Adventure perdagogical model as a growing concept in physical activity

DOI: 10.4025/jphyseduc.v35i1.3545 J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024 Opinion Article ADVENTURE PEDAGOGICAL MODEL AS A GROWING CONCEPT IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY A PEDAGOGIA DA AVENTURA ENQUANTO MODELO PEDAGÓGICO EM CRESCIMENTO NA ATIVIDADE FÍSICA Pablo Caballero-Blanco1, Carlos Herrera-Pombero1, and Pedro Bento2 1University of Seville, Sevilla, Espanha. 2Polytechnic University, Beja, Portugal. RESUMO A relevância dos modelos pedagógicos na atividade física tem vindo a aumentar nas últimas décadas. Estes são entendidos como as estruturas nas quais os professores podem organizar os diferentes elementos envolvidos no processo de ensino-aprendizagem, a fim de alcançar os resultados de aprendizagem esperados. Entre os vários modelos pedagógicos existentes, distinguem-se os que têm uma trajetória mais consolidada e os chamados modelos em ascenso que procuram novos paradigmas de ensino-aprendizagem centrados sobretudo no ensino ativo. Entre os modelos em ascenso, encontramos a Pedagogia da Aventura (PA), que se baseia nos modelos da educação através da aventura (uma abordagem centrada no desafio e na aventura como componente essencial das atividades) e do Outdoor Education, que tem por base as atividades no ambiente natural. Desta forma, a Pedagogia da Aventura, procura através do desafio e das possibilidades oferecidas pelo meio natural, contribuir para o processo de humanização dos participantes através do desenvolvimento pessoal e social, enquanto promove o desenvolvimento de competências técnicas específicas para atividades físicas no meio natural. Este artigo descreve a relevância atual do modelo da Pedagogia da Aventura, as suas componentes-chave e as suas possibilidades como modelo emergente na procura do desenvolvimento integral dos participantes em atividades físico-desportivas. Palavras-chave: Atividade Física. Modelos pedagógicos. Pedagogia da aventura. Desenvolvimento positivo. ABSTRACT The relevance of pedagogical models in physical activity has increased in recent decades. These are the structures in which teachers can organize the different elements involved in the teaching-learning process to achieve the expected learning results. Among the various existing pedagogical models, we can distinguish between those with a more consolidated trajectory and the so-called emerging models that seek new teaching-learning paradigms centered above all on active learning. Among the emerging models, we find Adventure Pedagogy (AP), which is based on the models of education through adventure (an approach centered on challenge and adventure as an essential component of activities) and Outdoor Education, which is based on activities in the natural environment. In this way, Adventure Pedagogy seeks, through the challenge and possibilities offered by the natural environment, to contribute to humanizing participants through personal and social development, while promoting the development of specific technical skills for physical activities in the natural environment. This article describes the current relevance of the Adventure Pedagogy model, its key components and its possibilities as an emerging model in the search for the integral development of participants in physical sports activities. Keywords: Physical activity. Pedagogical models. Adventure pedagogy. Introduction In recent decades, methodological approaches in physical activity have evolved with the incorporation of pedagogical models, which can be understood as multidimensional structures so that teachers/coaches can develop didactic units based on them, and include a teaching plan, a theoretical basis, concrete learning outcomes, sequenced learning activities, expected teacher and student behaviors, task structures, measures to assess learning and mechanisms to evaluate their correct implementation1 To understand the design of pedagogical models, Fernández- Rio et al.1 present three methodological levels: Page 2 of 17 Caballero-Blanco et al. J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024  The first methodological level refers to "strategies in practice", defined as "the particular way of approaching the different exercises and tasks that make up the teaching progression of a particular motor skill" Sicilia & Delgado2.  The second methodological level would be made up of "teaching styles", centered on the way the teacher acts and the impact that "learning" generates in the student; in other words, they are "a set of moments and techniques, logically coordinated, to direct the student's learning towards certain objectives... mediators between the teacher, the student and what is intended to be taught"2.  