taut under the title “Axis of Superstition”. Notice that he deftly wrote the Chinese characters without having any idea of their meaning. Cabeza-Lainez. Assuming in its entirety the Chinese cosmological system was one of the revealing feats achieved by the missionaries by means of their successful Accommodatio method, that later proved insufficient or condemned to irrelevance. Another would have been to experiment with bold new conceptions of space that defied the Chinese and Japanese no- Figure 23. The same disposition reproduced by Bruno Taut under the title “Axis of Superstition”. Notice that he deftly wrote the Chinese characters without having any idea of their meaning. Cabeza-Lainez. Assuming in its entirety the Chinese cosmological system was one of the revealing feats achieved by the missionaries by means of their successful Accommodatio method, that later proved insufficient or condemned to irrelevance. Another would have been to experiment with bold new conceptions of space that defied the Chinese and Japanese notions which were based in strict modules of what could be realized in wood and consequently had not developed structures intended to sustain massive loads like masonry, arches, buttresses or vaults. In contrast, halls did arrange in China around empty spaces following cosmic schemes as the b ¯ agu ¯ athat often result in an imposed rigid geometry. As if humans tried to enforce their own intellectual concepts about order and harmony over nature [18]. The spaces newly conceived by the Jesuits in China permitted the transmission of light to the core of the buildings, a boon that had never been achieved earlier in religious or representative architecture. Prior to that innovation, the temples often adopted a cave-like disposition similar to the hermits’ abode in the mountains. It made no difference if the cave was an artificial creation in wood or stone as we find in many Buddhist sanctuaries throughout Asia (Figure 24). Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 21 of 25 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 25 tions which were based in strict modules of what could be realized in wood and consequently had not developed structures intended to sustain massive loads like masonry, arches, buttresses or vaults. In contrast, halls did arrange in China around empty spaces following cosmic schemes as the bāguā that often result in an imposed rigid geometry. As if humans tried to enforce their own intellectual concepts about order and harmony over nature [18]. The spaces newly conceived by the Jesuits in China permitted the transmission of light to the core of the buildings, a boon that had never been achieved earlier in religious or representative architecture. Prior to that innovation, the temples often adopted a cavelike disposition similar to the hermits’ abode in the mountains. It made no difference if the cave was an artificial creation in wood or stone as we find in many Buddhist sanctuaries throughout Asia (Figure 24). It is fair to say that the Jesuits’ constructive systems freed Asian Architecture from the ever-present petticoat of wooden post and rafter and its dubious sustainability, especially in large-scale buildings [22]. (a) (b) Figure 24. Outside and inside views of the Buddhist artificial grotto of Seokguram in Korea. Human Heritage Site: (a) Scheme of the cave-like temple with a suggested former opening; (b) Statue of the great Buddha on the inside. Source Francisco Salguero Andujar. On the other hand, the Jesuit missionaries accepted nature in a much higher regard and consideration, especially in landscape designs (Nagasaki) and open space enclaves like the YuanMing Yuan 圓明園. In fact, the popular gardening style known in Europe as Anglo-chinois evolved from this melange of cultures throughout design (Figure 25). Figure 24. Outside and inside views of the Buddhist artificial grotto of Seokguram in Korea. Human Heritage Site: ( a ) Scheme of the cave-like temple with a suggested former opening; ( b ) Statue of the great Buddha on the inside. Source Francisco Salguero Andujar. It is fair to say that the Jesuits’ constructive systems freed Asian Architecture from the ever-present petticoat of wooden post and rafter and its dubious sustainability, especially in large-scale buildings [22]. On the other hand, the Jesuit missionaries accepted nature in a much higher regard and consideration, especially in landscape designs (Nagasaki) and open space enclaves like the YuanMing Yuan 圓明園 . In fact, the popular gardening style known in Europe as Anglo-chinois evolved from this melange of cultures throughout design (Figure 25). Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 25 tions which were based in strict modules of what could be realized in wood and consequently had not developed structures intended to sustain massive loads like masonry, arches, buttresses or vaults. In contrast, halls did arrange in China around empty spaces following cosmic schemes as the bāguā that often result in an imposed rigid geometry. As if humans tried to enforce their own intellectual concepts about order and harmony over nature [18]. The spaces newly conceived by the Jesuits in China permitted the transmission of light to the core of the buildings, a boon that had never been achieved earlier in religious or representative architecture. Prior to that innovation, the temples often adopted a cavelike disposition similar to the hermits’ abode in the mountains. It made no difference if the cave was