GIS-based relationship between pathway names and landscape. A multilingual case study: Euskadi, Spain

GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-024-11064-z GIS-based relationship between pathway names and landscape. A multilingual case study: Euskadi, Spain Oihana Mitxelena-Hoyos · José-Lázaro Amaro-Mellado Accepted: 16 February 2024 © The Author(s) 2024 Abstract Place names determine geographic units in space, encapsulate the description of places where inhabitants conduct their activities, and preserve the perception of the territory in past times. The very definition of landscape impacts two interrelated concepts: human action and perception. On another note, traditional pathways are structuring elements of the landscape, bearing witness to the dynamic relationship between the territory and its inhabitants by connecting residences and workplaces. This work aims to assess the relationship between the landscape mosaic and the toponyms of pathways and roads gathered in Oihana Mitxelena-Hoyos and José-Lázaro Amaro-Mellado contributed equally to this work O. Mitxelena-Hoyos Lurralde Plangintza - Planificación Territorial, Diputación Foral de Gipuzkoa, Plaza Julio Caro Baroja, 2, Donostia / San Sebastián 20018, Gipuzkoa, Spain O. Mitxelena-Hoyos Departamento de Expresión Gráfica y Proyectos de Ingeniería, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Plaza Europa, 1, Donostia / San Sebastián 20018, Gipuzkoa, Spain e-mail: [email protected] J.-L. Amaro-Mellado (B) Departamento de Ingeniería Gráfica, Universidad de Sevilla, Avda. Descubrimientos s/n, Seville 41092, Seville, Spain e-mail: [email protected] J.-L. Amaro-Mellado Servicio Regional en Andalucía, Instituto Geográfico Nacional, Plaza de España, s/n. Sector III, Seville 41013, Seville, Spain the current cartography of Euskadi (Spain), a territory influenced by the existence of two official languages. Given the spatial component of the data, this analysis is conducted through geographic information systems. Firstly, a corpus of 3072 pathway names selected from current official toponymic databases is compiled, as well as the content of the first edition of the National Topographic Map. Subsequently, the semantic content of the corpus elements is examined, as well as the nature of their referential content concerning the landscape units obtained from the Atlas of Spanish Landscapes. The results show common factors in characterizing landscapes and the etymology of names. Thus, it is noted that traditional agricultural, forestry, livestock, and traditional industry activities shape the toponymy in the most populated landscape units. Meanwhile, references to the orography typify the more mountainous landscapes. Therefore, the geographical study demonstrates the existence of common factors that link landscape and toponymy, validating one as a study source for the other. Keywords Landscape ·Place name ·Odonym · Traditional pathway ·GIS Introduction Landscape and territory are as closely linked as the territory and its cartographic representation. As a support for the representation of the territory, geographic 123 96 Page 2 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 information can be a vehicle for identifying common or discriminating elements in the landscape study. From this perspective, cartography and its toponymy share variables with landscape management tools, being transversal tools in the multi-layered territory analysis (Nowosad and Stepinski, 2021). Place names determine geographical units in space, synthesize the description of the same places they nominate, and treasure the perception of the territory through time. This description of toponymy is fully aligned with the concept of landscape. The Council of Europe signed the European Landscape Convention (ELC)1in 2000, setting a milestone in the recognition of the value and importance of landscape. This treaty provides a framework of protection and orients the concept of landscape towards the land use planning field, which has greatly impacted the scientific literature (P˘atru-Stupariu and Nita, 2022). In said convention, the landscape is understood as ”an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors.” This definition has a bearing on two concepts intrinsically linked to place names: human action and perception. Hence, both toponymy and landscape become guardians of the cultural legacy (Altaba et al., 2022). Furthermore, several disciplines are involved in the study of geographical names, such as anthropology, sociolinguistics, geography, or history, among others, for which toponymy is an auxiliary tool. Moreover, reciprocally, toponymy is nourished by all these sciences, which it also serves. Therefore, toponymy is a bridging discipline between all this knowledge, and its studyrequiresaninterdisciplinaryapproach.Oneofthe values of toponymy is its memory (Çetin, 2018), that is, the value of containing geographically located chronological information, as long as the origin, meaning, and reason for the timely toponym are unraveled. This is also understood as etiology, which provides knowledge of synthesis (Arroyo Illera, 2009). The confluence of different languages in the same territory, multilingualism, generates a particular interest in the study of place names. This happens in several regions of Spain, including the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, or Euskadi, an administrative region in the north of Spain (bordering France). 1(CETS 176 - Draft European Landscape Convention as amended by the 2016 Protocol (coe.int) Pathways, those communication routes that allowed transportation and connections between different places of human activity development, have been pivotal elements of the territory (Porcal Gonzalo, 2011). Therefore, the analysis of elements related to the traditional transportation network provides a basis for its interpretation. According to Porcal Gonzalo, the traditional pathway can be understood as a dynamic type of cultural landscape, both due to its spatial scope and its representation of territorial exchange processes, illustrating human adaptability to the geographical environment. From the perspective of the genesis of cartography, roadsandpathwayshavebeenthestructure that enables the cartographer to establish contact with the terrain under survey as a means of access to the territory. In this way, they condition the perception of the space on which the work of abstraction and synthesis has been performed in the compilation of the maps using classical techniques. This process is evident in articulating the topographic works of the first edition of the National Topographic Map of Spain (MTN), produced by the current Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN) (Instituto Geográfico