The Copernican-Newtonian universe

THE COPERNICAN-NEWTONIAN UNIVERSE COMPULSORY. FIRST QUARTER Prof. Dr. MARÍA DE PAZ AMERIGO The aim of this paper is to present a guide to the subject “The Copernican-Newtonian Universe”. Given that the subject is framed in a Master in Philosophy and Modern Culture, the topic of this course is the history and philosophy of science during Modernity. Depending on the professor responsible of the course there is a wide range of topics to deal with. The period is from around 1450 to 1905 or 1914, depending on the historical landmarks that we take as the beginning and the end of Modernity. We will comment on this later. The topics are not only extensive because we are dealing with around five hundred years of history, but also from the variety of the sciences themselves. The professor can choose to focus on Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Medicine, Natural History, or all of them. And this is only regarding the history and philosophy of the sciences, but there is also the institutional side. The history of institutions is fundamental to the development of science, and a course focused on this aspect is also possible, particularly, since it is during this period that we have designated as ‘Modernity’ when universities, academies, research institutes and other scientific institutions were developed and, progressively, acquired the structure that they have today. Also the existence of institutions is what in a material and practical sense makes possible that some people devote their professional life to sciences. Entangled with the more internal history of the sciences and also with the institutional there is also the cultural impact of science. Considering the impact that the Copernican Revolution and, in general, the scientific developments that occurred in general culture during this period is other way of approaching the subject. BILINGUAL INTRODUCTORY TEACHING MATERIAL FOR THE SUBJECTS OF THE “MASTER’S DEGREE IN PHILOSOPHY AND MODERN CULTURE” María de Paz 235 This paper will try not to privilege an approach over the others, since this is a guide to the student, and the aim is to help the student to be able to tackle the different approaches with the help of this guide. In this sense, the history of scientific developments should be framed within general history, and thus, the student has to be able to relate scientific achievements with historical developments to obtain an ordered sequence of events and to situate them in the adequate historical context. The same happens with philosophical developments. In this course, history and philosophy of science are not conceived separately, and it will be important that the student has a background in the history of philosophy and is competent to establish links between philosophical conceptions and scientific ideas. As we are well aware that not every student that enrols in this course has a philosophical background, this paper is devoted to both kinds of students, those who have an undergraduate degree in philosophy and those who have not. Along the paper, we will make recommendations for both, and after the description of the contents, we will introduce a list of references. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COURSE CONTENTS 1. PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS One of the issues that challenge more the students with a non philosophical background in this kind of course is the existence of the course itself. First of all, they are usually puzzled by the title itself ––this title also puzzles the students in philosophy and mainly because of the same reasons. They do not really understand what the ‘Copernican-Newtonian Universe’ is, and they wonder if it is the same universe in which they live in. The students in philosophy have usually a hint about it and they associate this title with some kind of history and philosophy of science, but they mostly do not get why that title instead of a more regular ‘history of science’ or ‘philosophy of science’. One of the points to understand the course is to understand the title itself. The Copernican-Newtonian Universe is not just the particular scientific developments that occurred between Copernicus and Newton, but a vision of the world ––a worldview–– that was configured during the period that we have mentioned above, i.e. the period of Modernity. So it is not only about a few particular scientific discoveries or theories, but a way to understand the world around us that only twentieth century will overturn. World here is a big word, and it includes of course, nature, but also the place of the human being in nature, her intercourse, limits, abilities and the way this being itself conceives his own knowledge MATERIAL DIDÁCTICO BILINGÜE INTRODUCTORIO A LAS ASIGNATURAS DEL “MÁSTER EN FILOSOFÍA Y CULTURA MODERNA” 236 María de Paz and the knowledge of nature. So, the Copernican-Newtonian worldview determines and reflects how men of this period approach the world. In a certain sense, the Copernican-Newtonian Universe is a synonym of Modernity, but in this course, we will devote ourselves not to every aspect of Modernity, but to those related to the knowledge of nature and thus, to the development of science. Once the issue of the title is clear, we can come to the second reason why this course puzzles non-philosophy students. Students in philosophy are used to have courses related to science in their undergraduate training, so it comes as no