And the third methodological level would be made up of "pedagogical models", which refer to the four elements of the teaching-learning process: teacher, student, content and context1. Thus, according to Fernández-Rio et al.1;11 "pedagogical models do not replace teaching styles, but incorporate them into their structures", as well as the different types of activities and tasks, allowing the design of intervention proposals that are longer in time than sessions, such as didactic units, as can be seen in Figure 1. Figure 1. Methodological levels according to Fernández-Río et al.1 Source: Authors Within the different pedagogical models, we can distinguish between more consolidated methodologies, which are those that have been most widely disseminated internationally, and models on the rise, whose methodologies change the previous paradigm, and are fundamentally based on active teaching, centered on the student and their characteristics, in order to achieve the key competences that allow students to develop their different skills to the maximum and be able to apply them in their daily lives. According to Fernández-Rio et al.1, the consolidated pedagogical models are shown in Table 1. Adventure pedagogy model Page 3 of 16 J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024 Table 1. Consolidated pedagogical models. Pedagogical Models CONSOLIDATED EMERGING  Teaching personal and social responsibility  Cooperative learning  Sports education  Game-centred models  Adventure education  Attitudinal style  Ludo-technical model  Self-construction model  Health-based physical education  Service-learning  Practice model  Activist sports pedagogical model Model Hybridisation Source: Authors This chapter presents the current status of the adventure pedagogy model (emerging adventure education model). 1. Latest developments in the adventure pedagogy model 1.1. Origin of adventure-based education programmes. Nature is the oldest space for learning used by all cultures over time. However, it is not until the Renaissance that we can speak of physical activities in the natural environment (PANE) as we understand them today. Humanists Montaigne, Rabelais and later Rousseau (Enlightenment) first perceived PANE for educational purposes and nature as a privileged space for learning3,4. Different programmes address the educational treatment of PANE, linked by experiential learning, which can be defined as ‘a philosophy and methodology, in which educators purposefully engage with students in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills, and clarify value’5. To analyse the basis for experiential learning we must go back to the early 20th century and authors such as John Dewey and K. Hant. Jon Dewey stresses that an important factor for learning is that people find meaning when they interact with their context, with their environment. Figure 2 shows how learning begins with a specific personal experience, felt using a process of reflection and conceptualization. To complete the process, Dewey explains ‘application’ as a phase in which new learning is transferred to different spheres. Without forgetting the importance of an individual’s prior experiences and knowledge, according to Prouty et al.6. All phases are related in a cyclical process. Page 4 of 17 Caballero-Blanco et al. J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024 Figure 2. Dewey’s experiential learning process and Kolb’s learning cycle. Source: Authors Meanwhile, Kurt Hahn systematically uses PANE and adventure in education. Hahn is the founder of Outward Bound Schools, a training academy that prepared Marine students to face the situations they would experience when their ship sailed in the open seas (hence the name used for these training academies). Students had to learn how to address any problem or difficulty they would face in the future. In other words, learning not only ‘for’ the sea but also through the sea, thus receiving education for challenges to be faced in their daily lives7. Hahn seeks an education that can help students with bad habits and can foster good morals in them by helping to convey social values8. This pedagogical approach has spread worldwide with a programme developed specifically in the US called Project Adventure with subjects including Physical Education (PE), Language, History, Biology, etc. This programme led to what is today known as Adventure Education. Considering experiential learning as a connection, a series of methodological approaches have been consolidated:  Adventure Education: consisting of an approach based on challenge and adventure as an essential component of activities, whether in a natural or urban setting, using controlled risk situations where the participant must perceive a sense of uncertainty9.  Outdoor education: a similar methodology but it emphasises carrying out activities in nature, involving a greater mastery of technical skills and also the uncertainty of the environment, as well as greater emphasis on environmental education5.  Adventure Pedagogy (AP) model: a methodology that emerged in Spain in the early 2000s10. It integrates Adventure Education and Outdoor Education while also incorporating elements of positive development programs so its purpose is thus to Adventure pedagogy model Page 5 of 16 J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024 contribute to the participant humanization process through personal and social development and also the specific technical skills of physical activities in nature (Caballero-Blanco et al., 2020).  Ecological model: a relatively recent approach in Spain with three key differentiating elements11: ‘it conceives sports learning in a global and integrated manner, both in relation to the multiple dimensions of the person and the internal logic of each sport; it particularly takes into account the interdependent relationship of the athlete with the natural environment in which they carry out their activity, in what we call the sports ecosystem; and it establishes the sustainability of the natural and social environment as an essential requirement for practising sports in nature”. 