Nacional, 2024a), the Spanish national mapping agency. Regarding the urban environment, roads give support to its framework, modeling the morphological structure of the population settlements, together with other elements such as river courses or orographic features. Examples of these constrained structures can be the layout of buildings linearly on both sides of a road, the concentration of small nuclei at their crossroads, or the design of radial planes in different directions (Agboola et al., 2018). In addition to structuring the territory, pathway infrastructures also determine the landscape. Thus, once again, cartography and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are indisputable supports for assessing these relationships. Additionally, UNESCO recognizes several roads and pathways as world heritage2. Based on the ELC, the European Council drives the program of cultural itineraries (Council of Europe, 1987), among which various traditional routes can be found, such as the Via Regia, the Via Francigena, or the Camino de Santiago (Wayof St. James). This program promotes thedissemination and enhancement of roads, as well as the reuse of disused transport infrastructures. Thus, it fosters an 2https://whc.unesco.org/es/list/ 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 3 of 29 96 approach to rural environments that contribute to their socio-economic development, simultaneously meeting the increasing demand for eco-recreational countryside use. In Spain, the Natural Paths Program pursues similar objectives, focusing on natural landscapes (Orellana Moraleda, 2017). For example, Somoza Medina et al. (2022) analyze the successful case of the Camino de Santiago. Delving further into the landscape-pathways pairing, it is worth emphasizing that the regional regulations (Departamento de Medio Ambiente y Política Territorial, 2014) outline the objective of ”enhancing the value of traditional cultural pathways as exceptional points for accessibility and enjoyment of the landscape.”Withintheseguidelines,pathwaysalsofind a place at various junctures. Firstly, in defining the content of the community’s landscape catalogs, the spatial location of main routes and viewpoints from which the landscape is appreciated emerges. Additionally, there is a requirement for a ”Landscape Integration Study” in construction projects that might significantly impact the landscape, particularly in the development of transportation or port infrastructures. Based on everything discussed so far, the authors believe that the significance of the relationship between the landscape and otherelements within it, such as pathways,hasnot been addressed to date in Spain, especially in a bilingual environment. This research aims to explore the relationship between place names and landscape units in the Basque Country. To this end, it is based on the idea that the perception of the occupants of a territory and their activity on it are the genesis and the driving force in the dynamics of both toponymy and landscape. Specifically, and given that traditional communication routes are structuring elements of the territory and the landscape itself, the work focuses on certain features that characterize thetoponymyofpathways.Sincethespatialcomponent is the core of the analysis, it is carried out using GIS tools. Firstly, a toponymic corpus is compiled from the geographical information of the administrative entities related to the pathways in this territory. It must be noted that the toponyms related to communication routes are also known as odonyms. Finally, the analysis of these names, superimposed on the existing cartography of the landscape in the area, seeks to verify the correspondence between the differentiating characteristics of the landscape units and these names. For this purpose, the features taken into account are the distribution, geographic, and semantic referencing of the names. Therefore, the main innovation of this research lies in systematically intertwining disciplines that work with the perception of the territory by its inhabitants through the analysis of elements that articulate or structure it, such as the pathways throughout the Basque Country territory. Related work This section presents a series of works related to the different disciplines that combine the study: landscape, toponymy,andtraditionalcommunicationroutes.Thus, it will show their close interrelation and the treatment they have received in the literature. First of all, it is worth mentioning that Spain ratified the ELC on November 26, 2007 (the Spanish Official State Gazette, Boletín Oficial del Estado-BOE of February 2, 2008), which came into force on March 1, 2008. The effect of this implementation on landscape protection and management is reflected in Civitarese Matteucci and Franco Cartei (2022). The cultural landscape finds a specification in the rural landscape, characterized by natural components, diversity, and visual qualities (Picuno et al., 2019). The management and revitalization of linked rural areas are gaining moreandmorerelevance,asevidencedbytheEuropean Commission’s initiative ”Long-term vision for rural areas of the EU up to 2040” (European Commission, 2011). Among its contributions is the establishment of 10 common objectives and the articulation of an action plan (Munroe et al., 2019). The characterization of landscapes and their classification on the territory is another related and necessary subject in the areas of landscape management and planning contemplated in the ELC as a specific measure. Geographic information and cartography constitute support for its study through GIS (Tort-Donada and López-Leiva, 2023). In any case, the large number of variables and the complex relationships between them mean that landscape should be addressed as a broad and multidisciplinary field (Altaba et al., 2022). Usually, these studies center on physical elements and their visual component. In this aspect, analyzing place namesprovidestheculturalcomponentwithwhichthey are impregnated (Atik et al., 2022). 