surprise to them ––although even after all that undergraduate time, some of them still do not get the relations between science and philosophy. In the usual conception of philosophy in society, it is linked to humanities. Thus, students coming from anthropology, pedagogy, educational sciences or other background do not get what philosophy has to do with science. This is not a difficult issue to explain, and usually, as soon as they get that science has to do with thinking, then it has to do with philosophy. After the clarification of the nature of the course, its title and its place in the Master Program, the first point in the course’s program is to get an idea of what this thing called ‘science’ is. It is a word of our everyday vocabulary, but very difficult to define. It is easier to think about ‘the sciences’, and makes more sense to provide a concrete view. But it helps to identify some requirements to the existence of science, some that prevent the student from giving the answer that ‘everything a human being does is scientific, from the invention of fire, to the study of atomic particles, or even breathing’. Even if our landmarks are not sufficient conditions for the existence of science, they are necessary, in the sense that if these do not appear, we are talking about a different issue, and not about science. First of all, there has to be a long record of data, picked up during a long period of time and with some concrete purpose; second, there are institutions that preserve and transmit the knowledge obtained from the data; and finally, there are instruments, some kind of technology developed to better collect the data (cf. Ordóñez et al. 2003, 25-26). When the student has this in mind, it is easy for her to understand that there has to be some system of symbols (writing) to collect the data, material support for them, and some social structure to create the institutions in which science is developed, as well as technical developments that make the construction of instruments possible. So, she will be able to identify them in the historical development of science. BILINGUAL INTRODUCTORY TEACHING MATERIAL FOR THE SUBJECTS OF THE “MASTER’S DEGREE IN PHILOSOPHY AND MODERN CULTURE” María de Paz 237 After this rough and shallow definition of the conditions under which science operates, another issue emerges, prompted by the previous question about why this course within a Master degree in philosophy. This is the debate between sciences and humanities, or, as from C. P. Snow’s famous intervention, the debate over ‘the two cultures’. Most of the students admitted to the Master have a background in humanities and/or social sciences. This places the balance usually in biased perspectives in which science is conceived as the ‘enemy’, simplistically associated with capitalistic regime, the destruction of nature, the underestimation of humanities by the imposition of scientistic cannons, the alienation of individuals because of the industrialized developments that scientific technology has brought to society, and every kind of malignant effect that might be derived from the use of science, and mostly from technology. There are of course exceptions among students who think differently and who are able to conceive separately science from technology, but this is the minority response. So, it is quite pedagogical at this point to try to think about the good effects that scientific and technological developments have brought to society ––from toilet paper to the vaccines–– but more importantly, some respects in which the dismissal of scientific knowledge leads to uncritical societies and the dangers that the lack of scientific formation carries for health, environment, expert judgment, education, journalism, and society in general. Since the student is already an educated person, it is also useful to help him distinguish that the development of science is not tantamount to that of capitalism, and the logic of environmental destruction. And, why not, to consider that intellectuals are usually public figures in which all of us presuppose a humanistic instruction but never a scientific one, and, in such case, it is humanities the one which is placing science outside culture. An example will clarify this point: in western culture, it is a requirement to consider someone a cultivated person to know who William Shakespeare was, and even to have read one or two of his plays. But a cultivated person can perfectly ignore or not remember Newton’s first law or the content of the Pythagorean Theorem. Contrary to what students in this Master tend to think, this places science in a disadvantaged position regarding its place in culture. This general discussion is useful because Modernity is philosophically known as the period in which men pass from trusting theological powers to trusting their own, and this includes their own knowledge of nature, which is science. Thus, it is helpful to consider science as a part of western culture, in the same sense that the feelings MATERIAL DIDÁCTICO BILINGÜE INTRODUCTORIO A LAS ASIGNATURAS DEL “MÁSTER EN FILOSOFÍA Y CULTURA MODERNA” 238 María de Paz defined in Shakespeare’s plays are a part of it, and that there is no need to establish a divide between both, but to consider them as complementary and usually not opposed views. 