1.2. Essential components of the adventure pedagogy model Adventure pedagogy (AP) is a model based on the theoretical principles of experiential learning and positive development10. In this case, education is based on direct experiences through physical activities in nature and/or challenges/adventure activities, in nature or urban settings, to contribute to the humanization process (of both the student and the teacher). It can thus be included in Outdoor Studies programs, more specifically associated with Adventure Education methodologies. It emerged in the ‘90s from a working group led by Manuel Parra given the need to set methodological strategies to address physical activities in the natural environment (PANE) content in primary and secondary education. Over the years it has been applied at different levels of formal education (primary, secondary, university), informal education (summer camps, afterschool activities), by active tourism companies (hiking routes, camps, etc.), and in other contexts (other types of physical activities). Adventure pedagogy (AP) aims to contribute to personal and social development through PANE; or put another way, to contribute to the humanization process12. Its purpose is to educate ‘in’ and ‘through’ physical activities in the natural environment and challenge/adventure activities, as well as educate ‘for’ nature. This entails integrating different types of objectives in the educational process10: - Educating in physical activities in the natural environment: developing specific skills for physical activities such as hiking, orienteering, climbing, cycling, etc. Specific learning for this type of motor practices typical of physical education or motor skills in general. - Educating through physical activities in the natural environment: developing personal and social skills, understanding this context as a way to enhance life skills. - Educating for nature: in other words, fostering absolute respect for the environment, conceiving it as a privileged place we must preserve and care for. Also, awaken curiosity for and interest in the natural environment, revealing its benefits at personal and educational levels. Page 6 of 17 Caballero-Blanco et al. J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024 - Developing life skills: these are the basic skills to be worked on in educational programs to ensure that people can function in their daily lives, achieving personal and social growth. To achieve these objectives, a series of AP model components were established to be integrated in the teaching-learning process. These include methodological pillars, methodological steps, characteristics of activities, methodological strategies, structure of the session and phases of intervention. 1.2.1. Methodological pillars Methodological pillars refer to the pedagogical foundations that teachers must put into practice in each session10. Guidelines that must be present in each session are thus established for Adventure Pedagogy (Figure 3).  Positive development: promote the development of life skills through physical activities in the natural environment intervention programmes. Each session or intervention must be designed according to two types of objective: Promoting specific skills of physical activities in the natural environment. Developing life skills.  Experiential learning: applying Dewey’s learning model based on practical experiences and life situations to later reflect on practice and build concepts anchored in significant learning.  Nature and physical activity: physical activities in the natural environment are a privileged context for educating ‘in’ (specific outdoors sports skills), ‘through’ (life skills) and ‘for’ nature (fostering reconnection and respect for nature).  Fun attitude: this element allows for teaching and learning in a fun context, encouraging curiosity, capacity for amazement, fostering surprises and motivating both students and teachers.  Adventure: understanding the teaching-learning process as an adventure for teachers (keeping the joy of teaching alive) and for students (getting them involved in significant, authentic and memorable learning experiences). Adventure encompasses designing activities that are a challenge, integrating uncertainty and where creativity and imagination allow for significant, memorable and authentic learning experiences. Adventure pedagogy model Page 7 of 16 J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024 Figure 3. Methodological pillars of the AP model10 Source: Authors 1.2.2. Methodological steps Rolling out Adventure Pedagogy requires methodological steps that can be applied at different moments during the session and the teaching-learning process. These steps classify activities according to the objectives they aim to develop (specific PANE objectives and life skills) and social relationships within a group learning process. By applying each of the methodological steps, we can achieve specific objectives and develop concrete content (Figure 4). Adventure Pedagogy proposes 10 methodological steps, each defined with a series of common characteristics and objectives to be achieved. The activities included in a methodological step need not be exclusive to that step, they may form part of several methodological steps and promote the objectives of both. Emphasis must be placed on the objective set for the session during a moment of reflection10. Page 8 of 17 Caballero-Blanco et al. J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024 Figure 4. Methodological steps related to objectives and description10. Source: Authors Adventure pedagogy model Page 9 of 16 J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024 Below is a brief description of each methodological step. a) Methodological step presentation. ‘Get to know others and make yourself known’ is the common guideline of the activities