Higher Education, Employability and Transitions to the Labour Market

2 Design and layout of the ebook: Sara I. Alonso-Martínez Cover design: Ángel Alonso-Rodríguez Edited by the EMPLOY Project & University of Seville (Spain) Seville (Spain) 2018 ISBN: 978-84-947840-5-7 This ebook includes papers from a European Conference, held on 7th & 8th September 2017, at the University of Seville (Spain). This Conference was organised by the Project “EMPLOY – Enhancing the Employability of Non-traditional Students in Higher Education” (November 2014 – October 2017). This project was funded under the Erasmus Plus Programme, KA2 Higher Education, Strategic Partnership (Ref.: 2014-1-UK01-KA203-001842). The information and views set out in this publication are those of the authors and do not reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Neither the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained herein. 3 INDEX INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 5 SECTION 1. GENDER AND EMPLOYABILITY ............................................................ 7 Chapter 1. Women and work. A gender orientation to generate generative action – F. Marone .................................................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2. Integración de mujeres altamente cualificadas en el mercado laboral. Un estudio en el ámbito europeo sobre algunas relaciones entre flexibilidad y ratios de empleo – D. Limón-Domínguez, M. Pabón-Figueras & M. A. Pino-Mejías ........................ 21 SECTION 2. EMPLOYABILITY AND POLICIES OF NON-TRADITIONAL STUDENTS ..... 41 Chapter 3. Propuestas para la mejora de determinadas políticas en educación y en empleo. Una revisión de la estrategia Europa 2020 - D. Limón-Domínguez, M. PabónFigueras & M. A. Pino-Mejías ...................................................................................... 43 Chapter 4. Employability and non traditional students: a meta-analysis – V. P. Cesarano .................................................................................................................. 61 Chapter 5. Non-traditional students’ point of view about internships in pedagogical professions: Comparison with other students, key factors and drawbacks – C. Corsini & G. Pillera................................................................................................................ 81 SECTION 3. INMIGRANTS AND REFUGEES .......................................................... 107 Chapter 6. Training for the labour inclusion of refugees: a response from the university – C. Álvarez-Moraleda & R. M. Hernández-Carrera. ..................................................... 109 Chapter 7. Immigrant youths: Between early leaving and continue their studies – A. Buonomo, S. Strozza & G. Gabrielli ........................................................................ 131 SECTION 4. INNOVATION AND FORMAL TRAINING IN HIGHER EDUCATION .... 149 Chapter 8. Higher studies in social sciences education: Using CLIL and sharing didactic strategies orientated to internationalize employability and entrepreneurship – C. Lechuga-Jiménez. ............................................................................................................ 151 Chapter 9. Analysis of metaphors on the formative experience of mentors from the Dominican Republic – S. González-Miguel & C. Mayor-Ruiz ...................................... 163 4 5 INTRODUCTION Barbara Merrill M. Teresa Padilla-Carmona José González-Monteagudo Learning, retention and employability in higher education are key issues for policymakers at institutional, national and European levels. They are also areas of interest for researchers. This ebook, under the title of Higher Education, Employability and Transitions to the Labour Market, has been produced from a European conference held at the University of Seville, Spain, within the context of the European project EMPLOY. This Conference provided an opportunity to hear about a new, trans European, interdisciplinary, in-depth study of non-traditional students in six countries; and to present papers, round tables, and symposia on related topics to an international audience of academics, practitioners and policy-makers. In this ebook the reader will find nine of these contributions, organised in four different sections. Section 1 includes two papers focused on gender and its challenges about employability. Section 2 presents fours texts about employability and policies regarding non-traditional students in HE. The third part of the book is related to immigrants and refugees. The last section has two papers that discuss innovation and formal training in Higher Education, including issues on internationalisation as a way of improving employability. One basic assumption of our contributions is that non-traditional students (both younger and adult) experience inequalities (class, gender, race / ethnicity and age) in relation to employability and transitioning into the graduate labour market. And, in some countries, this is exacerbated by a current climate of precarity and crisis. Research also indicates that many non-traditional students take longer to obtain a job and that when they do this may not be at a graduate level. The conference explored how non-traditional students and other disadvantaged groups experience learning in higher education and as well as their perspectives, expectations and strategies in relation to employability and 6 future employment. Institutional practices and policies can also impact either positively or negatively as well as employers and companies. An important objective of this conference was to open up dialogue about the findings of the EU funded study of ‘Enhancing the Employability of Non-Traditional Students in HE’ – EMPLOY. It was focused on the experiences of samples of non-traditional students, graduates, university staff and employers in six European countries (Ireland, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the UK). The research has involved the use of longitudinal biographical narrative methods. This conference also provided an opportunity for researchers, policy-makers and HE staff working in the field to learn more about this distinct study and to engage with its findings, but also to present papers and establish a space to discuss all the issues, from a range of perspectives. Some key issues of this ebook refers to the following themes: employability, equality and higher education; graduate transition into the labour market or other destinations; access, retention and drop-out; institutional and cultural contexts and perspectives; theoretical and conceptual approaches; issues of inequality (class, gender, race / ethnicity, age, disability, location); research methodologies; policy, practice and managerial issues and perspectives. As editors of this ebook, we thank the researchers that have contributed to this publication, making possible to offer these contributions as an open access resource. This ebook includes papers from a European Conference, held on 7th & 8th September 2017, at the University of Seville (Spain). This Conference was organised by the Project “EMPLOY – Enhancing the Employability of Non-traditional Students in Higher Education” (November 2014 – October 2017). This project was funded under the Erasmus Plus Programme, KA2 Higher Education, Strategic Partnership (Ref.: 2014-1-UK01-KA203-001842). The information and views set out in this publication are those of the authors and do not reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Neither the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained herein. 7 SECTION 1 GENDER AND EMPLOYABILITY 8 9 CHAPTER 1 Women and work. A gender orientation to generate generative action Francesca Marone - University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy Gender stereotypes in the contemporary society Equal opportunities for women and men is a fundamental principle of European law that applies to all fields of social life, including the world of work. In Italy, the gender issue still takes the form of actions aimed at the recognition of citizenship rights in their practices. The concept of citizenship seeks to combine on multiple levels, from state to organizations, to thought and practice, to universal and at the same time specific and individual instances (Gherardi, 1998; Catemario, 2005). So when it comes to genderbased citizenship, women's rights to "be equal and different" and everyone's right to free themselves from the "trap of the gender" is still undergoing many transitions to equalize throughout the generations. In time, it will continue to change as each decade will come to the understanding of change in the sense of typing roles according to sex and the definition of identities. On the other hand, recent theoretical and empirical evidence has shown the strong correlation between local economic growth with the female presence in the labor market along with a decrease in the reverse where discriminatory and exclusionary modalities exist for women with the outcome to discourage the development of their skills and resources, and consequently put them at a disadvantage in the overall competitiveness of local systems. In addition, particular attention has been paid to the formation and dissemination of knowledge in the community context (Corbi, 2010): the possibility of women's access to forms of power and influence of culture and s in various fields, cultural conditioning in the perception and representation of women, the status of women and the channels for their entry into education and the labor market, good practices and the reconciliation policies of professional and family life, to the promotion of female 16 b) Orientation counseling as a choice of personal and/or professional training path towards the identification of resources and capabilities to invest in a personal work project. c) Interventions of individual and relational empowerment aiming to increase the self-esteem of women in themselves and to their ability to perceive the entity around them. Moreover, to grasp its positive aspects so that they can overcome certain conditions of impotence and passivity and furthermore to perform certain tasks to their benefit. This also allows a steady, progressive and conscious growth of women's potential, accompanied by a corresponding increase in autonomy and assumption of responsibility. d) Career counseling: structured orientation pathways targeting firstly, to evolvement in relation to a person’s own personal aspects and the labor market, secondly, the frameworks of socio-cultural reference and finally to the emotional registers appropriate for investing in their own planning and dealing with positive ways through situations of change. An in-depth study is conducted, of the difficulties that block an actual work-seeking project, while favoring and stimulating professional design and professional identity. e) Life-meaning counseling: Reflective practices to help women overcome the flaws of conformism and stereotypes while supporting the identification of aspirations, interests, and capabilities in order to project them in the world of work; with the aim, furthermore, of drawing in advance professional anticipation in line with personal meanings. f) Motivational orientation: for women in reintegration into labor market or in transition from one job to another. g) Seminars and Group Meetings pointing to the ability of recognizing the value and strength of diverse insights into the quality of integrated leadership and enforce female leadership to their gratification. According to a bottom up perspective, the qualitative method has the merit of enhancing the perspective of the object of investigation (considered in its peculiarity and uniqueness), in the light of a centered thinking on experience, which is the most innovative typology generated by feminist thought. Women's voices focusing on stories, relationships, experiences have intersected their narratives of social change seeking to 17 read the present, avoiding the rhetoric of victimization as much as possible or otherwise exalting a female to extract only economic surplus value. It is of great significance to listen to the feminine talents, grasping the elements of the knowledge linked to the action of women, to exit from the logic of protection and victimization in order to acknowledge every woman‘s desire to a new welfare within the freedom to decide about their own best interest. In other words, the goal is that the future can harmonize with the recognition of female talents with the same desire of women’s access to a new welfare with the freedom to decide what and how to do it, definitively leaving from the blackmail season. Only then would it be possible to change the structure of the powers at the base of this society thanks to the work of women and only then would the long history of the use and the instrumentalization have been terminated (D’Agnese, Alessandrini, 2013). The work starts from the assumption that there is a need to acknowledge, to comprehend and articulate the passage from the social, political and economic phases that women and their dialogues are going through in Italy. The girls' path to work must be on the one hand more knowledgeable and informed, on the other, supported by families with greater awareness of adverse socio-cultural influences so as to stimulate the new generations to achieve greater social wellbeing and social mobility. The view on the gender-related training courses, the peculiarities of its contents, its methodologies and its educational scope is therefore necessary to approach and be aware of where and how the young women's training stories are today, at the intersection that constraints and support the opportunities during the training process as an inevitable occasion for transformation, growth and self-determination and their entry into the labor market. It is important to urge on best practices, that are focused on the three dimensions of action: the level of self, that of intersubjectivity and the level of society. Female narratives collected (about fifty) all refer to oppositions: male/female, public/private, rationality/ emotions, mind/body. In student stories, there is some confidence in the liberating potentials introduced by merit. Many students attribute the decision to join the university to the father figure. They complain about the lack of opportunities for discussion at university and the increased presence of male networks. 18 In the words of graduates, however, emphasis is placed on strong leadership linked to terms such as aggression, competitiveness and individualism, regardless of male and female. In short, leadership is one and only one. Clearly it is derived from the maledominated tradition which combines man authorities and rationality and the woman emotions and weaknesses. As for the gender self-representation, the users report being very influenced by the opinions of other women (mothers, collegues, workers, teachers, leaders). There is also the difficulty of balancing work and affective life. Finally, the lack of self-esteem is the underlying theme of all narratives. Educating young people at equal opportunities means, therefore, reviewing knowledge, languages, pedagogical relationships, teaching methods, contents, within an educational system in which equality of rights does not mean equalization of identities. References Alheit, P. & Bergamini, S. (1996). Storie di vita. Metodologia di ricerca per le scienze sociali. Milan: Guerini. Anker, R. (1997). Theories of occupational segregation by sex: An overview. International Labour Review, 3, 315-339. Arcidiacono, C. & Procentese, F. (eds) (2008). Madri e padri tra famiglia e lavoro. Teoria e prassi delle politiche di conciliazione nella provincia di Napoli. Naples: Filema. Biemmi, I & Leonelli, S. (2016). Gabbie di genere. Retaggi sessisti e scelte formative. Turin: Rosenberg & Sellier. Bimbi, F. (1997). La debolezza delle politiche familiari in Italia. Un caso di federalismo mancato? In F. Bimbi & A. Del Re (eds), Genere e democrazia. 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Striano (ed.), Pratiche educative per l'inclusione sociale (pp. 80-111). Milan: FrancoAngeli. Marone, F. (ed.) (2012). Che genere di cittadinanza? Percorsi di educazione ed emancipazione femminile tra passato, presente e futuro. Naples: Liguori. Marone, F. (2013). Pari opportunità e cultura del cambiamento nelle organizzazioni. In E. Frauenfelder & F. M. Sirignano (eds.), La formazione delle «human resources» traiettorie pedagogiche ed orizzonti educativi (pp. 129-152). Lecce: Pensa MultiMedia. Marone, F. & Striano, M. (2015). Dispositivi riflessivi per il work-family balance. Una prospettiva pedagogica. LA FAMIGLIA, 49/259, 375-397. McKinsey & Company (2014). Occupazione-Istruzione-Educazione: le trappole nascoste nel percorso delle ragazze verso il lavoro. Merrill, B. & West, L. (2009). Using Biographical Methods in Social Research. London: Sage. Passolunghi, M. C., Rueda Ferreira, T. I. & Tomasetto, C. (2014). Math–gender stereotypes and math-related beliefs in childhood and early adolescence. Learning and Individual Differences, 34, 70-76. Spivak, G. C. (2002). Righting wrongs. In N. Owen (Ed.) (2003), Human Rights, Human Wrongs (pp. 168 -227). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tinker, I. (ed.) (1990). Persistent Inequalities. New York: Oxford, University Press. Ulivieri, S. (1995). Educare al femminile. Pisa: ETS. Ulivieri, S. (ed.) (2007). Educazione al femminile. Una storia da scoprire. Milan: Guerini. Ulivieri, S. & Contini, M. (eds.) (2010). Donne, famiglia, famiglie: Milan: Guerini. Ulivieri, S. (2014). Genere e educazione. Dal modello emancipazionista al modello della differenza. In G. Elia (ed), Le sfide sociali dell’educazione (pp. 141-152). Milan: FrancoAngeli. World Economic Forum (WEF) (2016). The global gender gap report. Geneve: World Economic Forum. 