2. HISTORICAL LANDMARKS: THE BEGINNING AND THE END OF MODERNITY The division of historical time into epochs or ages is, as every student must know by this stage of her instruction an arbitrary one. And although it is difficult to establish the precise moment in which Middle Ages finishes and Modernity begins, some landmarks or particular historical events are helpful to understand that something different, something relatively new, a new worldview is emerging. Just like the Middle Ages, or Antiquity, Modernity is far from being a uniform period. Many changes occur in society from 16th to 18th centuries and even more during 19th. In the course it is important that the student has in mind that epochal variety trying to establish a coherent and contextualized evolution of scientific concepts and institutions. But first of all, from when to when does Modernity last? There is no single event that marks the end of Middle Ages, but there are three of particular relevance for European inhabitants that mark a point of no return. I will refer to them in chronological order. First of all, 1440 the year of the invention of the mechanical movable printing press. Gutenberg’s invention ––or introduction into Europe as some historians put it–– brought not only the possibility of spreading knowledge because of the cheaper cost of books since them, but the fact in itself that knowledge was accessible to a wider number of people, and then, it made much more sense to learn how to read. The second landmark is 1453 the year of the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. This marks the end of the Eastern Roman Empire ––Byzantine Empire–– and the creation of a physical and cultural frontier that will separate Europe from Asia and Africa, and culturally from Islamic people for centuries to come. It also meant the recovery for Europeans of many original Greek works lost since late Antiquity, because the cultivated Christians living in Byzantium who had the chance to escape from the Turks took their books with them, mostly to Italy. The last date is 1492, usually celebrated as the ‘discovery of America’. I prefer to put it as the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the western Indies, since it will take a few years until this arrival represents the discovery of a new continent for Europeans. This trip is a symbol of the consequences that the Portuguese and Castilian navigators brought to western culture. After those trips, there will be a new world, a new sky never seen by western men, a new dimension BILINGUAL INTRODUCTORY TEACHING MATERIAL FOR THE SUBJECTS OF THE “MASTER’S DEGREE IN PHILOSOPHY AND MODERN CULTURE” María de Paz 239 of the earth, its measurement, the corroboration that it is spherical, the existence of different continents, and many other things, too many to be described in here. Less known to non-Spanish students is the fact that 1492 is also the year in which the last Muslim European kingdom fall: the kingdom of Granada. In January 1492 the Castilian queen Elizabeth I, called ‘the Catholic’, and her army conquered the last Muslim kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, ending thus the Islamic presence in European territories. That very same year, Muslims and their culture will be expelled from the Spanish territory, marking the end of the cohabitation –not always pacific –that happened since the arrival of Muslims to Europe in 711. With the expulsion of Islamic culture, much was lost from a cultural point of view, in particular, the fruitful exchanges that since around 1000 had taken place. The lost will not only be for Europe, but also for Islamic culture, because it will be conceived as the ‘enemy’ since then and given the Mediterranean rivalry between Europe and the Turks, Islamic people will become isolated from Europe representing each of them the enemy for the other. These are three important events, but in any case, the beginning of Modernity could be rightly placed by 1450 (cf. Lindberg 1992, 235), when the cultural and literary developments that we now call the Renaissance were certainly ongoing. Regarding the end of Modernity, the transition from 19th to 20th century is usually seen as another epochal change. Scientifically, many people placed in 1905 the beginning of new era, because of the publication of Einstein’s paper on the special theory of relativity, but historically considered, that does not mark a change, and it was not automatically accepted even within the scientific community. Only after Eddignton’s eclipse of 1919 did Einstein become a pop-culture figure and could the new theory (general relativity) be considered as a new scientific worldview. The periodization of history is complicated and very relative to different countries, even for western people. In Spain, when referring to history we usually consider the French Revolution of 1789 as the beginning of Contemporary Epoch, but when we think about it philosophically, it still belongs to Modernity. In American contexts, it is 1945 ––the end of World War II–– what marks the start of Contemporary Period. We will choose here the philosophical consideration and see 1914, the beginning of World War I as the end of Modernity, since it marks the commencement of international policy beyond European borders, and in philosophical, scientific and political respects a new way of thinking, MATERIAL DIDÁCTICO BILINGÜE INTRODUCTORIO A LAS ASIGNATURAS DEL “MÁSTER EN FILOSOFÍA Y CULTURA MODERNA” 240 María de Paz a new worldview. Many are the testimonies of the men and women that lived before and after that war and considered themselves as belonging to a world that no longer existed, some among the famous are Stefan Zweig or Philip Roth, but that feeling was shared by the generation that lived between around 1890 and 1950. The world became really global for most of the population at that period. And we can imagine that a similar kind of feeling ––with the historical difference given by the contextual disparity–– might have been that of men around 1600 who contemplated the disappearance of the traditional geographical borders because of the emergence of new world maps and of the infallibility of the church power by protestants and men of science. 