in this methodological step. Their purpose is for group members to get to know each other, a material or a new space. These are dynamics that allow participants to learn about group members (name, city of origin, tastes, etc.); as well as people involved more occasionally. These also include activities to become familiar with material or with a space (for example, introduction to orientation material activities). b) Desinhibition / Relaxation methodological step. ‘Feel at ease’ is the common guideline of the activities in this methodological step. The aim is to create a fun space for interaction in a positive atmosphere. They enable us to relax tension in the group, encourage disinhibition, release energy, have fun and interact through movement, by means of imitating and repeating dance and songs. c) Sensory rediscovery methodological step. ‘Discover fully’ is the common guideline of the activities in this methodological step, intended to awaken the senses of participants, recognise the sensations perceived and then interact with the surrounding environment. Sensory rediscover are activities to discover the key, in which participants receive no explanation on what they must do, they must use trial and error techniques, practice, observation, imitation, etc. to decipher the activities. This methodological step also includes activities that invite participants to interact with the environment (natural or artificial) and people using their senses, activating touch, sight, hearing, taste, self-perception, balance, nociception (pain), sense of heat. d) Trust methodological step. ‘Care for yourself and others’ is the common premise of the activities in this methodological step, aiming to increase trust in others, in yourself, the environment, and sports materials and basic adventure sport techniques. Trust activities propose collective challenges where some members of the group taken on a main role that implicitly entails certain risk and which they must overcome through teamwork and a commitment to care for others. Page 16 of 17 Caballero-Blanco et al. J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024.  Transfer. The purpose of the intervention process must be designed so that all participants can apply what they have learned in other contexts or different situations. This phase is especially important with outdoor sports methodological step activities, considering that if activities have previously been carried out in more domesticated environments with less uncertainty (indoor or outdoor spaces of a school, park, urban setting, etc.), it should end with physical activities in natural environments. It also refers to applying what has been learned to other contexts, such as family, school (other subjects), after school, friends, etc. Figure 8. AP intervention10. 1.3. Final considerations. PANE are a privileged context for promoting the personal and social development of children, young people and adults. However, just getting out into the natural environment doesn't produce these positive results on its own; a programmed intervention is needed for the formative effect to take place9,10,12. To this end, the Adventure Pedagogy model presents a series of key components that allow for the implementation of programs through the AFMN for educational purposes, establishing the methodological pillars, the roots and the essence of the model (positive development, experiential learning, physical activity and nature, playful attitude and adventure). The challenges posed by this methodological approach are: to increase its diffusion among physical education teachers and sports coaches in non-formal education contexts (both in Portugal and in Spain and other countries), to increase research to have a greater scientific basis, to establish a solid process of training and evaluation of the fidelity of the implementation of programs based on the adventure pedagogy model, to implement and evaluate in formal and non-formal education contexts. References 1. Fernández-Rio J, Hortigüela-Alcalá D, Pérez-Pueyo A. Qué es un modelo pedagógico? Aclaración conceptual. In: Los modelos pedagógicos en educación física: qué, cómo, por qué y para qué. León: Universidad de León; 2021. p. 11-25. 2. Sicilia A, Delgado M. Educación Física y Estilos de enseñanza. Barcelona: Inde; 2002. Adventure Pedagogical Model Page 17 of 17 J. Phys. Educ. v. 35, e3545, 2024. 3. Baena-Extremera A. 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Pedagogía de la Aventura. In: Dinámicas y estrategias de recreación. Barcelona: Graó; 2009. p. 199-260. 13. Montávez M, Zea MJ. Expresión corporal. Propuestas para la acción. Málaga: Re-Crea y Educa; 1998. 14. Hellison D. Teaching personal and social responsibility through physical activity. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics; 2011. 15. Vaca M. Contribución de la educación física escolar a las competencias básicas señaladas en la LOE para la educación primaria. Tándem [Internet]. 2008[cited 2024 Jul 23];26:52-61. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/11162/23338. Acknowledgements: The article was funded by the SEJ-570 group at Pablo de Olavide University through PAIDI grants ORCID: Pablo Caballero-Blanco: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6697-2425 Carlos Herrera-Pombero (in progress) Pedro Bento: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-3826-4357 Editor: Carlos Herold Junior. Received on May 14, 2024. Reviewed on June 30,2024. Accepted on July 01, 2024. Corresponding author: Pedro Bento. 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