21 CHAPTER 2 Integración de mujeres altamente cualificadas en el mercado laboral. Un estudio en el ámbito europeo sobre algunas relaciones entre flexibilidad y ratios de empleo Dolores Limón-Domínguez – University of Seville, Spain Manuela Pabón-Figueras – University of Seville, Spain Miguel Ángel Pino-Mejías – University of Seville, Spain Introducción Tal y como señalan Miguélez y Prieto (2008) y Galbraith (2016), las décadas de los años 50 a 70 se caracterizan en Europa por una situación de pleno empleo, sin apenas fluctuaciones en las extremadamente bajas tasas de desempleo. Los dos primeros autores destacan las características positivas de dicho modelo: la citada estabilidad, la duración de los contratos, con predominio del empleo a tiempo completo o la seguridad, es decir, la existencia de protecciones sociales frente a los riesgos, en términos de pensiones o subsidios. Por tales motivos, este patrón constituyó la base del estado de bienestar. En contraposición, tal y como sostienen dichos estudios, la mayoría de los empleos eran de reducida calidad y sólo accedían al mercado los varones del propio país; el modelo se extendía a países del Norte y del Centro, quedando excluidas las naciones del sur de Europa de sus “relativos” beneficios. El cambio de paradigma tiene lugar en la década de los 70 y 80, llegando hasta la actualidad. Galbraith (2016) destaca que en los primeros años del nuevo siglo la tasa de desempleo de los países europeos triplicaba la existente en los años 60 y representaba el doble de la media estadounidense (¡todo ello previo al estallido de la crisis en 2008!). No sólo resulta preocupante el incremento del paro: el nuevo modelo es, por lo general, notablemente más inseguro, con menores garantías sociales, aunque se aprecian 22 importantes diferencias en función del sistema laboral existente en los distintos países de la UE. La comparación con Estados Unidos, dada la similitud de parámetros en este contexto, condujo a diversos autores a la identificación de la falta de flexibilidad como causa principal de la crisis del empleo. La apuesta de Europa por la igualdad en vez de por la eficiencia (lo que caracterizaría al modelo estadounidense) constituiría el lastre (insoportable) para el mantenimiento del estado del bienestar. La hipótesis de la flexibilidad del mercado laboral (LMF, por sus siglas en inglés), basada, como indica Galbraith (2016) en planteamientos neoclásicos y en el “respeto” a las “virtudes” de la economía en EEUU, sostiene que los elementos protectores del empleo (mecanismos sindicales potentes, leyes focalizadas en los empleados, existencia de destacadas prestaciones por desempleo, etc.) provocan una fuerte rigidez salarial, desembocando en el aumento del desempleo. En base a estas ideas OECD (1994) proponía el incremento de la flexibilidad laboral, en términos horarios, de sueldos y costes, así como la reducción de las prestaciones por desempleo; en este contexto se entiende la flexibilidad como un margen de libertad por parte del empleador, frente a un planteamiento totalmente distinto: la posibilidad del empleado de solicitar movilidad o una reducción del tiempo de trabajo. Estas argumentaciones, ampliadas por estudios posteriores, han sido criticadas y rechazadas por los partidarios de las políticas macroeconómicas, como Sollow y Palley. Otras aportaciones, entre las que se destaca Baker, Glyn, Howell y Schmitt (2005), refutan el planteamiento LMF, al señalar que la potenciación de las negociaciones colectivas y del rol de los sindicatos conduce precisamente a la disminución del desempleo. Galbraith (2016) expresa esta oposición en términos rotundos: la política monetaria del Banco Central Europeo y los criterios de convergencia asociados a la implantación del euro han conducido al aumento del desempleo. El análisis de un índice de desempleo regional, con dos vías de efectos fijos, conduce a este autor a la siguiente reflexión sobre un país que se ha caracterizado por la introducción de modelos de austeridad: “Tal vez [los demás estados de la UE] deberían estudiar igualmente el caso de España a fin de comprender qué es justamente lo que no debe hacerse” (Galbraith, 2016, p. 323). 23 Nuevos actores en un nuevo escenario El marco laboral europeo que surge en la década de los 80 se caracteriza también por la aparición de nuevos empleos inestables, con bajos salarios y en peores condiciones que en épocas anteriores, según la descripción de Miguélez y Prieto (2008). Estos empleos pasan a ser ocupados por tres nuevos colectivos: las mujeres, los jóvenes y los inmigrantes. Aunque, como se ha indicado previamente, resulta difícil hablar de un modelo genérico en la UE (existen significativas diferencias nacionales y, en especial, regionales), estos autores detectan las siguientes características en el primero de los grupos:  La tasa de actividad de las mujeres registra un crecimiento continuado, ya iniciado en la década de los 60 en los países nórdicos, como consecuencia de los movimientos feministas y de cambios culturales y sociales.  El nivel acceso de las mujeres al mercado laboral es inferior al de los hombres; las condiciones también son peores, en términos salariales o de seguridad de los contratos. La paridad se produciría, en su caso, únicamente en el sector público.  “Para las empresas siguen siendo trabajadores “atípicos”. Hasta su presencia en los sindicatos y en los comités de empresa es muy inferior a la de los hombres” (Miguélez y Prieto, 2008, p. 277). Esta escasa manifestación en las estructuras sindicales se corresponde con uno de los principios del planteamiento LMF. Aunque no es ésta la única causa, los tres colectivos señalados se muestran especialmente vulnerables a la inseguridad laboral, al menos en comparación con el sujeto de empleo clásico en décadas anteriores. El objeto específico de nuestro estudio es un sub-colectivo de mujeres, las que han alcanzado el máximo nivel educativo; según la International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED, 2011), la formación terciaria corresponde a: - Nivel 5: educación terciaria, ciclo corto. - Nivel 6: graduado (bachelor) o equivalente. - Nivel 7: máster o equivalente. 24 - Nivel 8: doctor o equivalente. Se trata de un colectivo caracterizado por un esfuerzo dilatado en el tiempo encaminado a la mejora de sus destrezas. Además, cuenta en principio con el apoyo de las administraciones europeas, que han priorizado el incremento de individuos (hombres y mujeres) con este máximo nivel formativo en uno de los ejes de la estrategia educativa de la agenda Europa 2020. Se percibe el interés de analizar el posible círculo virtuoso “formación-empleo” en un conjunto de personas históricamente sensibles a los condicionantes de la flexibilidad del mercado. La investigación se concreta en los 6 países en los que se ubican las Universidades presentes en el proyecto EMPLOY: Irlanda, Polonia, Portugal, España, Suecia y Reino Unido. A fin de analizar la representatividad de esta muestra en el global de la UE se muestra, en primer lugar, una segmentación de dicho conjunto en función de la tasa de empleo y del ratio de igualdad. Para ello se han elegido dos años extremos: 2010, en el que se puede considerar que ya se aprecian los impactos de las políticas (en su mayoría de austeridad) diseñadas para combatir la crisis; y 2016, en el que se cierra un arco temporal que refleja la tendencia en la evolución de las dos variables representadas. Figura 1. Segmentación en los países de la UE-28. Año 2010 Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de datos de Eurostat UE28 Irlanda España Polonia Portugal Suecia Reino Unido 50,00% 55,00% 60,00% 65,00% 70,00% 75,00% 80,00% 85,00% 40,00% 50,00% 60,00% 70,00% 80,00% 90,00% 100,00% 110,00% TASAS DE EMPLEO RATIOS DE IGUALDAD 25 Figura 2. Segmentación en los países de la UE-28. Año 2016 Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de datos de Eurostat Miller (2004) plantea el interés de estas figuras, en las que la ratio de igualdad, que representa la participación relativa de las mujeres en el mercado laboral, se calcula como el cociente entre la tasa de empleo de las mujeres y la tasa de empleo de los hombres en un determinado ámbito geográfico y para el mismo grupo de edad (en este caso 20 a 64 años). Miller (2004) recomienda el uso de la variable tasa de empleo frente a, por ejemplo, la tasa de ocupación con un alcance más limitado. Esta tasa de empleo se determina como el porcentaje de personas empleadas respecto al total de la población (de nuevo en la misma localización y para un intervalo fijado de edades). El cruce de la ratio de igualdad y de la tasa de empleo permite una clasificación de los países respecto al rol de la mujer, en línea con la sugerida por Duncan (2000): su esquema, genderfare, relaciona el tipo de estado de bienestar (país del sur de Europa, régimen conservador, modelo liberal y modelo socialdemócrata) con el contrato de género (tradicional, ama de casa, doble rol, igualdad). Apreciamos las características y evolución de las 6 naciones consideradas a través de la siguiente tabla: UE28 Irlanda España Polonia Portugal Suecia Reino Unido 50,00% 55,00% 60,00% 65,00% 70,00% 75,00% 80,00% 85,00% 40,00% 50,00% 60,00% 70,00% 80,00% 90,00% 100,00% 110,00% TASAS DE EMPLEO RATIOS DE IGUALDAD 32 Figura 7. Evolución temporal del porcentaje intragrupal de individuos con nivel terciario. UE-28 Fuente: Eurostat La tendencia en los últimos años hacia el incremento del peso de la educación terciaria, en especial entre el colectivo de mujeres, se constata en los diversos análisis realizados. A modo de ejemplo en las siguientes figuras se muestra cómo se produce dicha evolución en España, diferenciando tanto la consideración de todo el conjunto como la de hombres y mujeres. Figura 8. Evolución de la distribución del total de la población según niveles educativos en España. Años 2010 a 2016 Fuente: Eurostat 46,00% 47,00% 48,00% 49,00% 50,00% 51,00% 52,00% 53,00% 54,00% 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 Hombres Mujeres 0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 35,0 40,0 45,0 50,0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Nivel primario Nivel secundario Nivel terciario 33 Figura 9. Evolución de la distribución de la población masculina según niveles educativos en España. Años 2010 a 2016 Fuente: Eurostat Figura 10. Evolución de la distribución de la población femenina según niveles educativos en España. Años 2010 a 2016 Fuente: Eurostat Constatada esta evolución, la pregunta siguiente corresponde a la posible repercusión de dicho incremento del nivel educativo en el ámbito laboral, en especial en lo referente 0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 60,0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Nivel primario Nivel secundario Nivel terciario 0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 35,0 40,0 45,0 50,0 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Nivel primario Nivel secundario Nivel terciario 34 a la categoría de las ocupaciones desempeñadas y a las correspondientes retribuciones salariales. Para el primero de los análisis se ha trabajado con la estructura proporcionada por la International Standard Classification of Occupations 2008 (ISCO-08), de modo que se han diferenciado los siguientes 11 grupos:  Directivos.  Profesionales.  Técnicos.  Personal administrativo.  Comerciales.  Trabajadores del campo, bosque y mar.  Artesanos.  Operadores de plantas y maquinaria.  Ocupaciones elementales.  Fuerzas armadas.  Otros. Aunque el alcance de un determinado nivel educativo no implica el desempeño de ciertas ocupaciones sí cabe esperar una mayor concentración de, por ejemplo, personas con formación terciaria en puestos directivos, profesionales o técnicos. En ese sentido parece sorprendente que, en 2016, el 3,17% de los individuos de la UE28 con nivel primario ocupen puestos directivos, mientras que ese porcentaje se eleve apenas un punto porcentual, hasta el 4,14%, para las personas con el nivel superior. Este resultado sufre una cierta matización al constatar que el porcentaje de personal directivo sobre el total de ocupados en el ámbito europeo apenas alcanza el 6%. La identificación de posibles disfuncionalidades entre el conjunto de personas con nivel educativo terciario con ocupaciones inferiores a las “esperadas” constituye el núcleo central de la presente investigación. Este problema de la sobrecualificación aparece destacado en los análisis parciales sobre los resultados de la agenda Europa 2020, como se constata en Unión Europea (2017). No resulta posible condensar en este espacio todos los análisis realizados, por lo que se opta por la revisión de algunos resultados significativos. 35 En Portugal se aprecia la siguiente evolución de las distribuciones de las principales ocupaciones para individuos con nivel educativo terciario: Tabla 4. Distribución de ocupaciones para ciudadanos y ciudadanas portugueses con nivel educativo terciario. Años 2010 a 2016 Hombres Años 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Directivos 14,76% 12,77% 12,98% 14,42% 14,88% 14,23% 13,52% Profesionales 56,13% 66,60% 64,71% 63,37% 61,63% 62,25% 60,59% Técnicos 16,45% 10,66% 11,19% 11,04% 12,81% 12,26% 13,77% Mujeres Años 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Directivos 7,42% 6,54% 5,85% 6,80% 7,05% 5,87% 7,02% Profesionales 53,32% 70,22% 70,32% 69,12% 66,65% 66,99% 65,12% Técnicos 24,04% 9,35% 10,31% 10,32% 11,39% 12,24% 12,71% Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de datos de Eurostat En este país, con una destacada ratio de igualdad, se observa que el porcentaje de personal directivo masculino duplica al femenino; este segundo conjunto muestra una tendencia errática en los últimos años, a pesar del incremento de mujeres con mayor índice formativo. Los pesos sí resultan homogéneos en el caso de profesionales y técnicos; en la primera categoría se observa un valor muy elevado para este colectivo en comparación con los datos registrados en otros países. España también muestra un comportamiento similar en lo referente al porcentaje de personal directivo: en el año 2016, de manera similar durante todo el período, el conjunto masculino (8,32%) duplica al femenino (4,01%). Sin embargo, la problemática principal detectada en los análisis realizados corresponde a la importancia del personal administrativo y comercial según el género: en el país analizado el porcentaje correspondiente a las mujeres representa 10 y 5 puntos porcentuales, respectivamente, respecto al de los hombres. En Reino Unido, por ejemplo, las diferencias son de 5 y 7 puntos. En Suecia la presencia de mujeres en estas dos categorías también es superior, pero con incrementos que se mueven entre el 1,5 y los 2 puntos porcentuales. Por otra parte, una de las grandes demandas en este ámbito, la reducción del salto salarial entre sexos, sigue mostrando un comportamiento variable según el país. En la siguiente tabla se muestran las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres con nivel educativo 36 terciario correspondientes a los ingresos medios equivalentes durante los períodos en los que se dispone de datos, así como el promedio de dichas divergencias: Tabla 5. Diferencias en ingresos medios equivalentes entre hombres y mujeres. Años 2007 a 2016 Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de datos de Eurostat Resulta significativo, y requiere un estudio en profundidad, el incremento de esta brecha en países como Irlanda, España o Reino Unido; en este último caso con un comportamiento errático de dicha diferencia. En Suecia, por el contrario, se experimenta por vez primera en 2016 un diferencial positivo hacia las mujeres. Sin embargo, todavía resulta de mayor interés comprobar que este comportamiento salarial no muestra similitud (a excepción de las naciones del norte de Europa) con el correspondiente a la tasa de igualdad, revisada anteriormente. Este hecho confirma la necesidad de analizar otras variables a fin de clarificar el verdadero alcance del contenido implícito en las tasas de empleo. Conclusiones El estudio presentado muestra la importancia de profundizar en los condicionantes laborales de las mujeres considerando como variable central el nivel de estudios de los distintos colectivos. Este enfoque permite poner en valor los aspectos asociados a la “calidad” del desempeño laboral encomendado y detectar, en su caso, disfuncionalidades del sistema. Un aspecto importante, que no se ha citado en la investigación, es la necesidad de disponer de un mayor conjunto de estadísticas que permitan realizar diferenciaciones según género y nivel de estudios. A pesar del amplio potencial de las existentes, no ha sido posible, de momento, un análisis específico de las tasas de desempleo a largo plazo, 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Media UE-28 2.064 2.102 1.993 2.043 2.219 2.405 2.138 Irlanda 3.135 1.573 1.576 318 104 580 1.072 1.228 2.051 1.293 Polonia 717 918 1.119 570 635 978 908 839 1.055 860 Portugal 2.419 2.309 2.119 1.182 1.235 2.381 1.442 1.936 1.829 1.872 España 284 589 733 605 695 722 983 1.036 666 703 702 Suecia 460 830 449 901 643 555 416 287 32 -332 424 Reino Unido 2.155 3.471 488 1.367 2.209 983 814 1.029 2.218 1.637 37 de los tipos de contrato existentes, de la dispersión regional de las tasas de empleo o de las inversiones de carácter público, que enriquecerían la visión que se ha ido mostrando. Esos análisis posteriores, de ampliación, con un horizonte temporal más dilatado, deben seguir permitiendo la revisión de la aparente incorrección de las políticas de austeridad. La aparente recuperación, en términos cuantitativos, de las ratios relacionadas con el empleo no puede esconder la necesidad de revisar sistemas de ajuste laboral como los existentes en los países de Europa del Norte, que han soportado correctamente los envites de la crisis y que en los últimos años muestran resultados ciertamente espléndidos en el ámbito de la conciliación. Referencias Anxo, D., Fagan, C., Cebrian, I. & Moreno, G. (2006). Patterns of labour market integration in Europe - a life course perspective on time policies. Socio-Economic Review, 5, 233–260. doi:10.1093/ser/mwl019 Baker, D., Glyn, A., Howell, D. & Schmitt, J. (2005). Labor Market Institutions and Unemployment: A Critical Assesment of the Cross Country Evidence. En D. R. Howell (comp.), Fighting Unemployment: The Limits of Free Market Orthodoxy. Oxford University Press, Nueva York. Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., Fink, G. & Finaly, J. E. (2009). Fertility, female labor force participation, and the demographic dividend. Journal of Economic Growth, 14(2), 79– 101. Caliendo, M. & Künn, S. (2012). Getting Back into the Labor Market: The Effects of Start-Up Subsidies for Unemployed Females. Discussion Paper series, Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit, No. 6830. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/62574 De la Porte, C. & Heins, E. (2015). A new era of European Integration? Governance of Labour market and social policy since the Sovereign debt crisis. Comparative European Politics, 13(1), 8-28. doi: 10.1057/cep.2014.39 De Lange, M., Gesthuizen, M. & Wolbers, M. H. J. (2014). Youth Labour Market integration across Europe. The impact of cyclical, structural, and institutional 38 characteristics. European Societies, 16(2), 194-212. doi: 10.1080/14616696. 2013.821621 Duncan, S., et al. (2002). Analysing Families: Morality and Rationality in Policy and Practice. Londres: Routledge. Duncan, S. & Pfau-Effinger, B. (2000). Gender, Economy and Culture in the European Union. Londres: Routledge. Freeman, R. B. & Schettkat, R. (2005). Marketization of Household Production and the EU–US Gap in Work. Economic Policy, 20, 5–50. Galbraith, J. K. (2016). Desigualdad y desequilibrio. La economía mundial antes de la crisis. Barcelona: RBA Economía. Galor, O. (2009). Inequality and economic development: the modern perspective. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Gómez, S. & Martí, C. (2004). La incorporación de la mujer al mercado laboral: implicaciones personales, familiares y profesionales, y medidas estructurales de conciliación trabajo-familia. DI nº 557. IESE Business School. Universidad de Navarra. Hazan, M. & Zoaby, H. (2013). Do Highly Educated Women Choose Smaller Families? The Economic Journal, 125, 1191–1226. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12148 International Labour Office (2012). International Standard Classification of Occupations. Structure, group definitions and correspondence tables. Geneva. Disponible en: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/--- publ/documents/publication/wcms_172572.pdf ISCED (2011). International Standard Classification of Education. Disponible en: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education_(ISCED) Miguélez, F. & Prieto, C. (2008). Trasformaciones del empleo, flexibilidad y relaciones laborales en Europa. Política y Sociedad, 46(1 y 2), 275-287. Miller, L. M. (2004). Participación laboral femenina y Estados de bienestar. REIS. 108/04, 49-74. 39 OECD (1994). The OECD Jobs Study: Facts, Analysis, Strategies. Paris. Disponible en: https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/1941679.pdf Shang, Q. & Weinberg, B. A. (2013). Opting For Families: Recent Trends in the Fertility of Highly Educated Women. Journal of Population Economics, 26 (1), 5–32. doi:10.1007/s00148-012-0411-2 Smyth, E. (2002). Gender Differentiation and Early Labour Market Integration across Europe. Arbeitspapiere - Mannheimer Zentrum für Europäische Sozialforschung, 46, 2002. Unión Europea (2017). Smarter, greener, more inclusive? Indicators to support the Europe 2020 Strategy. Publications Office of the European Union. Recuperado el 12 de agosto de 2017: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/8113874/KSEZ-17-001-EN-N.pdf/c810af1c-0980-4a3b-bfdd-f6aa4d8a004e 40 41 SECTION 2 EMPLOYABILITY AND POLICIES OF NON-TRADITIONAL STUDENTS 48 Tabla 3. Valores actuales y previstos de la tasa de empleo en los seis países analizados Irlanda Valor en 2016: 70,30% Objetivo fijado: 69-71% Objetivo estimado: 76,90% (𝑅2= 0,9994) Polonia Valor en 2016: 69,30% Objetivo fijado: 71% Objetivo estimado: 75,10% (𝑅2= 0,9986) Portugal Valor en 2016: 70,60% Objetivo fijado: 75% Objetivo estimado: 76,90% (𝑅2= 0,99) España Valor en 2016: 63,9% Objetivo fijado: 74% Objetivo estimado: 71% (𝑅2= 0,9914) Suecia Valor en 2016: 81,2% Objetivo fijado: 80% Objetivo estimado: 82,76% (𝑅2= 0,959) Reino Unido Valor en 2016: 77,50% Objetivo fijado: 80% Objetivo estimado: 81,06% (𝑅2= 0,9845) Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de datos de Eurostat La evolución de la tasa de empleo es muy similar en los casos de Irlanda, Polonia, España, Suecia y Reino Unido: una tendencia creciente durante casi toda la década del 2000 se ve interrumpida en los años iniciales de la crisis (2008 o 2009), con notables variaciones en cada caso respecto al agravamiento del ratio y también respecto al instante en que la curva vuelve a remontar (2011 o 2012). Este comportamiento es el que muestra el conjunto de países que integran la UE-28, tal y como se aprecia en la siguiente figura: 49 Figura 1. Evolución real y prevista de la tasa de empleo en UE-28 Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de datos de Eurostat La estimación para 2020 de este ratio es de 74,60%, ligeramente por debajo del objetivo fijado del 75%. La tasa de desempleo en el caso de Portugal se caracteriza por dos tramos descendentes: previo al período común de crisis se identifica el intervalo 2001 a 2007, en el que dicha variable descendió 1,5 puntos porcentuales. A la breve recuperación en el último año le siguió un profundo receso hasta 2013, con un descenso relevante de 7,70 puntos. El comportamiento regresivo durante los años de crisis, detectado en todos los países, junto a la singularidad de la puesta en marcha de la estrategia Europa 2020 al comienzo de la segunda década del siglo XXI, justifican que la estimación de la tasa final de empleo 66,50 67,00 67,50 68,00 68,50 69,00 69,50 70,00 70,50 71,00 71,50 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 EU28 - Tasa de empleo y = 0,9x - 1743,4 R² = 0,9975 68,00 69,00 70,00 71,00 72,00 73,00 74,00 75,00 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Estimación 2020 50 se haya realizado considerando un ajuste lineal con los 4 ó 5 últimos valores de la serie. En base a este planteamiento se presenta el siguiente agrupamiento: Tabla 4. Clasificación de los países según el grado de consecución del objetivo relativo a la tasa de empleo Países que en 2016 ya han alcanzado su objetivo Países que en 2016 no han alcanzado todavía su objetivo Irlanda Suecia Países en los que se estima que se cumplirá el objetivo en 2020 Países en los que se estima que no se cumplirá el objetivo en 2020 Polonia Portugal Reino Unido España (se prevé una diferencia final de 3 puntos porcentuales) Fuente: Elaboración propia Esta clasificación se muestra coherente con la conocida “buena salud” del mercado laboral en los países del Norte de Europa. Se destaca que en el caso de Suecia el objetivo marcado es el 80%, 5 puntos porcentuales superiores a la meta establecida para el conjunto de la UE. La revisión histórica de la tasa de empleo en este país resulta significativa, porque ya en 1996 (primer año del que se disponen datos) este ratio alcanzaba el 74,8%. Los valores mostrados confirman que el porcentaje de personas empleadas aumenta tras el período de crisis, pero no aportan, sin embargo, información sobre la “calidad” de cada sistema laboral. En la presente investigación se esbozan dos vías complementarias para profundizar en esta temática, a ser desarrolladas en posteriores análisis. Por una parte, se puede extraer información sobre el grado de consolidación y operatividad de las estructuras orientadas a la creación y mantenimiento de empleo analizando los valores extremos de la tasa de empleo en los países considerados. En la siguiente tabla se muestran estos datos (entre paréntesis se indica el año en el que se alcanza dicho ratio): Tabla 5. Valores extremos de la tasa de empleo Irlanda Polonia Portugal España Suecia Reino Unido Intervalo 1993-2016 1998-2016 1993-2016 1993-2016 1996-2016 1993-2016 Mínimo 57,50 (1993) 57,10 (2003) 65,40 (2013) 50,80 (1994) 73,70 (1997) 70,20 (1993) Máximo 73,80 (2007) 69,30 (2016) 73,90 (2001) 69,70 (2007) 81,20 (2016) 77,50 (2016) Variación 16,30 12,20 8,50 18,90 7,50 7,30 Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de datos de Eurostat 51 Las variaciones menos extremas se detectan en Suecia y Reino Unido, lo que evidenciaría una mayor fortaleza de los sistemas de ajuste de la oferta y demanda laboral. El análisis del impacto de la crisis confirma esta idea: en Suecia el decremento máximo de la tasa de empleo fue de 2,3 puntos porcentuales y en Reino Unido llegó hasta 1,7, frente a los 11, 1 o los 7,7 en España y Portugal, respectivamente. La segunda vía de análisis comprende la evolución de otros aspectos laborales, que complementan la información implícita en la tasa de empleo. Unión Europea (2017) identifica 15 variables complementarias, que introducen aspectos educativos, de género o de dependencia, a las que se podrían añadir, por ejemplo, ratios salariales o de prestaciones por desempleo. En la presente investigación se consideran 3 parámetros recogidos en la citada publicación, que experimentan una evolución desigual en los últimos años: Tabla 6. Porcentajes de empleo a tiempo parcial no demandado voluntariamente Evolución del empleo a tiempo parcial no demandado voluntariamente EU-28 En 2007: 22,4 En 2016: 27,7 Irlanda En 2008: 13,6 En 2016: 31,5 Polonia En 2008: 18,5 En 2016: 25,4 Portugal En 2008: 40,3 En 2016: 48,7 España En 2008: 36,0 En 2016: 61,9 Suecia En 2008: 5,8 En 2016: 8,6 Reino Unido En 2011: 18,8 (los primeros datos fiables proporcionados por Eurostat corresponden a este año) En 2016: 16,0 Fuente: Eurostat Estas ratios muestran el porcentaje sobre el total de empleo a tiempo parcial en el grupo de 15 a 64 años: se ha considerado como límite inferior el año del inicio de la crisis, cerrándose la comparación en el año 2016, cubriéndose de este modo un arco temporal coherente con el análisis previo. 52 Dichos porcentajes evidencian, en la mayoría de casos, una notable degradación del mercado laboral. El incremento del empleo a tiempo parcial “forzado” estaría enmascarando los resultados positivos detectados en Irlanda y Suecia e, incluso, agravarían las estadísticas correspondientes a Polonia, Portugal y España. Los datos relativos a Reino Unido son positivos, pero el alcance de la información disponible es muy limitado. Tabla 7. Evolución del empleo temporal no demandado voluntariamente Evolución del empleo temporal no demandado voluntariamente (porcentaje de empleados que no pueden encontrar trabajo a tiempo completo respecto al total de fuerza laboral) EU-28 En 2008: 8,4 En 2016: 8,8 Irlanda En 2012: 6,8 En 2016: 5,3 Polonia En 2008: 19,1 En 2016: 17,2 Portugal En 2008: 18,7 En 2016: 18,9 España En 2008: 25,5 En 2016: 23,9 Suecia En 2008: 8,6 En 2016: 8,9 Reino Unido No se dispone de datos Fuente: Eurostat Se aprecia cierta mejora de esta modalidad de empleo, con una leve reducción respecto a los niveles pre-crisis. Aun así, los porcentajes continúan siendo elevados en el caso de Polonia, Portugal o España (muy superiores a los del conjunto de la UE). Tabla 8. Ratio de desempleo durante largo tiempo Ratio de desempleo durante largo tiempo (porcentaje de personas desempleadas durante 12 meses o más, con edades comprendidas entre los 15 y 74 años, respecto a la población activa en dicho grupo) EU-28 En 2008: 2,4 En 2016: 4,0 Irlanda En 2008: 1,7 En 2016: 4,2 Polonia En 2008: 2,5 En 2016: 2,2 Portugal En 2008: 3,6 En 2016: 6,2 España En 2008: 2,0 En 2016: 9,5 Suecia En 2008: 0,8 En 2016: 1,3 Reino Unido En 2008: 1,4 En 2016: 1,3 Fuente: Eurostat 53 En Polonia y Reino Unido se aprecia una leve disminución de esta ratio, mientras que en Portugal y España los incrementos resultan notables, con valores que triplican y en el segundo caso cuadriplican los cuantificados al inicio de la crisis. Esta problemática se torna especialmente crítica en los grupos de edad extremos: jóvenes y mayores de 45 años. Evolución de las ratios educativas En la siguiente tabla se recogen los últimos valores disponibles, y las previsiones que se han elaborado, correspondientes a las dos variables significativas establecidas por la estrategia Europa 2020 en este ámbito: Tabla 9. Valores actuales y previstos de los ratios educativos en los seis países analizados Ámbito Tasa de abandono prematuro del sistema de educación Porcentaje de población con estudios completos de nivel terciario UE-28 Valor en 2016: 10,70% Valor en 2016: 39,10% Objetivo fijado: 10,00% Objetivo fijado: 40,00% Objetivo estimado: 9,01% Objetivo estimado: 44,58% Irlanda Valor en 2016: 6,30% Valor en 2016: 52,90% Objetivo fijado: 8,00% Objetivo fijado: 60,00% Objetivo estimado: 4,41% Objetivo estimado: 54,22% Polonia Valor en 2016: 5,20% Valor en 2016: 44,60% Objetivo fijado: 4,50% Objetivo fijado: 45,00% Objetivo estimado: 4,66% Objetivo estimado: 50,30% Portugal Valor en 2016: 14,00% Valor en 2016: 34,60% Objetivo fijado: 10,00% Objetivo fijado: 40,00% Objetivo estimado: 10,00% Objetivo estimado: 39,9% España Valor en 2016: 19,00% Valor en 2016: 40,10% Objetivo fijado: 15,00% Objetivo fijado: 44,00% Objetivo estimado: 12,68% Objetivo estimado: <44% Suecia Valor en 2016: 7,40% Valor en 2016: 51,00% Objetivo fijado: 7,00% Objetivo fijado: 45-50% Objetivo estimado: 7,00% Objetivo estimado: 56,33% Reino Unido Valor en 2016: 11,20% Valor en 2016: 48,10% Objetivo fijado: --- Objetivo fijado: --- Objetivo estimado: 7,32% Objetivo estimado: 49,34% Fuente: Eurostat 54 Los objetivos fijados para Reino Unido han desaparecido de la página web desarrollada para el seguimiento semestral de la estrategia Europa 2020 (https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/european-semester/), previsiblemente debido al proceso de desvinculación de dicha nación con la UE. En la tabla se muestran algunos valores en cursiva, debido a que no ha resultado posible una estimación coherente de esas variables: en efecto, las curvas de evolución de la tasa prematura de abandono en Portugal y en Suecia, así como la del porcentaje de población con estudios terciarios en España, muestran un comportamiento errático que impide aventurar un pronóstico. En los dos primeros casos parece razonable inferir el cumplimiento de los objetivos, mientras que en el caso español la evolución histórica hace suponer lo contrario. Las estimaciones realizadas permiten los dos siguientes agrupamientos: Tabla 10. Clasificación de los países según el grado de consecución del objetivo relativo a la tasa de abandono prematuro Países que en 2016 ya han alcanzado su objetivo Países que en 2016 no han alcanzado todavía su objetivo Irlanda Suecia Países en los que se estima que se cumplirá el objetivo en 2020 Países en los que se estima que no se cumplirá el objetivo en 2020 Portugal España Polonia Fuente: Elaboración propia La situación de Suecia es especial, dado que en 2015 alcanzó el objetivo fijado, superándolo en el año siguiente. La evolución temporal de la tasa en este país invita a considerar el cumplimiento efectivo de la meta. En España el objetivo se alcanzará si se mantiene la tendencia de los cuatro últimos años. Tabla 11. Clasificación de los países según el grado de consecución del objetivo relativo al porcentaje de población con estudios completos de nivel terciario Países que en 2016 ya han alcanzado su objetivo Países que en 2016 no han alcanzado todavía su objetivo Suecia Países en los que se estima que se cumplirá el objetivo en 2020 Países en los que se estima que no se cumplirá el objetivo en 2020 Polonia Portugal Irlanda España Fuente: Elaboración propia 55 En este segundo encuadre hay que tener en cuenta que la meta fijada para Irlanda es muy elevada (un 60% de la población con estudios terciarios): a pesar del previsible incumplimiento del objetivo, cuenta en la actualidad con un notable capital humano, con un porcentaje superior en 13 puntos al del conjunto de la Unión Europea. La evolución de esta tasa en Polonia, Portugal o España resulta positiva, aunque parece recomendable una revisión de los objetivos establecidos. Al igual que en el apartado anterior el análisis de los sistemas educativos nacionales debería incluir otras variables. Siguiendo a Unión Europea (2017) se propone el estudio de las ratios de empleo de recién graduados, el porcentaje del PIB dedicado por las administraciones a la educación o el de adultos que participan en procesos de formación continua. Sin embargo, no conviene perder de vista que el sentido último del cumplimiento de los objetivos en los dos campos señalados es la repercusión directa en la mejora del mercado laboral, tanto de las tasas de empleo como de la “calidad” del mismo. De ahí el interés de identificar la implementación del círculo virtuoso “empleo-formación”, que justificaría los esfuerzos en este campo. El análisis de dichas relaciones debería tener en cuenta aspectos como el ratio de sobre-cualificación (que se mantiene en la actualidad con valores similares a los de 2008 en el conjunto de la UE-28) o el impacto de la fuga de conocimiento entre países. Identificación de políticas de mejora La conexión de los dos ejes analizados, el laboral y el educativo, se sintetiza en los siguientes epígrafes: País Breve diagnóstico de la situación Irlanda Los tres principales parámetros analizados son muy positivos, teniendo en cuenta las consideraciones que se han realizado sobre el porcentaje de población con nivel terciario. El incremento de empleo no deseado de manera voluntaria puede perturbar las tendencias en un corto plazo. Polonia Las previsiones sobre tasa de empleo e incremento de población con nivel terciario se muestran optimistas, máxime al considerar los valores socioeconómicos existentes hace escasos años. Al igual que en el caso de Irlanda resulta apropiado revisar otras variables relacionadas con los dos ámbitos estudiados, a fin de identificar políticas de mejora (por ejemplo, relativas a empleo precario o tasas de dependencia). 56 Portugal Las intensas fluctuaciones de la tasa de empleo revelan cierta debilidad del mercado y su fragilidad frente a problemas coyunturales. Se detecta un amplio campo de mejora en el campo educativo, en especial en actuaciones dirigidas a la permanencia de la población juvenil en dicho sistema. España La tendencia de la tasa de empleo, por debajo de la meta fijada, y la precariedad detectada constituyen problemáticas a afrontar mediante una revisión de las políticas existentes. Las actuaciones en materia de educación se encuentran dentro de los parámetros de naciones similares o limítrofes, aunque resultaría apropiado, para la mejora de la competitividad, la potenciación del porcentaje de la población con estudios terciarios y su incorporación a puestos de trabajo apropiados. Suecia Este país muestra excelentes ratios en los tres campos analizados. El envejecimiento de la población o el mantenimiento de las tasas de desempleo de larga duración pueden lastrar a largo plazo este comportamiento. Reino Unido La revisión histórica de las variables muestra una evolución positiva en ambos ejes. Sin embargo, el valor de esta información se disipa al contemplar un escenario notablemente incierto: la desvinculación con la UE asociada al proceso del Brexit provocará, sin duda, un fuerte impacto en la tasa de empleo y en las variables relacionadas, cuantificación que excede el objetivo del presente estudio. Fuente: Elaboración propia La identificación de políticas idóneas debe establecerse en base a los objetivos específicos de mejora en los distintos ámbitos que cubre la estrategia Europa 2020, dadas las interconexiones ya señaladas. Teniendo en cuenta las particularidades descritas en secciones anteriores se relacionan seguidamente posibles líneas de revisión a incluir en las futuras políticas nacionales de empleo y educación:  Potenciación de la conciliación de la vida laboral, familiar y personal.  Tratamiento legislativo de las cuestiones horarias, con impulso de la flexibilidad.  Mejora de las prestaciones por maternidad/paternidad.  Adecuada negociación de convenios colectivos.  Atención a la fuerza laboral específica proporcionada por las diferentes tipologías de inmigrantes.  Incremento de las inversiones en políticas activas de empleo (ALMPs).  Consideración a la diversidad en los centros educativos.  Incremento de las inversiones en educación.  Valoración de una adecuada descentralización del sistema educativo.  Reorientación de los programas de formación profesional.  Reestructuración de contenidos y de prácticas docentes. 