3. STATE OF THE ART Once the historical period is established, it is important that the student has an idea about what he is supposed to know before starting the consideration of scientific ideas during Modernity. The student must be aware of what scientific or natural worldview existed before the Copernican-Newtonian Universe. Thus, he has to be familiar with Ptolemaic astronomy and the Christianized version of the Aristotelian cosmological and physical conception. Usually, the students in philosophy tend to know about both conceptions, but they must remember the conflict between astronomy on the one side and cosmology and physics on the other, the instrumental conception of astronomy which many astronomers had since the work of Ptolemy and the technical problems that the epicycles, deferents, eccentrics and equants posed to an Aristotelian structure of the cosmos. The students without a philosophical background might very well never have heard of these concepts. It is their task to become acquainted with them. Kuhn’s Copernican Revolution is a good guide to the state of the art in this topic. Regarding Aristotelian physics, most students of philosophy have an idea about the theory of the elements and their natural motions, but even if they have read the Nicomachean Ethics ––considering the best case scenario––, they have never opened the Physics, On the Heavens or Meteorology. It is time for them to do so. The same for the rest of the students, who probably have heard about the relevance of Aristotle for philosophy but have never held in their hands a book by him. Reading philosophy is a practice, it requires the ability to get used to different forms of writing at different times, different styles, like dialogues, treatises, confessions, papers, even novels, and it might well be very difficult for people not used to it, but since this is a Master in philosophy, it is unBILINGUAL INTRODUCTORY TEACHING MATERIAL FOR THE SUBJECTS OF THE “MASTER’S DEGREE IN PHILOSOPHY AND MODERN CULTURE” María de Paz 241 thinkable for people who want to graduate on it to not be able to read any kind of philosophical text, at least translated into their own language. Probably it will be enough to read the third book of On the Heavens and the forth book of Physics. There they have the essential concepts to tackle the cosmological and physical conception that was on fashion when Copernicus published his work. It will also be helpful to be familiar with the kind of institutions in which Greek philosophy of nature or science developed: the Academy and the Lykeion for the classical period and the Library and the Museum of Alexandria for Hellenistic science. The Greek background is necessary to understand the astronomical and cosmological changes that the Copernican revolution brought about, but it is not enough. The student must at least have a hint about the precedent period, i.e. Middle Ages and its social and cultural structure as well as its conception of nature. It is quite useful to be aware of the developments of Arabic science, and the Arabic work on translation of Greek texts since this will help to make a picture of the cultural background available in Europe when Copernicus published his work. So, the developments in Arabic astronomy and medicine are particularly relevant for this aim (Lindberg 1992 is a good source for this). Regarding Christian Europe, it is convenient to know about the teaching of the Liberal Arts, the predominant cosmological view present in the Timaeus until 12th century, and the entrance of Aristotle’s philosophy in the educational curriculum from around 13th century, and the criticism that the Aristotelian condemnations of 1210 and 1277 brought against this philosophy, leading to the creation of alternatives such as the impetus theory, which will have an impact in Galileo. Also from the institutional point of view, knowing the foundation, structure and expansion of medieval universities is important in order to be acquainted with the context in which science or natural philosophy was developed. Finally, in order to understand some of the philosophical changes that Modernity will consider, like the questioning of Ancient knowledge or the overthrown of traditional authority, it is important to consider the contribution of Portuguese and Castilian navigation. The Turkish dominance in the Anatolian peninsula interrupted the commercial exchange with the East, it disrupted the Silk Road. Europeans have usually looked to Asia as a place of exotic richness, thus, in European courts and in noble families, the sumptuous merchandise brought from China and the Indies was very appreciated. However, the Turkish dominance made the Silk Road impassable. Also the Italian customs duty, given their dominance in the Mediterranean made the merchandises MATERIAL DIDÁCTICO BILINGÜE INTRODUCTORIO A LAS ASIGNATURAS DEL “MÁSTER EN FILOSOFÍA Y CULTURA