123 96 Page 4 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Furthermore, literature gathers some works related to odonyms. For instance, Bellosillo (1988) focuses their research on the study of ”cañadas reales” (Royal Drove Road, transhumance route) through their toponymy, placing special emphasis on the phenomenon of transhumance and the impact of wolves within the area with merino sheep in Castile region, Spain. Another notable work is the compilation of terminology related to pathways in Spanish language and dialects, which is based on the generic part of the names of these geographical entities (Alcázar González and Azcárate Luxán, 2000). If the perspective is broadened to the concept of landscape, it is also possible to find examples related to the cultural aspects of pathways. Spampinato et al. highlight the possibility of analyzing the richness and diversity of land cover in the past by studying phytonymy or place names related to plants (Spampinato et al., 2022). Hearn et al. (2024) interpret the change in certain rural landscapes through the toponymy related to vegetation, delving into the imprint that nomadic culture leaves on both the landscape and its toponymy. Gordova (2022) links landscape dynamics with the chronology of place names, relating their linguistic origin to the settlements of different peoples in the territory throughout history. The stratification of toponymy allows a similar approach, as seen in Martínez-Areta (2023). Nowosad and Stepinski (2021) connect the characteristics defining the classification system of landscape patterns with natural variables and place names. After registering place names, it is concluded that environmental aspects are mostly divided into factors of natural or human geography. Focused on the latter, recent studies use innovative methodologies with toponymy as the axis for the interdisciplinary study of architectural heritage, as in the case of Herzen et al. (2023), dedicated to analyzing Russian religious heritage. Membrado Tena and Fansa (2023) apply a semantic analysis of urban toponymy in Valencia (Spain), examining the persistence of rural landscapes within it. Another example of applying technological advancements, centering on artificial intelligence techniques, is the semantics of place names, which have also been used for geocoding place names themselves (Fize et al., 2021). InEuskadi, differentterritorialplanningfigures have been developed in which the protection of cultural heritage from a territorial perspective has been covered in one way or another. In the region, an integral approach has been adopted. Thus, beyond the protection of a specific cultural heritage element, action is taken on its location and its surroundings, thus protecting the landscape context (Davila-Cabanillas, 2021). (Hersperger et al., 2020) stress the importance and applicability of landscape knowledge applied to territorial planning. This issue connects with the relationship of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals with territorial planning from a landscape approach in order to provide the rural environment with greater resilience in the face of transformation (Riva, 2020). Fromanotherperspective,bothpathwaysandinfrastructures also condition the landscape (Lisiak et al., 2018). In this way, the temporal development of the settlement of the territory is reconciled with the geography and justifies the existence and evolution of these paths(RoseteVergés,2020).Thus,attendingto modern dynamics, new residential and infrastructure developments generate discontinuities and provide an irregular plot in the forest cover of the territory (Munroe et al., 2019). Increasingly, traditional paths also seize value as part of local heritage and a result of history and culture. This perspective relates to the concept of cultural itinerary (Álvarez et al., 2022). Turner et al. (2023) show an interest in historical inventories of roads and a way to obtain them employing historical mapping. In addition, they have aroused great interest as a tourist and leisure resource, especially in mountain areas, enhancing their scenic content. Other axes of great value for their resources are the spaces linked to the riverbanks and riverbeds. Their patrimonial, economic, and cultural wealth is an essential asset for developing the rural areas where they are located (Cebrián Abellán and García Martínez, 2016). Study area The geographical location of this research is the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country or Euskadi, in the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula, bordering France, and adjacent to the Cantabrian Sea. It spans an area of 7234.83 km2and has a population of 2,186,517 inhabitants (inh) (Eustat Agentzia, 2023), resulting in an average density of 302.22 inh/km2. It is composed of three provinces, whose capitals are indicated in parentheses: Gipuzkoa (Donostia/San Sebastián),Bizkaia(Bilbao),andÁlava(Vitoria-Gasteiz, which is the capital of the autonomous community), as 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 5 of 29 96 Fig. 1 Study area. Euskadi / Basque Country Autonomous Community. Own elaboration from Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km shown in Fig. 1. For historical reasons, these provinces enjoy a special regime according to their own laws (fueros), thus being recognized as Historical Territories. Concerning topography and climate, the former is mainly mountainous, with a series of elevated orographic structures oriented from north to south, which organize the territory (Fig. 2). To the north are the coastal mountains, forming an alignment cut by the fluvial systems of the Cantabrian slope. To the south are the interior mountain ranges, which form part of the Atlantic-Mediterranean divide. Next, the middle prePyrenean depression is developed, which forms the Álava plain (La Llanada Alavesa). Finally, the outer mountain ranges of the south are the last part of the territory. This orographic formation, along with the proximity to the sea and the region’s latitude, shape the climate of the region. According to the Köppen-Geiger classification, the whole territory is in the climatic zone C (temperate) (Fig. 3). Contextualizing this classification in the territory, according to Euskalmet (2023), three climatic zones can be distinguished: the temperate oceanic climate of the Atlantic slope to the north, very rainy and moderate in temperatures; then, a transition zone in Álava; and, finally, in the extreme south, a Mediterranean climate characterized by a clearly dry and hot summer of continental type, with a winter of low rainfall. Climate and terrain conditions determine land use. Population centers are located in valley bottoms. The main corridor links Bilbao and San Sebastián, with lesserconnectivityalongtheaxesconnecting thesecapitals to Vitoria-Gasteiz. Consequently, substantial differences in density exist across the territory (Fig. 4), with two major urban areas: the larger one around Bilbao’s metropolitan area and another around San Sebastián’s. Conversely, in the case of Álava, the capital itself has experienced growth, attracting the majority of the province’s population. In mountainous areas, there is a pattern of extensive and scattered agricultural settlement known as ”caserío”SPA 3, hamlet, with no clear population center. Nevertheless, in Álava, besides the capital, the population concentrates on small settlements. Silvicultural production covers many of the mountains in Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia and is characterized by 3ISO 639-2 language code for Spanish 123 96 Page 6 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Fig. 2 Relief map of the study area. Own elaboration from geoEuskadi (2023) and Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km Fig. 3 Koppen climate classification. C: temperate climate; f: no dry season; s: dry summer; a: hot summer; b: warm summer. Own elaboration from (Instituto Geográfico Nacional, 2024b) and Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 7 of 29 96 Fig. 4 Population density. Own elaboration from geoEuskadi (2023)and Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km fast-growingspeciessuchaspine.InÁlava,agricultural plains and vineyards dominate in the Rioja Alavesa, interspersed by the Montes Alaveses, with extensive masses of Mediterranean oak and holm oak groves (Palacios-Agundez, 2011). In this environment, the communication infrastructuresintheBasqueCountryhavedevelopedhistorically encouraged and conditioned by its strategic location as a passage to the continent and by the need to transport goods between the main seaports and the central plateau (Meseta) in the context of the Iberian Peninsula (Castillo and Valdaliso, 2017). This location, together with the agricultural poverty of the maritime provinces and part of the interior, in addition to its status as a free-trade zone, and the availability of hydraulic, mining, and forestry resources, determined the specialization of the Basque economy in the activities of trade, transport,mining,andindustry (ValdalisoGago,2013). Linguistically, within the geographical scope of this study, two languages coexist with equal status: the Spanish language (Castilian) and the Basque language (Euskera). This matter directly affects toponymy both in its origins and its development. These languages belong to different lineages, creating a considerable distance between them (Sanchez, 1974). Additionally, their situation is asymmetrical insofar as, according to the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, the Basque language is a marginalized and vulnerable language within its territory (Council of Europe, 1992). Throughout history, the peoples inhabiting the area have named and transformed the territory, adapting names previously in existence to the usage of their language at each moment, thus bearing witness to past linguistic realities. García Sánchez (2023) discusses the etymon’s original language and the toponym’s receiving language, ”corresponding to the most current linguistic stratum of the territory where they are found”. A significant portion of the toponymic corpus in the study area, especially in minor toponymy, is the Basque language (i.e., from the Euskera language). However, language policies developed in more recent history have influenced the names on official cartography, resulting in toponyms in both languages, and the distribution of languages is not geographically homogeneous. The competencies to provide official status to geographic names are complexly distributed, whereas in terms of standardization, the Basque Language Academy (Euskaltzaindia) (Euskaltzaindia, 2023)isthesole 123 96 Page 8 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Fig. 5 Flowchart. Own elaboration advisory board (Article 10 of Law 10/1982, of November 24, the fundamental law for the standardization of the use of Basque language). Materials and methods Following the principles of toponymic study methodologieswithageographicalfocus (Tort-Donada, 2022), attention will be given to the semantics, distribution, and interrelationships of place names. Typically, the structureofaplacenameisformedbyagenericpartthat identifies the type of named geographical element and another specific part for each element, ”Calleja Albar” SPA (”White Pathway”). If the specific part alludes to another existing geographical entity, it is known as a referential toponym, for example, ”Farolako bidea” EUS 4(”Lighthouse Pathway”). Our work addresses two types of classification: one based on this referential element, if it exists, and another based on the semantic content of the specific name. Finally, the relationship between the distribution of these names and different landscape characterization variables will be analyzed using GIS tools (Fig. 5). The two prepared classifica4ISO 639-2 language code for Basque 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 9 of 29 96 tions will offer different avenues for interpreting the relationship between toponymy and landscape. Thetoolsusedwere Extract,Transform,Load(ETL) and GIS tools; QGIS (www.qgis.org) in its version 3.30.0s-Hertogenbosch was used as GIS tool, while FME software was used as ETL tool, specifically FME c Desktop 2021.2 (https://www.safe.com/fme/ fme-desktop/) and, alternatively, the graphical process modeler of QGIS 3.30.0s-Hertogenbosch itself. Data sources on landscape Spain ratified the ELC on November 26, 2007 (BOE of February 5, 2008), which entered into force on March 1, 2008. Similarly, the regional Basque Government agreed to adhere to this convention in 2009. To promote its development, five years later, it approved Decree 90/2014 on the protection, management, and planning of landscapes in the territorial planning of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country as a tooltofulfilltheobjectiveofintegratinglandscapesinto territorial planning. Therefore, with a well-established legal and administrative framework, both the definition of landscape and the instruments for its management are established, such as the Atlas de los Paisajes de España (Atlas of Spanish Landscapes) (Sanz Herráiz and Mata Olmo, 2003) at the national level and the Landscape Catalogs, Landscape Determinations, Landscape Action Plans, and Landscape Integration Studies for the autonomous community. The Atlas de los Paisajes de España is a study aimed at characterizingandidentifyinglandscapes,providinganexhaustive classification of the territory by establishing a scalar taxonomy of landscape types. The project began in 1998 and was published in 2003. The last update of cartographic information dates back to August 2010. The regional Landscape Catalog of Euskadi also offers a homogeneous cartographic base in the study area for analysis. This tool includes evaluating and classifying landscapes in each functional area of the territory. Additionally, it integrates a set of descriptive chapters toidentify landscape units, analyze their characteristics and values, as well as propose objectives for landscape quality for each unit. Furthermore, the geographical information materializes in a data set called ”Cartography of the draft of the Catalog of Unique and Outstanding Landscapes