57 Conclusiones La estrategia Europa 2020 ha identificado cinco ejes maestros, interconectados entre sí, que permiten cuantificar de manera sencilla y directa los logros de las naciones en aspectos socioeconómicos y energéticos de amplia repercusión. El problema reside en que estos valores no contemplan numerosos aspectos, realmente significativos, en dichos ejes, por lo que la simple constatación del cumplimiento de objetivos puede conducir a interpretaciones erróneas. En ese sentido los análisis deben incorporar variables complementarias y, en especial, cuantificar las relaciones entre los ámbitos establecidos. La presente investigación muestra en especial la necesidad de estudiar las repercusiones de la mejora del sistema educativo sobre el mercado laboral, a fin de identificar, en su caso, posibles disfuncionalidades que estarían lastrando dichos efectos positivos. El estudio sobre la muestra seleccionada constata que la heterogeneidad continúa siendo un elemento característico del conjunto de naciones europeas. Aunque los resultados no tienen por qué ser extrapolables, la percepción es que las diferencias pueden seguir acrecentándose en el futuro cercano, en el sentido del eje Norte-Sur. Referencias Benhabib, J. & Spiegel, M. (1994). The role of human capital in economic development: evidence from aggregate cross-country data. Journal of Monetary Economics 34, 143173. Bevelander, P. & Pendakur, R. (2012). The Labour Market Integration of Refugee and Family Reunion Immigrants: A Comparison of Outcomes in Canada and Sweden. Discussion Paper No. 6924. October 2012. Boschma, R., Eriksson, R. H. & Lindgren, U. (2014). Labour Market Externalities and Regional Growth in Sweden: The Importance of Labour Mobility between SkillRelated Industries. Regional Studies, 48 (10). doi: 10.1080/00343404.2013.867429 Comisión Europea (2010). Comunicación de la Comisión Europea 2020. Una estrategia para un crecimiento inteligente, sostenible e integrador. COM (2010) 2020 final. 3 de marzo, Bruselas. 64 The construct of employability in Higher education Currently the category of employability can be considered from a historical point of view because it has steadily evolved over the last 30 years and its role in higher education can be demonstrated. The concept of employability was defined by the Robbins report (Robbins, 1963) as one of the main axes of higher education. The difficulty of defining the concept led many authors to conduct research that have given rise to a substantial number of studies, particularly in English. As already mentioned. One of the first definitions was developed by Hillage and Pollard in 1998 through several case studies (Hillard & Pollard, 1998, p.3). At that time, the concept was already widely used in the literature and the two researchers provided a definition centered on personal and work skills. “In simple terms, employability is about being capable of getting and keeping fulfilling work. More comprehensively employability is the capability to move selfsufficintly within the labour market to realize potential through sustainable employement. For the individual, employability depends on the knowledge, skills and attitudes thei possess, the way they use those assets and present them to employers and the context (e.g., personal circumstances and labour market environment) within which they seek work” (Hillage & Pollard, 1998, p.3). This first definition referred to the centrality of skills for organising a career. Later, an interesting study was conducted by Harvey (2002, 2003 and 2006) and, simultaneously by York and Knight (2002, 2004, 2006). The perspectives of both Harveyand York and Knight make a connection between the concept of employability and higher education and pose the problem of the use and the presence of ability “to live” with the aim of building adequate and solid bridges with the professional word. In a social contex that is demanding increasingly greater and more focused skills for a larger number of graduates for better productivity growth, reflecting deeply on the category of employability becomes a key to understand in which direction to make efforts to improve university teaching, create internships and apprenticeships and construct specific links with companies, association and public and private industrial sectors. The definition of Harvey, on the one hand, and York and Knight, on the other, introduce educational-pedagogical elements and extend the concept until it becomes the foundation of an innovative way of considering higher education. In 1999, Harvey provided this definition in an even more critical way: “Employability of a graduate is the propensity of the graduate to exhibit attributes that employers anticipate will be necessary for the future effective functioning of their organisation” 65 (Harvey, 1999, p.4). In fact, the apparent problem could be represented by the attributes/competencies that a graduate should have and that should be the very ones that businesses require. Harvey emphasizes, however, that the fundamental issue is the consideration that ‘employability is a process’ and that gives rise, ultimately, to a very real problem: “employability raises fundamental questions about the purpose and structure of higher education. Employability is not about training or providing add-on skills to gain employment. On the contrary, employability is about how higher education develops critical, reflective, empowered learners” (Harvey, 1999, p.13). Similarly, the much more widespread and decisive definition by Yorke and Knight leads us to reflect: “a set of achievements – skills, understandings and personal attributes – that make graduates more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits themselves, the workforce, the community and the economy” (Yorke, 2006, p.3). The work of the Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) and the Enhancing Student Employability Co-ordination Team (ESECT) coordinated by Mantze Yorke, at the beginning of the twenty-first century was a unique landmark in the understanding of the transition of employability from a vague economic concept to a category with a clear connection to learning, the pedagogical and didactic fields of higher education. It is precisely by starting from a series of articles, studies and books with an evidence-based research methodology that one begins to make progress towards the possibility of reflecting on educational paths, teaching practices and on the pedagogical content of the category. What underlies the work of the Higher Education Academy research group is the consideration of a strict link between education for employability and good results in terms of learning, teaching and teaching evaluation (Yorke & Knight, 2005, p. 4), not so much defined generically as addressed to the objective of the more conscious growth of each student and of their abilities. Employability orientation practices for non-traditonal students: The EMPLOY PROJECT EMPLOY is a European project that promotes the enhancement of the employability of students in higher education from a non-traditional background (both younger and adult) through improving the efficiency of transitions into the graduate labour market. 66 Research shows that non-traditional students are particularly affected in terms of graduateness. For non-traditional students the transition into employment often takes longer than ‘traditional students’ and there is the likelihood of entering employment which is below degree level and, therefore, less meaningful. There is also a mismatch between graduate credentials and employers' expectations. EMPLOY centrally aims to improve the efficiency of transition into the graduate labour market of those who enter higher education from non-traditional backgrounds, by developing two European toolkits that presents best practice by HEIs and offers guidance to students on improving their employability. This will be achieved by using the voices, experiences and perceptions of participants (students, university staff and employers) through biographical approaches and in-depth interviews to identify best practices, policies and guidelines. In particular the project show how careers services within higher educational institutions across Europe, as referenced earlier, offer varying degrees of service. In UK The Careers Office have some activities for non-traditional students. One strategy was to contact nontraditional students and say to them ‘we recognise that you may not be as familiar with going to university as those whose parents have been to university and we would like to offer you more support’. This received a good response from students. Sessions on writing a CV have been held with adult students and they were able to bring their children with them. The aim was to point out that if they have been out of a traditional career for while raising children then ‘you can develop employability from that’ At Stockholm University, career support is for all students, not only non-traditional students. The support is organised on two institutional levels within HE, but also from the student and labour unions and professional organisations outside HE. The staff and career counsellors, related to the educational programme, give courses and lectures related to the future labour market, and give a voluntary 15-credits course on Internship after graduation. They also provide individual counselling. On the University level there is a student and career center. It gives lectures and workshops in e.g. CV coaching, interviewing, and lectures by interesting persons on the labour market. The staff from the career centre also provides special activities for students with disabilities. In UK Careers Officer works with adult students to help them improve their CVs. Unlike younger traditional students most adults are not able to have a gap year nor undertake voluntarily work or unpaid internships which employers see as being essential on a CV. Instead the Careers Officer encourages them to turn their life experiences into positive ones for a CV by highlighting the skills they have gained from their experiences such as raising children. 67 Very interesting is The mentoring programme that was created recently, in the academic year of 2015/ 2016. It tries to involve the alumni association in the development of the academic path of students, and to support their transitions to employment. The central idea is not that the mentors find students a job; but that the mentors would help students to know working environments, the basic rules and cultures of work, thus increasing the possibilities that students make an easier transition and maybe find a job for themselves more quickly. Employability orientation practices for non-traditional students: The career counselling in American universities Nontraditional students are a burgeoning population on American college campuses. However, many current support systems were developed with only the needs of traditional students in mind. As career-related factors often serve as an impetus for adults to return to the academy, it is vital for career services professionals to proactively develop and adapt relevant services for these students. As time progresses, people with increasingly diverse identities are forging the path to college. Among these diversities is life experience: while the traditional student is understood to be heading to college straight from high school, many students are now taking a break in their education. Some scholars are beginning to see these non-traditional students as “now-traditional” (Kennen & Lopez, 2005). As shifts occur in student populations, it is vital for student affairs professionals to keep up with the changes by providing relevant services to students. Career centers are among these student services, and more research is needed to determine how they can better support nontraditional students. Some career centers focus their energies on job placement, while many others emphasize a more holistic approach to career development. Over time, the central task and guiding philosophies of career centers have evolved. Currently, common tasks include reviewing resumes and graduate school applications, strategizing with students about how to approach a job search, hosting mock interviews, discussing career options and majors, keeping a database of jobs and internships, and helping students answer the question, “What do I do after graduation?” Career centers perform these tasks in a variety of ways, including drop-in appointments, one-on-one counseling, phone appointments, group workshops, and online resources. These services have all been influenced by foundational theory and the changing 68 landscape of the job market. Jeffrey Traiger (2006) described three generations of career development. The first generation is represented by Frank Parsons’s trait-factor theory (1909) and postulated a matching process between fixed traits an individual possesses and the requirements of a job. The second generation expanded on trait-factor theory with John Holland’s theory of career development, which introduced six personality types and six corresponding environment types. According to Holland, individuals are drawn to the environment to which their personality is most similar. He suggested that “career choice [is] an expression of identity development” (Traiger, 2006, p. 11). Traiger’s (2006) third generation was defined as a postmodern approach, beginning around the 1990s, that recognized personal milestones in career development that connect an individual’s own meaning-making; it also recognized other life roles an individual may hold in addition to that of worker individual. In the first generation of theory, individual satisfaction came second to performance, and people often stayed within one organization throughout their career (Traiger, 2006). By the early 1990s, it was common to “hold from five to fifteen different jobs” (Rayman, 1993, p. 10) over a lifetime, and career theory had become more person-centered and open to a course of development instead of a one-time decision. Career centers that had successfully focused on job placement experienced less demand from employers looking to interview and recruit on campus, while demand for career planning and counseling services began to increase. Chao and Good (2004) found over 40% of U.S. undergraduates to be nontraditional students; however, other sources claim that only 27% of college students today could be considered traditional (Kennen & Lopez, 2005; Larkin, LaPort, & Pines, 2007). This discrepancy could be a result of differences in definition: generally, nontraditional students are defined as individuals who are 25 years or older (Chao & Good 2004; Luzzo, 1993; Quimby & O’Brien, 2004). Larkin et al. (2007) defined a traditional student as one “who earns a high school diploma, enrolls full time immediately after finishing high school, depends on parents for Career counselors must also consider other aspects of students’ complex identities. A student might be a Person of Color, the first person in her family to attend college, a parent or caretaker, a fullor part-time employee, workingclass, queer, a person with a disability, a military veteran, or identify anywhere along the gender spectrum. All of these identities, roles, and skills, as well as others gone unmentioned, interact uniquely in each student’s life and may present challenges or opportunities as the student navigates hir way into and through college. Career counselors 69 are in a unique position to support nontraditional students because career goals are central to nontraditional students’ decisions to return to school (Chao & Good, 2004; Luzzo, 1993, 2000; Quimby & O’Brien, 2004). Darrel Luzzo (2000) found that economic factors are often impetus for adults to pursue higher education. Chao and Good (2004) found nontraditional students returning because “they felt stuck with their current jobs,” because they wanted “to change career goals via college education,” or because of “life transitions... [which] force them to change to different jobs” (p. 9). Clearly, there is an important relationship between the work of career counselors and nontraditional students. Most career services offices were originally developed for traditionally-aged college students, and research shows that while there are similarities between traditional and nontraditional student career development needs, there are also major differences. For example, there seems to be no clear relationship between a student’s age and “CDM [career decision-making] attitudes [or] CDM skills” (Luzzo, 1993, p. 114). However, nontraditional students often have a clearer idea of, and commitment to, their career choice, and they are also more likely to name “substantial numbers of barriers to reaching their chosen occupational goal (e.g., economic barriers, multiple-role conflict)” (Luzzo, 2000, p. 195). Luzzo (1993) also found higher levels of apprehension, uneasiness, and anxiety around career development issues. Career counselors could be supportive by focusing on confidence building and addressing real barriers faced by nontraditional students. They could also emphasize skills the student has already developed and how those skills might be transferrable to current career-related dilemmas. Theoretical reference models based on orientation practices In regard to employability construct application to the career services Anglo-Saxon literature tends to oppose a simplistic model of employability, that is, the model of the "magic wand" - according to which a student is employable by virtue from his university education - a model of employability development which takes into account one's side of the individual's potential in terms of self-cultivation and, on the other hand, the actual employment of the individual mediated by economic and social factors (Harvard, 2010). There would then be factors connecting these two dimensions of work experience, namely; the development of self-promotion and career management skills; the will to 70 learn and reflect on acquired learning. Hence the need to create pedagogically oriented spaces and places of reflection and orientation to employability. American literature highlights the importance of exploration and orientation skills, particularly for disadvantaged students, where they are often considered incapable of working autonomously and this has a negative impact on their rates of employment (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Employability skills are cited among the most important skills by employers (Hart Research Associates, 2015, British Council, 2011). Lack of employability skills can contribute to a ‘talent shortage’ (ManpowerGroup, 2012). Demonstration of employability skills is correlated with the best hiring rates, job success, and profits (Lippman, Ryberg, Carney & Moore, 2015). The Washington Department of Education has elaborated a model of employability skills that would play a crucial role in university transition programs at work for disadvantaged students, for success in the labor market. The framework for occupational skills consists of three main areas of competence:  Effective relationships that can be translated as effective relationship skills, that is those skills that help the individual interact effectively with clients, colleagues, and employers. In this area they relate interpersonal skills and personal qualities.  