MODERNA” 242 María de Paz much more expensive than they usually were. So, Portuguese started to look for a route to the Indies through the ocean, circumnavigating Africa. Their first success was the crossing of Cape Bojador in 1421, learning new ways to navigate and going southern than any other European had before. They reached Southern hemisphere in 1471, contemplated a new sky and conducted navigation guided by ‘the Crux’, also known as ‘the Southern Cross’. In 1488 they enter the Indic Ocean for the first time. For the Castilian side, in 1492 Columbus arrived to the western Indies, his purpose was to arrive to the eastern Indies, but after his third trip in 1500 it was clear that he did not. In 1507 the name America was used for the first time to designate those new lands. And it appeared as a new continent in Mercator’s planisphere of 1569. The amount of knowledge required to produce those achievements, in particular from the technical side but also from the theoretical one ––new cosmography, new descriptions of the heavens–– certainly had an impact in Modern science. Copernicus quotes the trips of the Portuguese and of the Spaniards in the first chapter of his De Revolutionibus. This means that it also had an impact in the new way of thinking. Many questions arise as a consequence of these trips. But there is one philosophical question that provokes an epistemological reflection: if, geography, the sky, the earth, plants, animals and other astonishing new things were not as the Ancients thought they were, why would the heavens be ordered like Aristotle thought they were? If Ptolemy was wrong in his geography, would it be impossible that he might also be wrong in his Almagest? This summarizes the state of the art of science in 1543, when Copernicus published his work and passed away a few days after. Once familiar with those topics, the student is ready to enter into modern science, just like Copernicus was. 4. EARLY MODERN SCIENCE The issue of periodization appears also here. We will chose as landmark the year of the French Revolution, 1789. So we will consider the period from 1543 to 1789 as the ‘early Modern’ and from 1789 to 1914 as late Modern. So, 16th, 17th and most part of 18th century will be taken as the first period of Modernity. Our point of departure is the astronomical revolution and the work of Copernicus. Of course, Copernicus never intended to provoke a ‘revolution’, in the sense of a drastic change of the way of thinking. His main purpose was an astronomical reform that led to a better understanding of the order of the heavens more adequate than that of Ptolemy and BILINGUAL INTRODUCTORY TEACHING MATERIAL FOR THE SUBJECTS OF THE “MASTER’S DEGREE IN PHILOSOPHY AND MODERN CULTURE” María de Paz 243 There are also big achievements in astronomy, such as Gauss discovery of Ceres, a planetoid in the solar system, also in 1901 and the measurement for the first time of the parallax of a star ––61 cygni–– by Wilhelm Bessel. This measurement will confirm the big distance of stars, a theory put forward by Copernicus and finally now confirmed. In the field of observational astronomy Schwabe will establish the period of solar spots, and its connection to magnetic storms causing the aurora borealis, a phenomenon that had puzzled scientist for years. But probably one of the most famous achievements is the combination of positional and observational astronomy that brought the discovery of the planet Neptune by the calculus of Adams and Le Verrier and the observations of Galle in 1846. This is also a century of great changes in physics. It starts with the experimental developments of wave theory of light with Fresnel, and continues with the conservation of energy, developed in the works of Joule, Helmholtz, Mayer and Clausius. It is quite interesting that the background of these men was not alone physics, but also medicine and physiology, becoming this discovery a interdisciplinary one. In the field of optics and physics we have to mention Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory and Hertz’s experimental confirmation of electromagnetic waves. These developments will challenge the mechanistic worldview that had prevailed since Newton and will lead to the problems in electrodynamics that become the basis of Einstein’s relativity theory. An important institutional achievement to be highlighted is that in 1899 Ilse Neumann will receive the first PhD in Physics from the University of Berlin, she had to ask a special permission to the Education Ministry to be able to receive it. Women like her will open the path for others to receive graduations and to become scientists, until they had no longer to ask for a special permission to get their degrees. One cannot speak about 19th century science without mentioning biology. It is the century of the big biological revolution. The most famous event is the publication of Darwin’s On the origin of species in 1859. But there are other fundamental developments in this field, such as cellular theory developed by Schleiden, Schwann and later by Vicrhow, with the principle ‘omnis cellula ex cellula’, for which every cellule comes out of another. Also, in 1856 the discovery of human remains in the valley of ‘Neander’ in Germany will allow the study of past human remains, although it will take years to know that they were from a different species than homo sapiens, but without any doubt, this was a great discovery for biology, physical anthropology and