of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country at a scale of 1:25,000 (year 2005)” (IKT and PAISAIA, 2023). This cartographic work results in a mosaic of 5604 landscape units, comprising 64 landscape units within theBasque Country as a whole. Forthe present regional scope study, the taxonomic scale provided by the aforementioned Atlas de los Paisajes de España proves suitable. Within this study’s scope, this cartographic work presents a mosaic of 72 landscape units, grouped into 47 classes of landscape units, as depicted in the following Table 1and illustrated in Fig. 6. In order to use a more compact list that facilitates an integrated interpretation of the data, a synthetic classification of 12 types of landscapes is alternatively chosen, as depicted in Table 2. Data sources on toponymy Concerning official cartography and geographic information in the study area, Spanish legislation outlines a scheme of competencies distributed among the different levels of administration. These competencies are distributed according to scale: from smaller scales for national coverage projects to the highest degree of detail for local projects. The geographic information production activity is coordinated among the administrations through an action model called the Sistema Cartográfico Nacional (SpanishNationalCartographic System) (González Matesanz et al., 2015). One of its tasks is the coordination between administrations in the treatment of official and standardized toponymy. Consequently, for the present study, the toponymic sources of the administrations that provide services in the territory are used: national, autonomic (regional), and provincial (Batlle, 2023). The coordination between local and regional entities also allows the results of local toponymic works to be reflected in the regional database, which facilitates the integration of local knowledge. Therefore, the combination of different sources requires a process of data harmonization. This harmonization of study data serves a dual purpose: firstly, integrating the toponymy from various sources, and secondly, establishing a format that enables the maintenance of the toponymic corpus while reflecting the traceability of each element. Thus, a dataset containing essential information will be formed, preserving the link to the original information to retrieve addi123 96 Page 16 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Combining placenames with landscape classification Once all the original data has been processed, the information layers are combined to geometrically compare the distribution of toponymic data concerning the superficial layer information from the landscape catalog. The method used involves attribute combination by overlaying the layer of point-based toponymic elements onto the superficial layer of landscape classification using the GIS. Through this combination, the frequencyofeachcombinationcanbecalculated,forming a matrix of frequency distribution. Given that the classifications proposed for both landscape classification and toponymic classifications -referential and semantichave different levels of disaggregation, two types of outputs are proposed according to this level, allowing for different types of result analysis. Results and analysis This section first presents the direct results of classifying the odonyms according to the established criteria. Next, the results of the combination of the two entries, toponymy and landscape, are presented. Once the original information has been processed, an overall descriptive analysis is carried out. Still, it is necessary to go into detail in situations of special interest. This interpretation is illustrated through examples. Furthermore, in order to optimize the descriptive analysis, a suitable statistical index is required. Therefore, in addition to the frequency, the density of toponymsineachtypeoflandscapeisused.Inthisanalysis, values obtained are related to the characteristics of each data set. In this way, the relationship between the characteristics of each landscape unit and the place names classified in that environment becomes evident. Results and analysis of the referential classification The referential classification gives information on which geographic element was highlighted as a reference to identify the access or passage route. This classification’s results are shown in Table 5and in Fig. 8. Unquestionably, population settlements are an important focus, in addition to economic activities, which are always closely related to primary activity. With respect to the settlement, it is clear that the longer roads connect to population centers. Contrariwise,themorelocal pathwaysprovideaccesstosmaller settlements, or hamlets (caseríos SPA or baserriak EUS), which is the traditional form of dispersed settlement on the Cantabrian side of the study area. There are also a notable number of references to buildings Table 5 Results of the classification of place names based on their referential element Theme Type of referential element CR00Without references CR0000 No referential elements 485 CR01Population CR0101 Population centers 1490 CR0102 Hamlet 153 CR02Physical geography CR0208 Reference to an orographic element 408 CR0209 Reference to a hydrographic element 130 CR03Economic activities CR0303 Place intended for industrial and traditional activity 126 CR0310 Reference to an agroforestry exploitation 64 CR04Communications CR0412 Reference to an architectural element of the pathway 30 CR0414 Reference to pathways 11 CR05Cultural CR0505 Reference to a religious geographic element 158 CR0506 Place with architectural value 17 TOTAL 3072 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 17 of 29 96 Fig. 8 Referential classification of odonyms. Own elaboration from Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km of industrial activities such as weaving mills, mills, and forges, whose layout depends on the water courses, making them a destination for transport in two directions: the arrival of raw materials and manufacturing output. Results and analysis of the semantic classification The main difference between referential and semantic classification lies in the names of population settlements, where the reference is clear. Nevertheless, the name can have diverse origins: for example, a historical essence, political connotations, or connections with local lineages and onomastics. Therefore, these settlements have been excluded from the semantic classification, except for those that contain some explicit allusion to population settlements, such as ”Camino de las Chozas” SPA (”Pathway to the huts”) or ”Camino a los caseríos” SPA (”Pathway to the hamlets”). As a result, 1411 names have been excluded from semantic interpretation. The results of this classification are