Workplace skills that can be translated as skills in the workplace, namely, those skills that enable successful assignment of assigned job assignments. This category includes resource management skills, information usage, communication skills, systematic thinking and technological skills.  Applied Knowledge, that is the integration of the acquired knowledge in the academic context and the technical skills put into practice at the workplace. This category covers academic knowledge applied to the working context and critical thinking. Employability in the French context is defined as the probability of retrieving or retaining a job. It depends on personal factors (aptitudes and abilities) and / or situational factors (job market, workplace accessibility and work methods, adaptability of workstations and organizational schemes, professional constraints, etc.) (Busnel, 2010, p.17). To promote employability, France was introduced in July 22, 2013, through the Law, in Higher Education and Research, education in entrepreneurship and in all education systems. Several analysts see in the ‘Entrepreneurship University’ the future of 71 the university next to the new third university mission, connecting with the world of business (Vorley & Nelles, 2008). In France, the focus is on the guidance to disability students and their accompaniment of disadvantaged students is based on the medical-social approach. Taking care of students by the services is subject to prior recognition of the disability situation, which includes a medical assessment. In French universities, Mission Handicap is a point of reference for disadvantaged students, a key pillar, and the place where the pedagogical compensation and co-ordination of the construction of the professional project (orientation, reorientation, stages, university-work alternation.) The approach of the French universities places the student becoming the center of the ‘accompaniment work’. The orientation here is characterized by a constructivist approach that gives a greater weight to the student's relationship and life experience, which emphasizes the problem solving and its emphasis on student assessment with the delivery of a final response. This approach encourages individuals to tell their story, and to identify their own life and career themes. The consultant thus operates more like a biographer who interprets life into becoming an accountant who coldly deals with passivity and activity. The goal of the orientation process is thus to promote the empowerment, to enable it to deal with transitions and to govern its own career path. This occurs to the extent that the accompanying practice calls for the development of social skills, adaptation, relationalism, mobilization and participation in projects, facilitation of material, human and intellectual studies, all elements that are enrolled in a global project. In other words, success in studies is a condition for professional success. (Univers' Emploi, 2012). In Italy, of particular interest is the definition of employability formulated by Grimaldi, Porcelli Rossi (2014) as “the interwinement between the human, social, and psychological capital of the person - mediated by situational variables - that allows the individual to extend / return into the labor market with a personal professional project adhering to the context" (p.58). This definition reflects the employability model developed by INAPP, which takes into account both biographical and curriculum data of individuals, their context, environmental and life conditions. The Employment Promotion Section (SPO) of the University of Naples Federico II University Ateneo Synapse Center applie this model o 72 allow the individual to settle satisfactorily in a constantly changing and non-inclusive labor market. The SPO it turns to all students at the University who are going to achieve the degree of graduation and graduates who want to strengthen their resources, define a personal project and orient the strategies to be adopted to promote the best in the labor market. The SPO (Occupational Promotion Services) service plays a strategic role in enhancing and promoting integrated actions of guidance, motivation and support all students and graduates in building their training and work scheme through the analysis of intersecting skills possessed by the following aims and objectives, purposes:  to offer a comparison space to learn from the experience of the others;  be aware of their transverse and professional skills;  help to reveal often latent knowledge, attitudes, skills, interests, aspirations and skills that define us as particular individuals;  maintain the definition of a professional project consistent with the skills developed in the various training paths (formal, non-formal and informal) and with personal expectations;  promote the ability for self-evaluation and activation;  help define and value the subject’s strengths and aspects of possible improvement;  knowing yourself and your potential (with particular reference to the potential of internal employability);  Enhance interests and motivations. It is therefore a way to intensify the training and professional pathways of students and graduates through the narrative description of the skills and knowledge gained during the work experience. From this point of view, the training proposal is an intervention that allows the people to acquire an explicit awareness of their personal and professional identity, an indispensable aspect to successfully address their educational and professional pathway (de Mennato, 2006; Cunti, 2008; Lo Presti, 2009). The training process for promoting employability (including the Balance of Competence) is a qualitative-quantitative tool that can trigger autobiographical reconstruction, that is not just a description of the past anchored to an ephemeral dimension, but rather a dynamic connection between his own self and the designability of his own self. The reconstruction is meant as a journey through which the subject discovers and re-elaborates experiences, grasping not only objectives and orientation, but 73 also the ability to re-invent in himself, recognizing a set of elements on which to lay the foundations of their own development strategy. The particular autobiographical dimension of the evaluation allows the person who uses it to generate, through narrative exposition, self-defensive cognitive processes that make precise the significance of the personal cognitive-emotional paths of experience and create a "broader" sense of self, embracing the past, the present and the future. In this sense, the focus of the whole course of the evaluation is to outline precisely the Self-autobiographical, so endeared by Damasio (1999), who in The Feeling of What Happens describes the Self-Extended, also defined as self-autobiographical, present within the extended consciousness' as an elaboration that is able to provide the subject with a developed sense of self that takes into account the past and the anticipated future. For Damasio "here and now is still present, but it is accompanied by the past [...] and, equally important, it is accompanied by the foreseen future" (Damasio, 1999, p. 237). The evaluation of competences is, in fact, a retrospective of the past, which the subject has formed and made him in return "competent", to re-read his past in the present, while making a big opening to his future: all this autobiographical reconstruction work of experiences is part of a pedagogical framework in which training is understood as a complex, dynamic, active, continuous and multidimensional process, attentive to relationship, intersubjectivity and introsigibility. The great importance attributed today to the subjective dimension of the balance of competences rather than to the objective one refers to the use of all those narrative practices that represent privileged opportunities to enable the subjects to become better acquainted with themselves, their desires, their own projects, their own successes and failures, but also their own expectations and concerns, but above all those skills are possessed or implemented. In recent years, in fact, a series of narrative orientation practices have been spread as the most suitable for exploring oneself, but also for knowing and relating to others and to the context, in fact there are narratives that can stimulate narration on oneself, fundamental narrative, and necessary for a guidance path [...]. Then appears the confrontation, where the listening to the narratives of others, the identification of the narratives of others on us, constructs the collection of narratives" (Batini, 2007, p.49). 80 81 CHAPTER 5 Non-traditional students’ point of view about internships in pedagogical professions: Comparison with other students, key factors and drawbacks Cristiano Corsini - University of Catania, Sicily, Italy Giuseppe Pillera - University of Catania, Sicily, Italy Introduction In the academic year 2013-14, the Master Degree in Scienze pedagogiche e progettazione educativa (Pedagogical Science and Educational Design) at the University of Catania chose to enhance the monitoring of external internship. The construction of a tool, aimed at the recognition of students’ opinions on the just completed internship activity, was entrusted to the Educational Research Laboratory, with the purpose of detecting strengths and weaknesses on the various dimensions of the training experience, including those most dependent on the educational choices of the Degree Course, without fear of actually questioning some of the choices made by the latter: The questionnaire had to ask not only to evaluate the work and the contexts of the internship, but also to indicate whether and how the university study gives significance to the training on the field (and vice versa), bearing in mind the dialectical relationship between the two experiences. The tool was developed by students attending the courses of Experimental Pedagogy (three-year Degree Course in Education Sciences, 1st semester) and Methods and Techniques of Evaluation (two-year Master Degree in Pedagogical Sciences and Educational Design, 2nd semester), modifying what was devised by Anna Salerni at the University “La Sapienza” in Rome (Salerni, 2007). The undergraduate students have analyzed the tool used in Rome, proposing, based on their previous training experience, many of the changes then made in the current version, which is linked on the web page of the Master Degree program (www.disfor.unict.it/it/corsi/lm-85/tirocini-e-stage). The choice of actively involving students in building and validating the questionnaire was 82 founded on two reasons: firstly, students are a category of privileged witnesses, able to assure the tool of validity and adherence to the specific context; secondly, the research work needed to build and validate the tool allows for better acquisition of specific knowledge about educational research, using such knowledge within truly challenging contexts as media to solve problems and not as a lesson to learn with the aim to pass an exam, thus constituting a theme and task based activity, according to the authentic assessment approach. The 114 items of the survey are organized in five different sections (Scierri, in Corsini & Strongoli eds., 2017, pp. 19-36): 1) general information on trainees; 2) personal motivations and experience; 3) past and developed skills; 4) relationships with and within the context of work; 5) connections between the internship and the university studies. Through this tool, students can evaluate: themselves, that is, the skills they have acquired, the overall value of the experience and its usefulness for future work choices, the problems that emerged; the company, i.e. the activity carried out, the support received from the tutor and the type of relationships established, the training received; the University, that is, the organization of the internship and the received support, the consistency between the contents of the internship and the university studies (Salerni, 2007). Within a generally positive picture, the answers provided present some critical issues, which do not seem to focus on host institutions or on particular sectors, but rather refer to dynamics that involve the relationship between university teaching and internship. In particular, some difficulties in the relationship between what is acquired in the classroom and the experience in the practical contexts of internship characterizes some of the respondents’ reports. However, as highlighted in this paper, there are some differences between non-traditional and regular students’ experience. In the analysis conducted for this paper we disaggregate and re-processed the data to permit the comparison between the non-traditional students — to be understood, in this case, as those students taking longer than expected to graduate — and the students with regular times of completion (henceforth we will refer to them as regular students), so as to confirm or deny the aforementioned evidence and to paint an accurate portrait of the first ones, that were 48 out of 110 that took part in the research, almost totally female. 83 Motivation and internship experience The two questions on the reasons that inspired the selection of a sector and an institution where carried out the internship are preceded by dichotomous items that ask to clarify the possibility of free choice of both the industry and the organization. Here we noticed some light differences in the two groups of students, especially regarding the first couple of items (choice of a sector). Precisely, it could be stressed that non-traditional students declare to have some larger possibilities to select the route, especially in regard to the sector of internship (fig. 1). Furthermore, about the reasons to choose a field for the experience (fig. 2), we emphasize that non-traditional students seem to point a slight less scepticism and a mild stronger pragmatism, actually they reveal, not without some contradictions: larger reasons linked to interest and passion; stronger hope to work in the same branch as the internship; lower disposition to put themselves to the proof; less interest in observing and better knowing the sector. Speaking of the second couple of items (choice of an organization), we report a substantial confirmation of the previous data, with a specification about the role that the tutors and the teachers, on one hand, and the other students, on the other hand, play with regard to this choice: as you would expect, the regular students are moderately influenced 54 87.1% 8 12.9% 46 95.8% 2 4.2% Business sector choice Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Yes No Fig. 1 14 9.5% 31 21.1% 23 15.6% 30 20.4% 20 13.6% 29 19.7% 18 15.3% 30 25.4% 19 16.1% 18 15.3% 13 11.0% 20 16.9% Selected sector reasons Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students To work in the same field as the internship Interest or passion To practice and / or verify what theoretically learnt To observe and know better about a particular work branch Challenge myself To learn or study in deep certain skills and knowledge Fig. 2 84 by other students (5% vs 0.9%), whereas non-traditional students are slightly influenced by tutors and teachers (3.7% vs 0%). In the previous data, as well as in the following question about the general motivations, the answers do not diverge excessively in the two groups of students. The question about the moment of the university route when the interest in the internship begins, instead, presents a remarkable difference (fig. 3): as it could be expected, 78.4% of non-traditional students are interested in internship only after having completed almost all examinations (vs 26.2% of regular students). This item confirms the low relevance of colleagues’ opinions but also that one of the courses attended at the university. In the section of the questionnaire dedicated to the description of experience in terms of sensations and feelings, several points of discrepancy between the two groups of students can be highlighted. First of all, non-traditional students trend to evaluate work spaces more positively (fig. 4). Secondly, they suffer a lesser feeling of not being held in account (fig. 5) and they declare in a larger extent to perform tasks related to own role (fig. 6). As consequence, they feel a lesser sense of inadequacy (fig. 7) and, definitely, they are more at one’s ease (fig. 8), maybe also because of the way they carry out the activities, mainly linked to group performances (fig. 9). 19 29.2% 12 18.5% 17 26.2% 17 26.2% 2 3.9% 6 11.8% 3 5.9% 40 78.4% Moment of the university route when interest in internships begins Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students As soon as you enrolled at the university After you have passed exams that have raised your interest in the internship Having heard the experience of other students in the same Degree course Having passed almost all examinations Fig. 3 5 8.1% 19 30.6% 38 61.3% 1 2.1% 13 27.1% 34 70.8% Comfort of work spaces Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Never Sometimes Often Always Fig. 4 85 The general more positive evaluation about the internship experience shown by nontraditional students is confirmed also concerning the serenity in the workplace (fig. 10), the appropriateness of timetables in relation to their needs (fig. 11) and of the spaces in relation to the required tasks (fig. 12) and, finally, the suitability of the organization for the performances (fig. 13) and of the staff for the students' welcome (fig. 14). 39 62.9% 18 29.0% 5 8.1% 32 66.7% 12 25.0% 2 4.2% 2 4.2% Feeling inadequate Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Never Sometimes Often Always Fig. 7 2 3.2% 4 6.5% 17 27.4% 39 62.9% 1 2.1% 10 20.8% 37 77.1% Feeling comfortable Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Never Sometimes Often Always Fig. 8 1 1.6% 11 17.7% 23 37.1% 27 43.5% 5 10.4% 17 35.4% 26 54.2% Tasks relevant to the role Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Never Sometimes Often Always Fig. 6 1 1.6% 6 9.7% 15 24.2% 40 64.5% 2 4.2% 15 31.3% 31 64.6% Feeling of being held in account Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Never Sometimes Often Always Fig. 5 86 3 4.8% 28 45.2% 31 50.0% 11 22.9% 37 77.1% Appropriateness of timetables in relation to students' needs Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students None Low Moderate High Fig. 11 4 6.5% 33 53.2% 25 40.3% 11 22.9% 37 77.1% Appropriateness of workspaces in relation to required tasks Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students None Low Moderate High Fig. 12 8 12.9% 19 30.6% 24 38.7% 11 17.7% 10 20.8% 20 41.7% 16 33.3% 2 4.2% Setting of tasks in group and individual performances Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Never Sometimes Often Always Fig. 9 6 9.7% 22 35.5% 34 54.8% 1 2.1% 15 31.3% 32 66.7% Serenity in the workplace Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Never Sometimes Often Always Fig. 10 87 Relationships with tutors, colleagues and users As we could expect and as reported by both the groups of students, the main interface between them and host organization is the tutor in over 8 cases out of 10, although about 35% of the respondents state to be assisted also by other members of the staff. The rapport with the staff that supervises the students is mostly described as enough or very continuous, friendly, informal, peaceful, constructive and stimulating. However some differences between regular and non-traditional students can be registered, as shown in fig. 15-18, where it appears that non-traditional students are inclined to consider this relationship very peaceful, constructive, stimulating, constant in a higher percent and, at the same time, turbulent, not constructive, demotivating and episodic to a lesser extent than regular students. 