philosophy, since it will open new MATERIAL DIDÁCTICO BILINGÜE INTRODUCTORIO A LAS ASIGNATURAS DEL “MÁSTER EN FILOSOFÍA Y CULTURA MODERNA” 250 María de Paz considerations about the descent of man. Finally, Mendel’s genetic research on genetics of peas will bring the laws by which hereditary traces are transmitted, providing genetic foundations to evolutionary theory. Closely linked to biology, we have to consider achievements in geology, such as the consideration of the age of the Earth, in Lyell’s theory, an important point for evolutionary biology or the study of the formation of glaciers by Agassiz, which will alter the image of the Earth as unchanged and static since the moment of creation. In medicine and physiology the 19th century begins with an open controversy between vitalism and organicism, in which the later will prevail bringing a mechanistic and chemic view of life processes, leaving outside the last reductions of occult forces as principles of life. Pasteur researches on microbes which lead to the famous pasteurization process also had an impact in this debate, as well as Claude Bernard’s experimental medicine in which he developed important studies of anatomy in order to understand the function of the organs. In this same field, the same field, the discovery in 1882 of Robert Kochs bacillus of tuberculosis initiated a new way of explaining diseases, conceiving its symptoms, causes, consequences and treatments. In this series of discoveries and controversies, it is remarkable that some debates were closed by discoveries in fields alien to the original ones in which the controversies were debated. This is the case of the synthesis of Urea and the debate between vitalism and organicism. It was the first chemical synthesis of what was thought as a natural product, breaking the divide between laboratory and nature and closing the hidden principles of living organisms conception. This kind of discoveries and its role in debates from other sciences reminds us of the relevance of interdisciplinary research. Laboratory chemistry will be one of the sciences with more industrial applications. For example, chemical synthesis was also used to discover the synthetic composition of aniline, the chemical compound of purple, a very expensive dye that was until then reserved for royal families because of its weirdness and difficulty to obtain. Chemical dyes will be a prestigious and rewarding industry that will turn it into one of the most polluting industries of our century –although back then, they did not know. Another industrial achievement was the discovery of dynamite which will turn Alfred Nobel into a rich man, and will bring new ways of exploiting the earth resources. But not every chemical developments in this century is related to the industry, some of them are theoretically related. We will remark two: Kirchhoff and Bunsen’s development of spectroscopy, in which they discovered BILINGUAL INTRODUCTORY TEACHING MATERIAL FOR THE SUBJECTS OF THE “MASTER’S DEGREE IN PHILOSOPHY AND MODERN CULTURE” María de Paz 251 that every chemical element is related to certain spectral lines which allowed them to determine the chemical composition of stars and to detect helium. Related to the elements is also Mendeleev’s table, in which one can find out an ordered sequence of elements and locate in the free spaces that there had to be others to discover. This reveals an ordered nature at its fundamental level, a possibility to know what is missing, and how to orientate research to determine it. As the student can see, this is only a guide and an overview of the scientific developments of the five hundred years that Modernity lasts, but more than that, it is a way to explore how scientific and philosophical ideas interact. REFERENCES COHEN, I. B. (2002) Revolución en la ciencia: de la naturaleza de las revoluciones científicas, de sus etapas y su desarrollo natural, Barcelona, Gedisa. CROMBIE, A. (1983) Historia de la ciencia: de San Agustín a Galileo, Madrid, Alianza. DEAR, P., (2007) La revolución de las ciencias: el conocimiento europeo y sus expectativas (1500-1700), Madrid, Marcial Pons. FLORIS COHEN, H. (2010) How modern science came into the world, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press. HANKINS, T. L., (1998) Ciencia e Ilustración, Madrid, Siglo XXI. HESSEN, B. (1999) “Las raíces socioeconómicas de la mecánica de Newton”, en P. HUERGA MELCÓN, La ciencia en la encrucijada, Oviedo, Biblioteca de Filosofía en Español. KUHN, T. (1978) La revolución copernicana, Barcelona Ariel. LINDBERG, D. C. (2002) Los inicios de la ciencia occidental: la tradición científica europea en el contexto filosófico, religioso e institucional, Barcelona, Paidós. ORDÓÑEZ, J., NAVARRO, V. y SÁNCHEZ RON, J. M. (2004) Historia de la ciencia, Madrid, Espasa. RIOJA, A. Y ORDÓÑEZ, J. (1999), (2006) Teorías del Universo, vols. I, II y III. Madrid, Síntesis. SHAPIN, S. (2000) La revolución científica: una interpretación alternativa, Barcelona, Paidós. SOLÍS, C. Y SELLÉS, M. (2004) Historia de la ciencia, Madrid, Espasa. VERNET, J. (2002) Lo que Europa debe al Islam de España, Barcelona, Acantilado. WESTFALL, R. S. (1990) La construcción de la ciencia moderna: mecanismos y mecánica, Bacelona, Labor. ZILSEL, E. (2003) The social origins of modern science. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers. ccc MATERIAL DIDÁCTICO BILINGÜE INTRODUCTORIO A LAS ASIGNATURAS DEL “MÁSTER EN FILOSOFÍA Y CULTURA MODERNA” 252 María de Paz