presented in both Table 6and Fig. 9. Compared to the rest of the categories, numerous elements coincide equally in both modes of classification, such as ”Putzueta bidea” EUS (Path of the wells); the reference and their semantic value are related to hydronyms. However, there are other cases where the semantic and referential essence differ. For instance, ”Camino Viejo de San Martín”SPA(”OldSanMartin Pathway”) holds a religious reference but also a descriptive semantic aspect. Interestingly, in the section related to semantic classification linked to geology, there are numerous oronyms featuring characteristics of crags or rocky formations, often associated with geomineral exploitation, like ”Artxipi bidea”EUS (”Path of small rock”) referencing a quarry or ”Buztinzuri bidea” EUS (”Path of white clay”). Results and analysis of the landscape-odonymy crossover Once the frequency data for each type of name in the different landscapes are obtained, they are displayed in Table 7for the landscape type aggregation level arranged for the classification of the name references. Descending to the level of disaggregation of landscape units, the matrix of results acquires such a volume that the representation employing a map is more compre123 96 Page 18 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Table 6 Semantic classification of odonyms Class Semantic Subclass CS01Settlement CS0101 Isolated buildings 17 CS02Physical geography CS0208 Orology 120 CS0209 Hydrology 55 CS0220 Geology 102 CS03Economic activities CS0301 Land use 77 CS0303 Economic exploitation 52 CS0304 Functional destinations 20 CS0307 Traditional professions or tasks 60 CS0310 Phytonym 171 CS0311 Zoonym 64 CS04Transportation CS0417 Pathway 49 CS0412 Tautologies or unique elements of the road 9 CS0413 Descriptors of the road 391 CS0414 Isolated generics 19 CS05Culture CS0516 Personal names 16 CS0505 Religious 155 CS0506 Historic buildings or monuments 16 CS0518 Historical landmarks or terms 2 CS99Unclassified CS9999 Opaque terms 262 CS00Population centers CS0000 No semantic interpretation 1411 TOTAL 3072 Fig. 9 Semantic classification. Own elaboration from Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 19 of 29 96 Table 7 Distribution of odonyms, classified according to the referential element and by landscape units CR00 CR01 CR02 CR3 CR04 CR05 TOTAL TP11 160 456 210 79 8 60 973 TP29 156 394 144 39 12 42 787 TP37 45 340 38 24 8 14 469 TP4389825335 TP52 34 114 58 14 1 15 236 TP6613360013 TP71 27 36 9 3 1 6 82 TP830100102 TP866601170791 TP89 18 57 13 8 2 8 106 TP90 30 173 44 8 3 20 278 TOTAL 485 1643 538 190 41 175 3072 hensible (Fig. 10). In the same way, Table 8and Fig. 11 are arranged for the semantic classification. In order to obtain comparable results and find the maximum intensity of occurrence of a semantic phenomenon in a specific type of landscape, the density of occurrence is calculated from the frequencies of the semantic classification. The reading of this Table 9and its disaggregated version will allow us to focus on the cases in which the density is anomalous, either due to abundance or scarcity. Although this indicator is not dimensionless,ithasbeendecidedtoapproachtheanalysis by keeping the information for each volume. Fig. 10 Distribution of odonyms, classified according to the referential element, by landscape units. Own elaboration based on geographic information from the Atlas de los Paisajes de España (Sanz Herráiz and Mata Olmo, 2003)and Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km 123 96 Page 20 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Table 8 Distribution of odonyms, classified according to the semantics, by landscape units CS01 CS02 CS03 CS04 CS05 CS99 CS00 TOTAL TP11 9 62 189 134 57 102 419 972 TP29 3 39 150 164 51 64 316 787 TP37 2 16 54 58 14 23 310 477 TP43025544828 TP52 2 25 48 19 22 13 106 235 TP66 0 1 14 0 2 0 3 20 TP7114933432680 TP8300010012 TP86 0 6 13 6 7 5 52 89 TP890 103211171422106 TP90 0 10 32 37 15 34 148 276 TOTAL 17 175 546 468 193 262 1411 3072 Overall considerations Firstly, theobservation of thedata makesit unavoidable to focus on one of the sources of information used, which is the digitalization of the first edition of the MTN50. Out of the 1806 toponyms digitized from this historical cartography, 1222 correspond to populated places from where the pathway starts or to where it goes, which represents 68.7%. In contrast, in the rest of the databases, the proportion remains at 33% (426 of 1277). These places or urban centers can have different characteristics: small population centers formed by a group of houses around a church or hermitage, which isacommonformofsettlementintheLlanada Alavesa, Fig. 11 Distribution of odonyms, classified according to the semantic value, by landscape units. Own elaboration based on geographic information from the Atlas de los Paisajes de España (Sanz Herráiz and Mata Olmo, 2003)and Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 21 of 29 96 Table 9 Odonyms density by landscape unit CS01 CS02 CS03 CS04 CS05 CS99 CS00 TOTAL TP11 0.4 2.5 7.6 5.4 2.3 4.1 16.8 38.9 TP29 0.1 1.8 6.9 7.6 2.3 2.9 14.5 36.1 TP37 0.3 2.2 7.5 8.1 2.0 3.2 43.3 66.6 TP43 0.0 4.5 11.3 11.3 9.1 9.1 18.1 63.5 TP52 1.1 9.1 17.5 6.9 8.0 4.8 38.4 85.9 TP66 0.0 3.0 27.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 9.0 45.0 TP71 0.4 1.7 3.7 13.7 1.7 1.2 10.8 33.1 TP83 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.7 0.0 0.0 8.7 17.5 TP86 0.0 2.7 5.9 2.7 3.2 2.3 23.8 40.7 TP89 0.0 6.3 20.3 7.0 10.8 8.9 14.0 67.3 TP90 0.0 0.9 2.8 3.3 1.3 3.0 13.1 24.4 orMediterraneanslope;orhamletsorgroupsofhamlets in areas of Gipuzkoa and Bizkaia, or Cantabrian slope (Fig. 12), with greater dispersion of the population. Continuing with the oldest dataset analyzed (sheets published between 1929 and 1944) (Urteaga González, 2001), the distribution of these labels is not homogeneous throughout the territory. While in Álava, there are abundant labels referring to population settlements, this type of labeling is scarcely found in Gipuzkoa. The explanation for this difference lies in the methodology used to prepare this historical cartography. Whereas in Álava and Bizkaia, it was completed by classical topography, Gipuzkoa was surveyed by photogrammetry. The latter reduces the volume of field work and, therefore, the possibility of collecting toponymic information by means of oral surveys. These differences are illustrated in Fig. 13. The cases in which these labels, which indicate destinations of population settlements, can provide a specific value are those in which the road route goes beyond two neighboring towns, linking more distant destinations and usually with greater importance, such Fig. 12 Settlement type. Own elaboration from geoEuskadi (2023) and Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km 123 96 Page 22 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Fig. 13 Irregular distribution of pathway names in MTN50. Own elaboration from Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km astheheadoftheregionorthereferencecityoftheenvironment. These roads that structure counties are usually called ”Camino real...” SPA (”Royal Pathway...”) (Ursúa Irigoyen, 1990). According to all the toponymic sources used in the study area, there are five cases in Spanish (three of them lexicalized ”Caminorreal”) and one in Basque ”Erregebide” EUS (”Royal Pathway”). Going deeper into this concept of inter-county road, whether or not the qualification of ”Real” (Royal) is written on the map, the fact of keeping the name of a town far from the surrounding area on the label, in itself, qualifies the road itself. This is because it gives it a regional entity as opposed to radial or local roads that link contiguous towns. There is also the case in which the label indicates not only the origin and destination but also a place of passage. This circumstance allows inferring that there are roads with identical origins and destinations but different itineraries (Fig. 14). Finally, as a reference to traditional long-distance roads, there are two cases of ”Erremoesbide” EUS (”Pilgrim’s Way”) that correspond to the Camino de Santiago (Gorrotxategi Nieto, 2022). References to elements of physical geography appear more frequently in complicated orographic areas, with low population density, such as mountain passes, and environments in which there is also grazing and seasonal transhumance typical of the area. This group includes both proper names, like ”Camino del Gorbea” SPA (”Pathway to Gorbea”) and generic allusions to the orography, ”Camino del Vallejo” SPA (”Small Valley Pathway”). In the case of hydrography, there are 30 explicit allusions to springs and streams, which are referred to by their specific names. There are also referencesto elements related tothe hydrological infrastructure, such as the ”Camino de la Noria”SPA(”Waterwheel Pathway”) or ”Presalde bidea” EUS (”Dam Pathway”). In the section on economic activities, the names related to professions, like ”Camino de carboneros” SPA (”Pathway of Charcoal Burners”), have been semantically classified. There are also activities related to mining or mineral exploitation, such as ”Camino de la Calera”SPA (”Lime Kiln Pathway”), ”Arrobitxulo bidea” EUS (”Quarry Hole Path”) or ”Camino del Marmol”SPA (”Marble Pathway”). On the other hand, we have included the phytonyms that have traditional economic exploitation, such as ”Camino del Castañal” SPA (”Chestnut forest Pathway”), ”Camino del Prado” SPA (”Meadow Pathway”), or ”Pinu bidea” 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 23 of 29 96 Fig. 14 Itinerary determination according to the name of the pathway. Own elaboration from Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km EUS (”Pine Pathway”). As for the agricultural activity, the toponym ”Usaegieta bidea” EUS (”Dovecote Pathway”), ”Camino de los corrales”SPA(”Pathway to the Corrals”) has been cataloged within this group. Functional destinations include indications to strategic destinations such as ”Camino al Sanatorio de Briñas” SPA(”PathwaytotheBriñasSanatorium”),or”Plazaolako Trentxikiaren Bidea” EUS (”Pazaola Little Train’s Pathway”). Considering the table of densities, we can observe that the landscape with the highest total number of labeled pathways is TP52 Ebro depression countryside (0.859 names per km2). Nevertheless, if the population names are omitted, the maximum density is gathered in the Cantabrian-Atlantic estuaries or bays, TP89 Cantabrian-Atlantic estuaries and bays (1.263 names per km2). This landscape has a large population density, both at present and in the past. However, there are comparativelyfewreferences topopulation settlements (20.75%), while there are many names related to economic issues (30.19%), among which those related to agroforestry activity (phytonymy 10.9%). The lowest density of names of any semantic classificationis reported inthe type oflandscape TP83 Upper Ebro canyons and gorges (0.175 names per km2). The explanation for the latter may lie in the low population, inaccessibility and remoteness of large populations, and the small size of the area, so it may be necessary to resort to local toponymic studies. Furthermore, the next lowest density corresponds to TP90, of marinas and valleys of the Cantabrian coast (0.244 names per km2). Most of the names in this area refer to population settlements (148), with no semantic interpretation. In this territory, the most numerous semanticclassification(37names,13.41%oftheTP90) is that of pathway descriptors such as ”Bidezarretako bidea” EUS (”Old Pathway”), ”Erdiko bidea”EUS (”MiddlePathway”)or”Camino Particular”SPA(”Private Pathway”). Overall, as shown in Table 9,wehaveworkedwith a very high number of references with content related to population, 1643 out of 3072. The next most numerous class is that of economic activities. Disaggregating this class into the different economic activities, we find thatagriculturalandlivestockactivitiesareverynumerous (538 features). Given the classified elements, it has been considered that in the phytonymy analyzed and in the names related to geology, the functionality and the economic activity component prevail over the descriptive one, and that is why the semantic classes CS0320Geology (mineral) and CS0310Phytonymy (agricultural,forestry,land use), havebeen included in the class of economic activities. To illustrate this decision, we can find examples such as ”Meatzetarako bidea”EUS (”Pathway to the Mines”), ”Camino de Cortabaso” MUL5, (”Pathway to the Forest of the Sheepfold”), ”Larrabide bidea” EUS (”Pasture Pathway”). Comparatively, economic activities account for a third of the volume of names related to population settlements (CS01+CS00), as do semantic references to 5ISO 639-2 language code for multiple languages, in this case, Spanish and Basque) 123 96 Page 24 of 29 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 the road itself and related elements and activities, such as sales, bridges, and descriptors. We find examples of the latter such as ”Bideberri” EUS (”New Pathway”), ”Bidezarra” EUS (”Old Pathway”), ”Caminorreal” SPA (”Royal Pathway”) or ”Camino de la Cuesta”SPA (”Slope Pathway”). The names related to physical geography are more numerous in TP11, with 62 out of 175 names in this category, highlighting the use of names related to oronymy. Examples include ”Camino de Valleoscuro” SPA (”Pathway of Dark Valley”), ”Lezeagako bidea” EUS(”Pathwayofthe Caves”),or”Arbarakoate bidea” EUS (”Pathway of the Arbara Pass”). This territory has a lower population