4 6.5% 6 9.7% 23 37.1% 29 46.8% 1 2.1% 2 4.2% 13 27.1% 32 66.7% Suitability of organization for carrying out the tasks Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students None Low Moderate High Fig. 13 2 3.2% 6 9.7% 19 30.6% 35 56.5% 2 4.2% 2 4.2% 11 22.9% 33 68.8% Suitability of staff for students' welcome Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students None Low Moderate High Fig. 14 88 The above mentioned positive social context is confirmed by the answers to the open questions about problems met with staff and users, where the relationships on the workplace appear based on a serene and fruitful collaboration — which is often described (particularly referring to the tutor) as endowed with high human and professional value —, and where the issues appear to be very limited in both student groups and restricted to specific cases. However, we quote in tab. 1 some criticisms highlighted by respondents, that could be summarized in three key points, emerging also at other points of the dataset: 1 1.6% 3 4.8% 11 17.7% 47 75.8% 1 2.1% 1 2.1% 6 12.5% 40 83.3% Relationship with the tutor: from conflictual (1) to peaceful (4) Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students 1 2 3 4 Fig. 15 3 4.8% 4 6.5% 14 22.6% 41 66.1% 1 2.1% 2 4.2% 6 12.5% 39 81.3% Relationship with the tutor: from non-constructive (1) to constructive (4) Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students 1 2 3 4 Fig. 16 41 66.1% 14 22.6% 1 1.6% 6 9.7% 38 79.2% 5 10.4% 3 6.3% 2 4.2% Relationship with the tutor: from stimulating (1) to demotivating (4) Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students 1 2 3 4 Fig. 17 36 58.1% 15 24.2% 7 11.3% 4 6.5% 36 75.0% 7 14.6% 5 10.4% Relationship with the tutor: from constant (1) to episodic (4) Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students 1 2 3 4 Fig. 18 89 1. request to perform tasks little consistent or totally no relevant to the internship (for both the groups of students); 2. incompatibility of character between student and tutor (only for regular students); 3. difficulties in the contact with users (for both the groups of students). Tab. 1 - Problems with tutor and users highlighted by respondents Regular students Non-traditional students With tutor Assignments of tasks not relevant to my role. He asked me to carry out activities that were little relevant to my role. Complete ignorance of educational needs and strategies. He often complained about what I was doing. Incompatibility of character. The tutor's mood at work depended on her family and personal life problems, and this resulted in a disastrous relationship with trainees. With users Some problems of "first contact" with a part of socially and economically deprived users. I found a closed environment. Still, regarding the relational aspect, we note slight differences between the two groups of students in the feeling of being perceived as rivals by company’s workers (fig. 19) and by other trainees in the same organization (fig. 20): in both cases, especially in the former, non-traditional students seem to suffer less such discomfort. 96 stressed —, non-traditional students attach to it higher importance than regular students. In addition, almost half of the non-traditional students evaluate oral expression fairly well developed, unlike regular students, where the top 3 evaluations are almost equally distributed.  Autonomy. Non-traditional students consider skills like organization of work, choice and management of work materials, critical and self-critical ability as more relevant and they perceive their development (especially the first two) significantly major.  Organizational ability. In a framework of substantial homogeneity, we note that non-traditional students feel to a larger extent as highly important the identifying in own role and, at the same time, they state little or nothing developed that capacity to a lesser extent. We also point out that non-traditional students consider their design skills much more developed and they seem more involved in activities that include group management.  Social competence. As we have just seen, the ability to manage a group seems belong slightly more to regular students, nevertheless the ability in team work and in relating to other people (especially this latter) are much more appreciated by non-traditional students, both as a prerequisite of the internship and as one of its best outcomes. Finally, the willingness to appreciate diversity and multiculturalism appears more valued and developed by non-traditional students.  Transversal skills. Though non-traditional students consider the ability to withstand the stress to a lesser extent as very important prerequisite, in spite of this they consider this skill much more developed thanks to the internship, as is the problem solving ability. 97 Tab. 3 – Required and developed skills in the internship. Percentage data (Tot.: 62 regular and 48 non-traditional students) Required Developed None Low Moderate High None Low Moderate High Foreign language 29.2 33.3 31.3 6.3 Non-trad. 52.1 31.3 6.3 10.4 27.4 53.2 16.1 3.2 Reg. 59.7 32.3 4.8 3.2 Computer skills 18.8 35.4 35.4 10.4 Non-trad. 35.4 45.8 10.4 8.3 12.9 37.1 38.7 11.3 Reg. 43.5 29 21 6.5 Oral expression 0 0 20.8 79.2 Non-trad. 8.3 14.6 47.9 29.2 0 3.2 33.9 62.9 Reg. 8.1 22.6 33.9 35.5 Written expression 2.1 16.7 31.3 50 Non-trad. 12.5 31.3 33.3 22.9 4.8 9.7 46.8 38.7 Reg. 16.1 35.5 30.6 17.7 Organization of work 0 2.1 31.3 66.7 Non-trad. 2.1 12.5 33.3 52.1 1.6 4.8 32.3 61.3 Reg. 6.5 9.7 43.5 40.3 Choice and management of work materials 0 8.3 35.4 56.3 Non-trad. 4.2 10.4 33.3 52.1 0 3.2 43.5 53.2 Reg. 6.5 11.3 43.5 38.7 Critical and selfcritical ability 0 0 33.3 66.7 Non-trad. 0 6.3 35.4 58.3 1.6 4.8 30.6 62.9 Reg. 4.8 11.3 29 54.8 Planning and designing 0 6.3 27.1 66.7 Non-trad. 4.2 10.4 20.8 64.6 1.6 1.6 30.6 66.1 Reg. 8.1 11.3 37.1 43.5 Managing a work group 2.1 10.4 39.6 47.9 Non-trad. 2.1 16.7 31.3 50 4.8 6.5 33.9 54.8 Reg. 11.3 14.5 30.6 43.5 Identification in own role 0 2.1 22.9 75 Non-trad. 2.1 2.1 33.3 62.5 0 8.1 24.2 67.7 Reg. 4.8 12.9 21 61.3 Relate to other people 0 0 2.1 97.9 Non-trad. 2.1 2.1 16.7 79.2 0 1.6 9.7 88.7 Reg. 1.6 9.7 21 67.7 Team work 0 4.2 37.5 58.3 Non-trad. 0 12.5 33.3 54.2 0 3.2 45.2 51.6 Reg. 4.8 16.1 40.3 38.7 Appreciating diversity and multiculturalism 2.1 2.1 20.8 75 Non-trad. 0 4.2 35.4 60.4 1.6 8.1 16.1 74.2 Reg. 4.8 14.5 27.4 53.2 Problem solving 0 0 27.1 72.9 Non-trad. 0 2.1 33.3 64.6 0 3.2 21 75.8 Reg. 6.5 4.8 32.3 56.5 Withstanding stress 0 8.3 35.4 56.3 Non-trad. 0 12.5 35.4 52.1 0 6.5 27.4 66.1 Reg. 3.2 9.7 40.3 46.8 98 The framework just explored suggests that, as a rule, non-traditional students in internship consider the skills outlined in the questionnaire as needed and developed to a greater extent than regular students. 6. Learning retrospectives and perspectives A series of items in the questionnaire suggest a reflection on the relationship between internship and university, trying to explore the organizational aspects, the coherence of the two learning experiences, the impact of the internship on the university study, the usefulness of the internship in terms of vocational guidance and placing. In this section, the non-traditional students assert slightly more than regular ones to receive study materials (respectively 50% and 43.8%), which are also judged more useful (fig. 24). Besides, regular students, compared with non-traditional ones, suffer fairly more the organizational modes of the internship, complaining about too short internship time to a larger extent (fig. 25) and reporting a total lack of planning in almost 1 case out of 5, a changeability of the required contribution on the basis of the daily needs in above 3 cases out of 10 and a clear planning of the internship activities in less than half the cases (fig. 26). Also about the evaluation of the usefulness of the university courses with regard to the internship (fig. 27), the differences between non-traditional and regular students look quite marked, especially on the second (low) and on the last step (high) of the scale. With opposite trend, the influence of the internship on dissertation is lower among the nontraditional students (fig. 28). 99 We have to consider also the overall assessment of the internship with regard to students’ learning path (fig. 29), where the differences between the two groups appear more blurred but nevertheless appreciable, particularly on the second (low) and the last step (high) of the scale, suggesting that non-traditional students consider the internship more consistent with their studies, as strengthened also, in another item, by a lower 2 6.5% 18 58.1% 11 35.5% 1 3.6% 13 46.4% 14 50.0% Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students None Low Moderate High Usefulness of possibly provided study materials (excluding empty answers) Fig. 24 33 53.2% 17 27.4% 9 14.5% 3 4.8% 31 64.6% 12 25.0% 3 6.3% 2 4.2% Sufficient time to develop the training project Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students Yes Yes, but I managed badly my time Yes, but I would have liked to have more time No Other Fig. 25 33 45.2% 14 19.2% 2 2.7% 24 32.9% 33 63.5% 5 9.6% 1 1.9% 13 25.0% Organizational modes of the internship Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students The stages of the entire internship activity have been clearly planned The activity was not scheduled The activity was not clearly planned My contribution varied with the needs of the day Fig. 26 3 4.8% 18 29.0% 33 53.2% 8 12.9% 2 4.2% 8 16.7% 23 47.9% 15 31.3% Usefulness of the university courses with regard to the internship Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students None Low Moderate High Fig. 27 100 highlighting of university background gaps during the internship (14.6% vs 24.2% marked by regular students). With reference to non-traditional students, the co-occurrence network analysis illustrated in fig. 30 — that matches the assessment of the internship concerning students’ learning path (fig. 29) with its textual explanations — shows the outstanding role of the tutor (linked to both low and high judgments) and suggests the majority reasons for the highest evaluation: the value of the experience in terms of knowledge (conosc, conoscent) and participation (partecip). 7 11.3% 14 22.6% 41 66.1% 1 2.1% 1 2.1% 10 20.8% 36 75.0% Overall assessment of the internship activities with regard to own learning path Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students None Low Moderate High Fig. 29 19 30.6% 10 16.1% 21 33.9% 4 6.5% 8 12.9% 21 43.8% 8 16.7% 8 16.7% 5 10.4% 6 12.5% Influence of the internship on graduate thesis Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students No, because it did not affect my point of view on the subject Yes, because it affected my point of view on the subject Probably yes Probably no Not yet able to answer Fig. 28 101 Lastly, in suggestions to solve possible problems and difficulties, even if the answers are few, the two groups present some similarities, and specifically the request to increase the hours of internship and/or reduce the number of examinations (in order to improve the participation and the meaningfulness of the experience), but also broad differences (fig. 31). Indeed, non-traditional students give, from one hand, lesser weight to university grounding oriented to some types of users (in particular interview techniques and clinical pedagogy) and especially lesser importance to improving tutor’s support; from another hand, they assign a greater weight to improving communication and sharing goals Fig. 30: Network diagram of top 50 co-occurrences of morphemes with f ≥ 5 (with exclusion of attivit, tirocin) in the non-traditional students’ explanation of assessment of the internship activities with regard to own learning process, matched with the answers in fig. 29. 102 between university (internship office, teachers) and companies (bureaucratic problems and, once again, risk of inconsistency between internship and university path). 7. Conclusions Although the differences between the two groups of students, examined in the previous paragraphs, emerge sometimes no distinctly, nevertheless it appears quite clearly that nontraditional students face and live the internship experience more serenely and more optimistically. This seems to impact positively the relationships established on the workplace, the developed competence and the sensation of being in an unbroken and consistent path between the university and the labour market (with a feeble reflection also in the placement: 29.2% of them, vs 22.6% of regular students, receive a post-internship job proposal). Of course, the aforesaid landscape affects the level of gratification, e.g. only 4.2% of non-traditional students (vs 12.9% of regular ones) would not recommend the internship experience to other classmate at university; besides the diagram in fig. 32 reinforces the opinion that they are generally more satisfied with the internship. In the co-occurrence network diagrams in fig. 33, used to analyze the explanation of overall satisfaction, the 1 1.6% 5 7.9% 17 27.0% 40 63.5% 2 4.2% 10 20.8% 36 75.0% Overall satisfaction about the internship experience Outer circle: regular students Inner circle: non-traditional students None Low Moderate High Fig. 32 Regular students Non-traditional students 4 20.0% 3 21.4% 4 20.0% 2 14.3% 6 30.0% 2 14.3% 1 5.0% 1 7.1% 5 25.0% 6 42.9% If you encountered difficulties during the internship, can you indicate any possible solutions? Improve communication and sharing goals between university and companies Implement better guidance actions to chose the internship Improve tutors' involvement, support and preparation Improve the ability to relate and / or work with particular types of users Increase hours of internship and /or reduce number of examinations Fig. 31 103 key role of the tutor emerges once again, as well as the complexity of the factors at play that we tried to bring to light in this paper. Paradoxically, non-traditional, which would be expected to be a problematic students’ category, provides interesting insights (to be further explored through case studies, indepth interviews, etc.) to improve the experience of regular ones. Actually, next qualitative and quantitative investigations could clarify whether the more positive orientation of non-traditional students is due to differences in expectations or propensity to criticism, or to a different maturity, with its background of learning and training paths Fig.33: Network diagram of top 60 co-occurrences of morphemes with f ≥ 5 (with exclusion of esperient, tirocin, soddisfacent) in the non-traditional students’ explanation of overall assessment of the internship, matched with the answers in fig. 32. 104 and/or possible previous work experiences. At the moment, on the basis of the collected material, we can resume as follow the main proposals to improve still further the internship experience, in particular for non-traditional students: 1. Improving the consistency between the Master Degree and the real work environment, providing more in-context knowledge and teaching strategies (e.g. case histories, simulations, laboratory, task based activities) able to reduce the noticed gap theory-practice, especially with regard to diagnostic tools (interview techniques, administration of test) and clinical techniques (for mental disability, autism, learning difficulties), but also to communication/rapport with particular groups of users (gambling and drug addicted persons, social deprived persons). 2. Furnishing more and better vocational guidance for a more conscious choice of both the sector and the specific organization where to carry out the internship and involving more the students in sharing the goals and the methods of activity so to promote responsibility and engagement. 3. Deepening the connections between the University and the institutions in agreement, paying special attention to the relationship and, possibly, the training of the persons that will assume the role of tutors and maintaining a constant communication with both organizations and students, controlling that the activities effectively carried out are the same of the project or, in any case, consistent with the role of the trainees. 4. Promoting career services to support students in their search for employment after the internship, also exploiting the developed assets and contacts. References Corsini, C. & Strongoli, R. C. (eds.) (2017). Valutare il tirocinio universitario. L’esperienza del CdlM in Scienze pedagogiche e progettazione educativa dell’Università di Catania. CUECM: Catania. Danowski, J. A. (1993). Network Analysis of Message Content. In W. D. Richards Jr. & G. A. Barnett (eds.), Progress in communication sciences IV (pp. 197-221). Norwood: Ablex. 105 Fruchterman, T. M. 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Rastier, F., Cavazza, M. & Abeillé, A. (2002). Semantics for Descriptions. Stanford: CSLI. Salerni, A. (ed.) (2007). Apprendere tra università e lavoro. Un modello per la gestione del tirocinio universitario. Roma: Homolegens. Scierri, I. (2017). Il questionario per la valutazione del tirocinio. In Corsini & Strongoli (eds.), op. cit., 19-36. 112 En España los principales países de origen de las personas solicitantes de asilo, según CEAR (2016) son: Figura 2: Solicitantes de protección internacional en España por nacionalidad Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de CEAR (Comisión Española de Ayuda al Refugiado, 2016) Pero el reconocimiento de protección internacional es muy inferior al de solicitantes. Como podemos ver en la figura 3, Irak, Siria y Somalia son los países de procedencia de la mayoría de personas a las que se les reconoce la protección internacional. Venezuela; 3960 Siria; 2975 Ucrania; 2570 Argelia; 740 Colombia; 615 El Salvador; 425 Honduras; 385 Palestina; 355 Marruecos; 340 Nigeria; 285 113 Figura 3. Reconocimiento de la protección internacional en España por nacionalidad Fuente: CEAR (2016) Los principales países de acogida a refugiados en los años 2014 y 2015 fueron Turquía, Pakistán, Líbano, República Islámica de Irán, Etiopía y Jordania. Esto tiene una doble lectura: por una parte son países que “acogen” muchas personas, pero también puede ser visto como una externalización de este deber en terceros países con escasas garantías jurídicas. En la figura 4 podemos ver el número de acogidos en los distintos países. 