an artificial creation in wood or stone as we find in many Buddhist sanctuaries throughout Asia (Figure 24). It is fair to say that the Jesuits’ constructive systems freed Asian Architecture from the ever-present petticoat of wooden post and rafter and its dubious sustainability, especially in large-scale buildings [22]. (a) (b) Figure 24. Outside and inside views of the Buddhist artificial grotto of Seokguram in Korea. Human Heritage Site: (a) Scheme of the cave-like temple with a suggested former opening; (b) Statue of the great Buddha on the inside. Source Francisco Salguero Andujar. On the other hand, the Jesuit missionaries accepted nature in a much higher regard and consideration, especially in landscape designs (Nagasaki) and open space enclaves like the YuanMing Yuan 圓明園. In fact, the popular gardening style known in Europe as Anglo-chinois evolved from this melange of cultures throughout design (Figure 25). Figure 25. The surrealistic etching of the terracotta labyrinth in the YuanMing Yuan. 1783–1786. Source: Photographs by Cabeza Lainez from the explicative panels of the site YuanMing Yuan. The Wanhua Zhen, 萬花陣 , maze of one hundred flowers, is an example of the architectural syncretism attained. It had to evoke hedge and mirth labyrinths common in European palaces like Versailles and Schonbrunn, but instead, the central pavilion admitted a Chinese hipped roof and the scheme of the plan incorporated the Chinese numerology in nine circular rotundas (four for the cardinal directions, two for the vertical and three for moments in time, past, present and future). The surprising circumstance that it was made of terracotta and not of vegetal shrubs spared it from the devastation effected by Anglo-French troops in 1860 [ 39 ]. Apparently, the trimmed hedges were rejected as too rude a way to domesticate hallowed Nature. Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 22 of 25 Traces of such recurrent discussion reside in the celebrated poem of Bai Juyi (772–846) “Climbing Mount Incense Burner” and its consequences for sustainability, avant la lettre [ 40 ]. “My new hut has three bays, and five columns, with stone steps and wooden pillars made of katsura tree. I put a door on the north side to let in cool breezes and to fend off oppressive heat; I made the southern rafters high to admit the sunlight in case there should be severe cold. The beams were trimmed but left unpainted, the walls plastered but not given a final coat of white. I have used slabs of stone for paving and stairs, sheets of paper to cover the windows; and the bamboo blinds and hemp curtains are of a similar makeshift nature. Added four wooden benches and two screen partitions. A serene brook traverses my piece of land but it rarely splashes out. Next spring, I will thatch the side room to the east; fit it with paper panels and reed blinds for my poems of Meng Guang.” 五架三間新草堂， 石階桂柱竹編牆。 南簷納日冬天暖， 北戶迎風夏月涼。 灑砌飛泉纔有點， 拂窗斜竹不成行。 來春更葺東廂屋， 紙閣蘆簏著孟光。 Master Castiglione, or Lang Shining in Chinese, deemed the last grand Chinese painter, devised the European technique of focal perspective to illuminate and beckon the believers. At first he opposed frames to expanding scrolls but finally succumbed to the power of boundless expression to adorn the Imperial Chambers with the same spirit. In the miraculous oeuvre of Giuseppe Castiglione at the Juanqinzhai ( 卷勤斋 ), the retirement palace of Emperor Qianlong ( 乾隆 , 1711–1799), it is possible to admire a sublime reconciliation between natural life and abstract geometry by virtue of unifocal perspective. He painted an entire ceiling showing a bamboo arbour of hanging wisterias (hallowed flower of China) in full bloom (Figures 26 and 27) [ 41 ]. Such was the astonishing Mural Language of Lang Shining. Finally, a Universal Language much larger than Life. Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 25 Figure 26. The wisteria arbor painted by Castiglione on the ceiling of the Juanqinzhai. Source: Cabeza-Lainez. Figure 27. Castiglione, detail of the purple wisteria flowers. 5. Conclusions A new type of art, in harmony with European, Chinese and Japanese sources was engendered under the auspices of the Jesuit Missionaries. In Japan, such art was named Nanban (after the Southern Barbarians). As for China, it received no specific denomination, but it is known that in the wake of Castiglione and his companions, Sino-baroque gardening and architecture survived for decades in places outside East Asia, for instance in England, Germany or Turkey. What brought these astronomers-turned-artists to East Asia is contained in equal terms in the dictum of Thucydides: τὰ γὰρ διὰ πλείστου πάντες ἴσμεν θαυμαζόμενα καὶ τὰ πεῖραν ἥκιστα τῆς δόξης δόντα, we all know that the object of highest admiration is the furthest whose reputation cannot be put to test [42]. Cross-cultural relationships did influence the development of empires, in all directions, based on what contemporary philosophers like Bucci-Glucksmann have justly called a “Baroque reason”, which encompasses mathematics and geometry, art, science and literature [43]. From the cultural point of view, the lessons that we should learn relate to sustainability, nature and the harmonious coexistence between the environment and civilization, almost to the point that it would be hard to tell the master from the disciple in these aspects. Realms appeared and faded in search of such elusive ideal. Figure 26. The wisteria arbor painted by Castiglione on the ceiling of the Juanqinzhai. Source: Cabeza-Lainez. Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 23 of 25 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 25 Figure 26. The wisteria arbor painted by Castiglione on the ceiling of the Juanqinzhai. Source: Cabeza-Lainez. Figure 27. Castiglione, detail of the purple wisteria flowers. 5. Conclusions A new type of art, in harmony with European, Chinese and Japanese sources was engendered under the auspices of the Jesuit Missionaries. In Japan, such art was named Nanban (after the Southern Barbarians). As for China, it received no specific denomination, but it is known that in the wake of Castiglione and his companions, Sino-baroque gardening and architecture survived for decades in places outside East Asia, for instance in England, Germany or Turkey. What brought these astronomers-turned-artists to East Asia is contained in equal terms in the dictum of Thucydides: τὰ γὰρ διὰ πλείστου πάντες ἴσμεν θαυμαζόμενα καὶ τὰ πεῖραν ἥκιστα τῆς δόξης δόντα, we all know that the object of highest admiration is the furthest whose reputation cannot be put to test [42]. Cross-cultural relationships did influence the development of empires, in all directions, based on what contemporary philosophers like Bucci-Glucksmann have justly called a “Baroque reason”, which encompasses mathematics and geometry, art, science and literature [43]. From the cultural point of view, the lessons that we should learn relate to sustainability, nature and the harmonious coexistence between the environment and civilization, almost to the point that it would be hard to tell the master from the disciple in these aspects. Realms appeared and faded in search of such elusive ideal. Figure 27. Castiglione, detail of the purple wisteria flowers. 5. Conclusions A new type of art, in harmony with European, Chinese and Japanese sources was engendered under the auspices of the Jesuit Missionaries. In Japan, such art was named Nanban (after the Southern Barbarians). As for China, it received no specific denomination, but it is known that in the wake of Castiglione and his companions, Sino-baroque gardening and architecture survived for decades in places outside East Asia, for instance in England, Germany or Turkey. What brought these astronomers-turned-artists to East Asia is contained in equal terms in the dictum of Thucydides: τὰγὰρ διὰπλείστου πάντεςἴσµεν θαυµαζ ó µενα καὶ τὰπεῖραν ἥκιστα τῆςδ ó ξηςδ ó ντα ,we all know that the object of highest admiration is the furthest whose reputation cannot be put to test [42]. Cross-cultural relationships did influence the development of empires, in all directions, based on what contemporary philosophers like Bucci-Glucksmann have justly called a “Baroque reason”, which encompasses mathematics and geometry, art, science and literature [43]. From the cultural point of view, the lessons that we should learn relate to sustainability, nature and the harmonious coexistence between the environment and civilization, almost to the point that it would be hard to tell the master from the disciple in these aspects. Realms appeared and faded in search of such elusive ideal. In the Oriental Empire of China, which even now calls itself the Empire of the Centre ( 中国 ), parallel questions were poised through Daoist ( 道 ) numerology and geomancy, evoking the perennial symmetry of Nature also present in Japan. Eventually, a fusion of horizons was attained. For the unequal struggle towards Sustainability in the Modern World, the hypotheses and facts hereby exposed appear both paradoxical and prophetic as hundreds of years have passed, but still Human Culture seems at odds to sustain life on the planet. If something does not dovetail, how should we make amends? As Watsuji Tetsur ¯ o ( 和辻哲郎 ) once stated, the answer lies in that we can neither separate History from Climate nor Climate from History. Nature and Culture and their respective forking paths must ultimately entwine in inextricable though endearing ways [ 14 ]. Author Contributions: I.R.-C. and J.C.-L. were helpful in conceptualizing the scope and issues of the article. J.C.-L. developed the main theories and introduced the Chinese characters. M.G.-V. was instrumental in visualizing the cultural and artistic implications of the task. F.S.-A. brought the instrumentation and evaluated the available software. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Sustainability 2021,13, 11729 24 of 25 Acknowledgments: Inmaculada Rodriguez Cunill desires to honor the artists Eva Guil Walls and Maro Infante. She would like to thank Yulu Yang for her accurate renditions. Miguel Gutierrez Villarrubia would like to honor the rhapsode Jon Anderson. Francisco Salguero Andujar appreciates the kindness and help of Juhyung Lee and all the personnel at Seokguram. Joseph Cabeza Lainez dedicates this article to Francisca Lainez Robles. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Spence, J.D. The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci; Viking Penguin: New York, NY, USA, 1984. 2. de Lucena, J. Historia Da Vida Do Padre Francisco de Xavier, e Doque Fizerao Na India Os Mais Religiosos Da Companhia de Iesu; Crasbeeck, P., Ed.; Impressa por Pedro Crasbeeck: Lisboa, Portugal, 1600. 3. Saraiva, L.; Martzloff, J.C.; Baldini, J.; Dhombres, J. História Das Ciências Matemáticas: Portugal e o Oriente—History of Mathematical Sciences: Portugal and East Asia; Fundação Oriente: Lisboa, Portugal, 2000. 4. D’Elia, P.M. 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