density, abundant forested areas utilized for timber harvesting, and mountainous pasture lands, encompassing the most extensive areas of communal forests (Fig. 15). In the Basque Country, communal lands bear witness to a traditional socioeconomic organization, where the productive functions of these environments are essential (Bellosillo, 1988), especially traditional forestry and livestock uses. These lands have recently attracted interest for recreational, ecological, or cultural purposes. Consequently, there is a growing appeal and recognition of these areas (Alcázar González and Azcárate Luxán, 2000). In this environment, it becomes particularly relevant to pay attentiontozoonymy(51,9.2%)suchas”Otsaurte Bide Zidorra” EUS (related to wolf), ”Mandobidea”EUS (”Pathway of Mules”), ”Camino de las yeguas”SPA (”Pathway of Mares”) and ”Camino del guano”SPA (”Pathway of the Manure”, used as fertilizer). Additionally, phytonymy (24, 4.3%) plays a role with names like ”Camino Madero” SPA (”Timber Pathway”), ”La Dehesa bidea” MUL, (”Pasture Pathway”), and ”Senda la Ayera” SPA (”The Beech Forest Footpath”). Discussion This research work is based on the intimate relationship between toponymy and landscape, as well as on the link between these two disciplines and cartography, being the territory the pillar on which they are sustained. Specifically, we start from the premise that both toponymy and landscape are based on the perception of the inhabitants of a territory (Reszegi, 2020)in order to look for a correspondence between their geographical distribution. In this research, the usefulness of toponymy in describing and studying the territory is evident since it synthesizes the description of the places Fig. 15 Distribution of communal woodlands, coinciding with the type of landscape TP11. CS0208, CS0310 y CS0311. Own elaboration from Instituto Geográfico Nacional (2024a). Frame coordinates in km 123 GeoJournal (2024) 89:96 Page 25 of 29 96 themselves in place names. In this context, geographic data processing using GIS tools is fundamental. Cartography is the natural medium for the expression and representation of toponymy, but it imposes its own limitations, as evidenced in this research. Each administration addresses the approach to the territory from a different scale and degree of detail, which characterizes the geographic information they generate. One of the most visible examples of the conditioning factors of the cartographic support can be seen in the series of the first edition of the MTN50 of the IGN; the sheetsproducedbyclassictopographydifferfromthose produced by photogrammetry in their toponymic content,both in quantityand quality. Therefore, itis proven that the cartographic support conditions the toponymic content offered by scale, graphic issues, or the different data acquisition methodologies used. The integration of toponymic sources from different administrations has mitigated the bias that the specific features of each dataset may contribute to the toponymic corpus formed for this work. The geographical entities studied in this research, which compose the traditional pathway network, are structuring elements of the territory, which are highly relevant for its understanding. There are works on pathwaytoponymy(AlcázarGonzálezandAzcárateLuxán, 2005; Bellosillo, 1988) and on the importance of pathwaysintheterritoryandlandscape(OrellanaMoraleda, 2017; Porcal Gonzalo, 2011; Rosete Vergés, 2020; Somoza Medina et al., 2022), also on landscape interpretation with the support of toponymy (Membrado Tena and Fansa, 2023; Nowosad and Stepinski, 2021; Sousa and Garcia Murillo, 2001; Spampinato et al., 2022). This work fits precisely at the intersection of these perspectives or disciplines and provides a systematic methodology for interpreting the landscape in a regional context. The success of this study lies in having identified common features in landscapes and place names based on a systematic classification of the latter, focusing on a specific geographical element, representing traditional communication routes. This is possible thanks to the functions of toponymy (Tort-Donada and López-Leiva, 2023): transparency, exceptionality, and territorial significance. The work takes place in a bilingual environment that conditions the approach to dealing with toponymy, making proficiency in both official languages essential. Simultaneously, the complexity of multilingualism can serve as a stimulus for research in this field. In any case, ithighlightsthemulticulturalnatureofthe environment (Nyström, 2021). Based on the landscape definition contained in the ELC, the intimate relationship between landscape and territory is understood; therefore, a landscape classification is a way of territorial classification based on landscape criteria. The classification of landscape units is founded on orographic concepts and land cover, where population and vegetation play a role, maintaining a visual and perceptual component as well (Marine, 2022). Regarding the designed toponymic classification systems, while the referential classification focuses on key geographical elements for orienting within the network of roads, the semantic classification allows for a closer interpretation of the territory and the etymology of odonyms. As a trade-off, considering the complexity and diversity in the process of forming population names (Fort Cañellas, 1984), not always tied to the territory, it is preferable not to include this group of toponyms in the analysis systematically. The referential classification of place names allows for identifying traditionalgeographicfocalpoints; it takesintoaccount the toponyms that refer to or evoke geographical elements and classifies these references. The choice of these two classification methods has proven complementary in subsequent analyses. As observed in the analysis of results, references to names linked to the population correspond to the distribution of settlement forms, scattered along the Cantabrian slope (except for more industrialized valley bottoms) and concentrated in small clusters forming a network along the Mediterranean slope. Agroforestry activities are present throughout the territory but are denser in mountainous areas, where traditional activities like forestry exploitation and high-altitude grazing are carried out, closely associated with communal land ownership, once again coinciding with specific types of landscapes. Conclusions In this work, two disciplines related to the perception of the territory, toponymy and landscape, have been combined, and the result confirms the coherence between them. The chosen geographical element for this study is the road network represented in official cartography, as traditional pathways have served as structuring ele123