114 Figura 4. Principales países que acogen a refugiados 2014-2015 en millones Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de ACNUR (2016) En cuanto a la Unión Europea, en 2016 el número de solicitudes de protección internacional fueron 1.259.265. El principal país que recibió solicitudes de asilo fue Alemania, con un total de 745.265 solicitudes, seguido de Italia con 123.370 solicitudes. Figura 5: Solicitudes de protección internacional en la Unión Europea Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de Eurostat y CEAR (2016) 0,48 0,1 0,37 0,51 0,69 0,7 0,98 1,21 1,5 1,53 0,37 0,125 0,49 0,52 0,7 0,75 0,98 1,15 1,53 2,51 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 Chad Rep. Democrática del Congo Uganda Kenia Jordania Etiopía Rep. Islámica de Irán Líbano Pakistán Turquía Finales de 2015 Comienzos de 2015 745265 123370 83485 38870 29460 28925 15755 Alemania Italia Francia Reino Unido Hungria Suecia España 115 En España, la situación es diferente. Según CEAR (2016), en España durante 2016 se recibieron 15.755 solicitudes de asilo. Figura 6: Evolución de solicitantes de protección internacional España Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de Ministerio del Interior (2016) Como establece la Red Europea de Migraciones (2009), “los solicitantes de asilo y los refugiados tienen reconocido el derecho de acceso a programas sociales. Algunos de ellos se resumen en el siguiente cuadro” (p. 48): Tabla 1. Acceso a programas sociales Solicitantes de asilo Refugiados - Alojamientos en centros de acogida - Ayuda económica para alojamiento y manutención - Asistencia sanitaria - Asesoramiento legal - Servicio de interpretación y traducción - Retorno o reasentamiento - Ayudas de emergencia - Otras ayudas - Integración socio laboral - Ayudas de acceso a la vivienda - Formación educativa y profesional - Servicio de interpretación y traducción - Ayudas de emergencia - Ayudas a ancianos y discapacitados - Reagrupación familiar - Retorno y reasentamiento Fuente: Red Europea de Migraciones (2009) 5,918 5,553 5,257 5,297 7,664 4,517 3,007 2,744 3,422 2,588 4,502 5,947 14,88115,755 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 116 Estos programas sociales son ofrecidos por organizaciones no gubernamentales que trabajan con este colectivo. Las más importantes son Cruz Roja Española, CEAR (Comisión Española de Ayuda al Refugiado) y ACCEM (Asociación Católica Española de Migraciones). 1.2. Refugiados y empleo Uno de los principales problemas a los que se enfrentan las personas refugiadas cuando llegan a España es la dificultad para encontrar un empleo, debido a diferentes factores: discriminación por razón de etnia, género, poco dominio del lenguaje, no reconocimiento de los títulos universitarios que disponían en sus países de origen u otros; y a la gran tasa de desempleo que atraviesa el país. Sin embargo, la mayoría de estas personas están muy preparadas para desempeñar un trabajo. ACNUR realizó una encuesta en diciembre de 2015, y halló que, de las personas entrevistas, el 86% tenía un alto nivel educativo, habían finalizado secundaria o los estudios universitarios. A pesar de esto, se han detectado prácticas discriminatorias en los procesos de inserción laboral. Todo esto hace que se encuentren en una situación de desigualdad respecto al resto. Además, a esto hay que sumarle que, en muchas ocasiones, no se reconoce la formación que adquirieron estas personas en sus países de origen. Asimismo, hay que tener en cuenta que, en la actualidad, para acceder al mercado laboral se valoran muchas más cosas a parte del título académico; ahora es necesaria una preparación y formación que permitan la adquisición de estrategias, competencias y habilidades para responder eficazmente a esta actividad socio-laboral. Es decir, es necesaria la adquisición de unas habilidades sociales. Esta importancia radica en que las habilidades sociales capacitan a las personas a ejecutar tareas concretas de forma exitosa. También aumentan nuestras posibilidades de mantener relaciones satisfactorias con los demás, sentirnos bien con nosotros mismos y/o a aprender a comunicarnos. 1.3. Reflexiones sobre lo tratado Las experiencias por las que pasan las personas refugiadas suponen un gran impacto psicosocial en sus condiciones de vida. La constante exposición a la guerra, violencia, 117 violaciones o muerte constituye un trauma en sus vidas. Esto, muchas veces, les supone grandes problemas de adaptación e integración social. Los educadores sociales y demás profesionales que trabajan con ellos, deben potenciar su empoderamiento, mediante diversas intervenciones donde se valore la adecuada resolución de problemas y las habilidades sociales de cada uno, de manera individual y personalizada. Además, deben considerar sus necesidades e intentar paliarlas. La preparación para el empleo es una manera de empoderar a estas personas, fomentar su autonomía, y, a su vez, paliar vacíos laborales en el país de destino. 2. Análisis de la realidad Para poder ejecutar el proyecto de intervención, es necesario contar con unas variables para poder analizar la realidad social en que se va a desarrollar y conocer la verdadera necesidad de los destinatarios. Para conocer estos elementos vamos a utilizar diferentes técnicas de recogida de información, como son la observación, la entrevista y el diario de campo. 2.1. Descripción del contexto El proyecto de intervención se pretende desarrollar se realizaría en coordinación entre Cruz Roja Sevilla, en el “Programa Integral de Acogida e Integración de las personas solicitantes y beneficiarias de Protección Internacional”, y la Universidad Pablo de Olavide. El programa mencionado pertenece al plan de Intervención social, y es un proyecto de intervención social integral y multidisciplinar que pretende facilitar y promover la autonomía personal de cada beneficiario teniendo en cuenta las principales dificultades que enfrentan las personas solicitantes de protección internacional, con el objetivo general de dotarles de habilidades personales y herramientas que les permitan alcanzar la autonomía y la inserción en la sociedad de acogida. En cuanto a la Universidad Pablo de Olavide, dicho proyecto se propone como un curso de formación sobre orientación laboral para las personas refugiadas o solicitantes de asilo que se llevaría a cabo en la Universidad Pablo de Olavide. 118 De esta forma, la integración en el ámbito académico y laboral estará cubierta desde la universidad. Este proyecto es innovador, ya que es un servicio que no se ha ofrecido hasta el momento en la Universidad Pablo de Olavide, y además, es un proyecto que aprovecha los recursos de la propia universidad para empoderar a las personas refugiadas y cubrir sus necesidades. En cuanto a los destinatarios, va dirigido a personas solicitantes de asilo o aquellas que han sido reconocidas con el estatuto de refugiadas. Con este proyecto, se pretende cubrir las carencias en ámbitos laborales de estas personas y ayudarles a integrarse laboralmente en la sociedad de acogida. 3. Proyecto de intervención Atendiendo a las necesidades planteadas durante el análisis de la realidad, se va a desarrollar un proyecto de intervención con el objetivo de cubrir las mismas. 3.1. Objetivos generales y específicos Objetivo general (G1): ● G1: Proporcionar conocimientos y herramientas que favorezcan la inserción laboral. Objetivos específicos (E1, E2, E3) ● E1: Impulsar el desarrollo de competencias y habilidades socio-laborales. ● E2: Fomentar el autoconocimiento y descubrimiento personal para potenciar los recursos personales. ● E3: Promover la adquisición de competencias y actitudes que permitan mejorar las habilidades sociales de las personas beneficiarias del proyecto. 3.2. Metodología de las acciones En cuanto a las actividades que se van a realizar con las personas refugiadas, la metodología predominante será flexible, activa, participativa y experiencial. Se pretende, 119 a través de las diferentes dinámicas, la mayor interacción y participación entre los participantes, haciendo así posible la adquisición del aprendizaje. Con respecto a los principios metodológicos en los que nos basamos para planificar las actividades del proyecto, destacamos la importancia de garantizar la relación con la vida real de las actividades de enseñanza-aprendizaje, partiendo, siempre que sea posible, de experiencias y emociones vividas y sentidas por los participantes, ya que así será más fácil llevarlas a cabo y serán mucho más realistas. Será primordial impulsar las relaciones entre iguales con la finalidad de crear un clima de aceptación y cooperación mutua. No debemos olvidar que debemos tener siempre en cuenta la situación individual y social de cada una de las personas a las que va dirigida la formación. De manera general, en las actividades que se llevarán a cabo se dará una atención tanto individualizada como grupal. Durante el transcurso de las actividades, el/la profesional que imparta el curso, deberá tener en cuenta la barrera y dificultades idiomáticas, adaptándose en cada caso a los usuarios y a las dudas de los mismos. Se darán una serie de actividades, cada una de ellas en distintas semanas, y éstas se realizarán una tarde en semana durante una hora. 3.3. Plan de intervención Las actividades están divididas en cuatro bloques, en función de las cuatro sesiones que se van a plantear. Cada una de estas sesiones tiene una temática diferente, pero siempre van en la línea de lo planteado las semanas anteriores y de lo que queremos transmitir a los participantes. Además, cada una de estas sesiones cuenta con diversas actividades. Lo que tendrán en común todas las sesiones será que, la primera de las actividades será una actividad de presentación, para poder conocernos todos mejor y romper el hielo. Primera sesión La primera sesión va a consistir en descubrir la vocación de las personas participantes en el proyecto, para poder partir de una base a la hora de trabajar. 120 ● Presentación del curso (1 hora) ACTIVIDAD 1 TÍTULO “Encuentra a tu mitad” OBJETIVOS Los miembros del grupo se conozcan entre sí. DURACIÓN 15 minutos DESARROLLO A cada persona se le da un dibujo en un trozo de papel partido por la mitad, y tienen que buscar a su otra mitad. Una vez encontrado, cada pareja tiene que hablar entre ellos durante 5 minutos, y deben contar cosas de su vida (Por ejemplo: cómo se llaman, qué han estudiado, de dónde son, etc.). Pasados los cinco minutos, cada miembro de la pareja presenta a su compañero al resto del grupo. RECURSOS Dibujos  Descubre tu vocación ACTIVIDAD 2 TÍTULO “Descubre tu vocación” OBJETIVOS Los participantes descubran sus gustos y se orienten laboralmente. DURACIÓN 30 minutos DESARROLLO Primero: A cada persona se le reparte un cuestionario (Anexo 1) y deberán rellenarlo al completo, pensando cada una de las preguntas. Segundo: Una vez rellenadas todas las preguntas, le entregan los test a la persona que está realizando el curso para que proceda al análisis. Tercera: En la siguiente sesión, se compartirán los resultados. RECURSOS Cuestionario “Descubre tu vocación” (Anexo 1), bolígrafos. Segunda sesión En la segunda sesión se van a llevar a cabo diversas actividades sobre la temática de habilidades sociales para las personas participantes en el proyecto. Entre las principales actividades que vamos a trabajar, se encuentran la empatía, el autoconocimiento y la resolución pacífica de conflictos. 121 Debemos destacar que, aunque las habilidades sociales se trabajen solo en la segunda sesión, es un tema transversal que ha de tenerse en cuenta a lo largo de todas las actividades del proyecto. ● Presentación: ACTIVIDAD 3 TÍTULO “Naranja-limón” OBJETIVOS Los miembros del grupo se conozcan entre sí y recuerden los nombres. DURACIÓN 10 minutos DESARROLLO El grupo se sienta en sillas formando un círculo, y en medio se queda una persona. La persona que se ha quedado en el medio, tiene que acercarse a sus compañeros y preguntarles naranja o limón. Si pregunta naranja, la persona que ha sido preguntada debe decir el nombre de la persona que está sentada a su derecha; si en cambio, pregunta limón, debe decir el nombre de la persona sentada a su izquierda. La respuesta debe ser rápida. Cuando la persona que sea preguntada se equivoca en el nombre de sus compañeros, pasa al centro. Si la persona que está en medio dice macedonia, todas las personas deben cambiarse de sitio. Hay que tener en cuenta que siempre va a quedar una en el medio, que es la que se quede sin silla. RECURSOS Sillas  Empatía: ACTIVIDAD 4 TÍTULO “¿Qué harías en mi lugar?” OBJETIVOS - Promover la búsqueda de soluciones a diferentes conflictos. - Ponerse en la situación del otro cuando se encuentra en una determinada situación. DURACIÓN 15 minutos 128 15 Formular estrategias para crear relacionar entre países. 16 Pintar, hacer esculturas, etc. 17 Elaborar campañas para introducir productos al mercado. 18 Defender a las personas en juicios. 19 Diseñar máquinas que simulen actividades humanas. 20 Investigar y tratar los trastornos emocionales y psicológicos. 21 Aconsejar sobre planes de ahorro o inversiones. 22 Realizar el control de calidad de los alimentos. 23 Escribir artículos, libros, novelas, cuentos… 24 Estudiar la diversidad cultural en el ámbito rural y urbano. 25 Crear campañas publicitarias. 26 Gestionar y evaluar proyectos de instituciones sociales o educativas. 27 Decorar espacios en viviendas, oficinas o locales. 28 Administrar una empresa. 29 Diseñar ropa 30 Investigaciones de organismos para elaborar vacunas. 31 Conducciones de dispositivos (aviones, barcos, etc.) 32 Estudiar idiomas extranjeros para traducciones. 33 Revisar y hacer el mantenimiento de aparatos electrónicos. 34 Enseñar a niños, jóvenes o adultos. 35 Reparación y mantenimiento de automóviles. 36 Realizar proyectos de extracciones minera y metalúrgica. 37 Realizar fotografías de diferentes ámbitos. 38 Trabajar en museos o bibliotecas. 39 Mejorar la imagen de las personas Fuente: elaboración propia a partir de Goldengberg, M. & Merchán, M. (s.f.) 129 Referencias ACNUR (1970). Convención y protocolo sobre el estatuto de los refugiados. ACNUR (2015). UNHCR questionnaire finds most Syrians arriving in Europe coming directly from Syria. ACNUR. Recuperado el 9 de febrero de 2017 de http://www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2015/12/5666c8de6/unhcr-questionnaire-findssyrians-arriving-europe-coming-directly-syria.html ACNUR. (2016). Tendencias globales. Desplazamiento forzado en 2015: Forzados a huir. ACNUR. Comisión Española de Ayuda al Refugiado (2015). Más que cifras. CEAR. Recuperado el 9 de febrero de 2017 de: http://www.refugiadosmasquecifras.org/ Comisión Española de Ayuda al Refugiado. (2016). 2016 Report: Situation of refugees in Spain and Europe. ExecutiveSummary. CEAR. Recuperado el 2 de febrero de 2017 de:https://www.cear.es/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Executive-Summary-2016Report-CEAR.pdf Goldengberg, M. & Merchán, M. (s.f.). Test para la identificación de intereses vocacionales y profesionales. Test vocacional. Recuperado el 26 de agosto de 2017 de: http://www.el-universo.net/testvocacional/test_vocacional.pdf Red Europea de Migraciones (2009). La organización de las políticas de asilo y migración. ONU (1948). Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos. 130 131 CHAPTER 7 Immigrant youths: Between early leaving and continue their studies Alessio Buonomo – La Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Salvatore Strozza – University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy Giuseppe Gabrielli – University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy 1. Introduction Interest in immigrants’ immediate descendants in Italy grew during recent years (Ambrosini & Molina, 2004; Casacchia et al., 2008; Dalla Zuanna, Farina & Strozza, 2009; Barbagli & Schmoll, 2011), as did the presence of minors of non-Italian origins (Strozza, 2015). However, the attention given to the youngest generations of immigrants has occurred since the late 1980s in specific Italian contexts, such as the first two levels of the educational system, where foreign presence was seen more and more (Strozza, 2015). For several years, intense and constructive debates on multiculturalism have occurred at different levels from the Ministry of Education to regional school offices, to local administrations, to single schools, teachers and social operators. These debates touch on internal organization as well as on curriculum and innovative approaches to education that can be used with pupils from different cultural experiences and backgrounds (Besozzi, Colombo & Santagati, 2013; Demetrio, 1997; Favaro, 2007; 2011; Giovannini, 2006; Ongini, 2011). The school represents an extraordinary context for socialisation for immediate descendants of immigrants (Strozza, de Filippo & Buonomo, 2014), as well as an important opportunity to acquire the training needed to reach their own professional aspirations and personal and familial social promotion (Strozza & Mussino, 2011). The Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca – Miur, 2014) published new guidelines for the reception and integration of non-Italian students. This document used the statistical information and 132 scientific research conducted during recent years to provide operational indications to schools, as well as to regional school offices and local administrations. In particular, the problems of including immigrant children and adolescents in the Italian educational system have been highlighted on several occasions with particular focus on to their regular participation, school success, and training choices (Strozza, 2008; Dalla Zuanna, Farina & Strozza, 2009; Mussino & Strozza, 2012; Conti et al., 2013; Strozza, 2015). When compared to their native peers, children of immigrants exhibit important signs that they are experiencing difficulty integrating into the Italian school system. These signs include more frequent school dropouts, less effective performances, more frequent school retreats, and higher concentration of children of immigrants in vocational and technical high schools where students enter the labour market immediately (Strozza, 2015). The aim of this paper is to analyse the university intentions and dropouts of immigrant youths (thus non-Italian citizens born in Italy or abroad) using survey data from the “Social Condition and Integration of Foreign citizens” held in 2011-2012 by the Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT). After introducing the data and methods in section 2, we apply multivariate regression analyses in order to look at the main individual, family of origin and school determinants of failure to enroll in college among immigrant youths aged 14-20 years old (section 3) and of dropouts among immigrant youths aged 18-24 years old (section 4). We include some final remarks and implications for social and school policies in the last section (section 5). 2. Data and methods The survey on “Social Condition and Integration of Foreign citizens” (SCIF) was conducted in 2011-2012. It is the first sample survey on this subject designed by Istat in the system of multipurpose household surveys. The survey collects data on families with at least one foreign citizen and provides original information on foreigners living in Italy. The general goal of the survey is to provide information on the living conditions and integration of foreign citizens (including naturalised persons). In particular, different aspects of the lives of individuals are considered: family, marriage, fertility, education, 133 religious affiliation and language, migration history, employment history, working conditions, health status, use of and accessibility to health services, lifestyle, social relationships, social participation, experiences of discrimination, housing conditions, etc. The survey covers a sample of about 12,000 households with at least one foreign (or foreign origin) member. In our analyses, we consider two specific sub-samples of youths. The data allow us to associate each young individual of immigrant origin with his/her parents’ characteristics (e.g. age, citizenship, degree of study, family type) and to estimate four different indicators of integration at the individual and family levels. The first sub-sample relates to immigrant high school students aged 14-20 years old (an initial sample of 800 individuals in the SCIF survey, that represent a population of around 135,000 students in Italy with the same characteristics). SCIF provides information about their intention to continue (or not) their studies at university. We decided to exclude the doubters from the analyses. We don’t have information on the classroom; however, it is evident that as the age at interview increases, the proportion of doubtful students decreases (it is over 19% among students aged 14-17 and is below 15% among the ones aged 18-20), and the proportion of those who intend to continue their studies increases. On average, the percentage of students (excluding the doubters) that intend to continue their studies is 59% (56.5% among students aged 14-17 and 63.5% among the ones aged 18-20). Among women, the percentage is 74% while among men it is 45%. In the end, we excluded both the doubters and the missing data; therefore, our final sample included 538 individuals. The logistic regression on the intention to continue their own studies (a dummy variable that assumes value 1 in case of a negative answer and value 0 in the case of an affirmative one) allowed us to analyse its main determinants. Another indicator we looked at was Early Leaving from Education and Training (ELET). According to Eurostat, ELET represents the “quota of immigrant youths aged 18-24 with at most a compulsory level of education, who left school before they have finished their course and have not attended any other course in the last four weeks” (European Commission 2014, p. 33). 134 The phenomenon of dropping out is very significant particularly in the countries of southern Europe (Spain, Italy, Portugal, Greece). There the dropout rate reaches 40% among the immigrant resident population (it is over 20% for residents without distinguishing by citizenship or country of birth). Among its Europe 2020 strategies to improve European policies of education and social inclusion, the European Commission included the goal of reducing the quota of ELET to below 10% of the total resident population aged 18-24 (European Commission, 2014). Different studies show how the ELET has an significant negative economic effect on society (European Commission, 2013; Belfield, 2008). Moreover, the ELET increases the social and economic marginalization of individuals (Checchi, 2014; Miur, 2014). According to the SCIF available data, ELET is 1,779 individuals, that represent around 380,000 individuals in Italy. Thus, the ELET percentage is 37% of immigrant youths aged 18-24 with at most a compulsory level of education. This is 4 percentage points below the one provided by Eurostat (based on the Labour Force Survey). The different estimates depend on the different ELET definition (the SCIF survey refers to early leaving youths that have attended any other course since last 12 months), on the sample survey (unaccompanied minors are not considered), and on the selection process (we excluded Italian naturalised foreigners from the analyses). Also, in this case, we conducted a logistic regression analyses. The dependent dummy variable assumed value 1 in case of ELET youths and 0 in case of youths that are still in school or have obtained at least a high school degree. 2.1 The analysed determinants of future training intentions and of ELET Looking at the main determinants of the two observed phenomenon, scholars cluster them into two main macro-groups (Thibert, 2013; European Commission, 2014). One considers the characteristics of respondents and their family of origin; the other one concerns the aspects related to the school. In this section, we will consider those determinants we included in the analyses only according to the available data. In the first macro-group, gender is an important factor according to the literature. Generally speaking, boys are more likely to leave their studies than girls, who have higher school performances and reach higher educational levels (Croll, 2009). 135 Age has a significant effect as well. ELET is very low during compulsory studies, but after age 15, it increases as age increases (Miur, 2013). On the other hand, especially over the last 10-year period, school dropouts have fallen, and the enrollment of students completing the university course is growing (Anvur, 2016). Despite these improvements, according to Eurostat, Italy remains the European country with the lowest proportion of graduate population, even among youths. In particular, the proportion of ELET is higher in southern Italy than in central or in northern Italy. Furthermore, the number of university registrations is decreasing in the southern regions. More and more students choose to move from southern Italy to enroll in the most prestigious northern universities (Anvur, 2016). Place of birth and age at arrival of immigrant descendants in the destination country play a decisive role in analyzing these issues. Groups by migratory generation are defined according to Rumbaut’s classification (Rumbaut, 2004), which is based on the respondent’s place of birth, parents’ place of birth, and age at arrival in the host country of the respondent. The resulting groups are G2.0 (individuals born in the host country with at least one parent born abroad); G1.75 (immigrants who arrived before age 6); G1.5 (individuals who arrived at 6-12 years old); G1.25 (individuals who migrated at 13-17 years old). Immigrants who arrived at 18 years of age or older are considered first generation (G1.0). School performances differed according to migratory generation. In particular, G2.0 and G1.75 presented higher school marks and better educational training that the other generations (Chiswick & DebBurman, 2004; Strozza, 2009; Bertolini, Lalla, & Pagliacci, 2015). Conversely, G1.25 had lower educational levels and higher proportion of ELET than the others (Chiswick & DebBurman, 2006). The immigrants of G1.0 frequently left countries of origin after they exited from the educational or training system. Another important determinant with respect to school issues is the country of origin (Hirschman and Wong, 1986). It can be considered a proxy of the origin background and of the native language; the larger the distance from the Italian language, the higher the risk of encountering difficulties at school (Cardinali et al, 2015). Integration represents an important determinant of school attitudes and performances (European Commission, 2014). According to the methodology adopted in Blangiardo et al. (2013), we looked at four different dimensions of integration: political (the attention 136 given to issues in Italian politics and their opinion regarding the importance of acquiring Italian citizenship); economic (occupational conditions); social (active participation in social and public life); cultural (knowledge of and frequency of use of the Italian language, healthcare, eating habits, etc.). The international literature shows how the political and social dimensions (Grasso, 2015; Mantovani, 2013), the economic dimension (Freeney & O'Connell, 2012; Traag & van der Velden, 2011), and the cultural dimension (Chiswick & DebBurman, 2004; Favaro, 2007) of integration tend to directly affect the risk of school success or enrolling in the college. The attitudes and behaviours of parents toward education affect the school performances of their children. Larsen (2014) shows how low levels of family and cultural background together with negative parents’ behaviours reduce school performance and increase early leaving from education of descendants. Conversely, highly educated parents invest more in the education of their children (Lamb, 1994; Rumberger, 2004), regardless of individual cognitive abilities (de Graaf & de Graaf, 2002). School failure (or rejection) obviously reduces school performance, but it also reduces educational expectations and projects (Silberglitt et al., 2006; Jacob & Lefgren, 2009; Blount, 2012). Homework assignments can be considered a proxy for high school type (information not included in the survey) because, generally speaking, in Italy only students enrolled in lyceums have regular homework assignments while students enrolled in professional and technical institutes do not. According to the literature, students enrolled in lyceums, whether they are Italians or non-Italians, have a higher probability of reaching the highest level of education (Dalla Zuanna, Farina & Strozza, 2009). 3. Future training intentions: enroll or not at university? In this section, we analyse the main determinants of the failure to enroll at university among immigrant youths aged 14-20 years old. The stepwise approach allowed us to define the significant determinants through both the forward procedure (that adds the most significant variables one after the other to the baseline model) and the backward 137 procedure (that progressively eliminates non-significant variables from the model). Table 1 shows the final model that includes eight significant variables, and that is able to correctly assign ¾ of cases (75,2%). According to the literature, the risk of failure to enroll at university is higher among boys (reference category) than among girls (odds ratio, OR, equal to 0.227). Immigrant youths who arrived in Italy after twelve years old (G1.0 and G1.25) had a risk of failure four times higher than second generation youth (OR 3.916). The same odd ratio was 2.433 for G1.75 (thus pupils who arrived in Italy at less than six years old had a risk of failure that was twice as high as that for the second generation). Considering citizenship and net to the other covariates, East-European citizens (excluding Albanians, Ukrainians, Moldavians and Romanians) had a risk of failure to enroll at university that was three times higher (OR 3.166) than the referent group (the Romanians); conversely, and surprisingly, Asians had the highest probability of continuing their studies at university (the probability of failure is 67% lower than the Romanians’ – OR 0.327). In other words, Asians intended to achieve high levels of education despite the distance of their origin language and culture from Italian. 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Early school-leaving in the Netherlands: The role of family resources, school composition and background characteristics in early school-leaving in lower secondary education. Irish Educational Studies, 30 (1), 45-62. 148 149 SECTION 4 INNOVATION AND FORMAL TRAINING IN HIGHER EDUCATION 150 151 CHAPTER 8 Higher studies in social sciences education: Using CLIL and sharing didactic strategies orientated to internationalize employability and entrepreneurship. Clotilde Lechuga-Jiménez – University of Malaga, Spain Objectives of the research Due to student’s participation which was very active during the course 2016-17 at 3rd Grade in Primary Studies, we provide several strategies and experiences carried out by the members of the group, adding references taken from other universities and pedagogical areas. The primary objective of the fact leads us to share selection criteria in the methodology applied known as CLIL teaching and learning methodology proposed in Primary Studies at Malaga University. In order to achieve the objective of handling Higher Education in Further Education and Promoting Reflective Independent Learning in Higher Education (PRILHE) the proposition combines them with other procedures such as participation in city-town Institutions like Art Museums or Science ones as well as in cultural and natural heritage sites. Those experiences could visualise didactic needs in Spanish towns and cities or abroad where the use of English could be justified. Providing new objectives and possibilities concerning internationalizing employability and entrepreneurship, either citizens or teachers/students will approach to citizenship common knowledge and to university in other terms like non-traditional students or experience inequalities. 1. Introduction This paper presents several teaching and learning experiences in bilingual studies which were developed for the first time by the author with a group in the 3rd course at Bachelor’s Degree in Primary Education at the Faculty of Education from March to June, 2017. Although in the last 15 years an enthusiastic trend has being growing towards 152 English Medium Instruction (EMI) across universities in Europe (Barrios, LópezGutiérrez & Lechuga, 2016) it has recently and progressively extended to Bachelor studies (Wächter & Maiworm, 2008). At this point there are suggestions that will present the need of distinguishing EMI from CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). The first one is said to contain more explicit language integration (Brinton, Snow & Wesche, 2011) and a multi-perspective approach also named CLIL eye (Griffith, 2015) in which a professional development project for instructors is carried out. As Gustafsson and Jacobs (2013) argue, there are differences between EMI and CLIL, supporting the idea that the latest is more related to school rather than to university studies. Nevertheless, this differentiation has been corroborated in previous EMI tertiary education experiences reaching the idea of collaboration: “Developing an English-taught degree programme requires coordination and, especially at the outset, more staff collaboration than may be considered essential in a domestic language programme” (Marsh et al., 2013, p. 26). According to this not only are EMI or CLIL a direct result of globalization, but it also currently lies at the center of internationalisation strategies of many tertiary institutions around the globe (Doiz et al ., 2013; Gustafsson & Jacobs, 2013; Wilkinson, 2013). This leads to a contribution to this requirement involving many factors such as promotion of job mobility, employability or stuff and students exchanges among others (Griffith & Lechuga, 2017). That is the reason why handling Higher Education in Further Education and Promoting Reflective Independent Learning in Higher Education (PRILHE) is a further proposition which also combines CLIL and EMI education procedures with social participation in city-town of Malaga, Spain. Collaborative attendance which integrates a variety of Institutions so as Art Museums or Science ones as well as cultural and natural heritage sites among others should be involved to achieve the purpose. The main goal is to provide new tools for scaffolding internationalizing employability and entrepreneurship. Moreover, empowerment and sense of being bond to a universal heritage, either cultural or natural, contributes to encourage non-traditional students or experience inequalities. Context Firstly, the Faculty of Education at Malaga University in Spain is holding a programme which is partially teaching in English. One out of six groups of Bachelor’s Degree in 153 Primary Education is following this project since the academic year 2014-2015 as a response of the Education Bilingual School Programme in the Andalusian School System. According to this, during 2016-2017 the 3rd school year was firstly delivered, and consequently, in 2017-2018 will reach the latest Bachelor’s Degree course. At this point, Faculty of Education presents a general curriculum for 3rd year in which subjects are related to Social Sciences Education. As an original approach to the subject, a positive inter-actionable workshops and educational visits involving city-town institutions are annually proposed in order to combine theoretical and practical lecturers for students. Although there were incipiently no interest in presenting these practical classes in English, in the end almost all of them were carried out following the bilingual proposal due to an unexpected increasing motivation that Primary Education Scholars manifest. The fact of using divers didactic tools posted in English in official web pages such as UNESCO or Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) reinforced their curiosity to achieve a goal. Searching what other institutions are exhibiting and experimenting using the language as a genuine learning tool, on the one hand means that the global world presents similar interests as yours, and on the other hand that English is a useful tool for investigation. Secondly, as a principle of universal academic research students are asked to work on surveys using trustful sources which are difficult to attain “as they admit that learning through English also requires a high command of English from them” (Barrios, LópezGutiérrez & Lechuga, 2016), whereas most pupils hardly speak the language. This is the reason why accessing to scientific writings although it is considered an ideal way of learning through a language is far too complex to begin a proposal with. An effective approach should then be handled in order to either introduce accessible and interesting content in English or motivate students’ knowledge. Both aspects are essential and must be considered as teaching and learning objectives so it is highly recommended to have them in mind whenever lecturers are delivered. Consequently, learning facilities are called to be one of the pitched targets whenever scholars approach freely so they investigate while learning.