Brand sensuality and consumer-based brand equity

BRAND SENSUALITY AND CONSUMER-BASED BRAND EQUITY por Clarinda Adélia Martins de Castro Sousa Rodrigues Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências Empresariais Orientada por Nome do Orientador: Prof. Doutor Carlos Melo Brito Nome do Co-orientador: Prof. Doutor Bertil Hultén 2014 i BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS Clarinda Rodrigues was accepted in 2006 as a PhD student in School of Economics in University of Porto. Her main research interest is exploring theoretical and practical issues in sensory branding and sensory marketing. As a practitioner, she is Managing Partner in My.Sensys, a sensory branding agency created in 2009. She has a wide experience as branding consultant and creative director in retail, fashion, cosmetics, wines, pharmaceutical and aluminum systems industries. She has participated as invited lecturer in several Portuguese conferences and seminars about branding and marketing. Her first article was published in 2011 in Journal Innovative Marketing. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am experiencing a delightful sensation of being near to finalize the so far biggest effort of my life. My PhD thesis was truly a very worthy experience and I am highly satisfied to have had the opportunity to investigate an issue that seduced me from the very beginning. All the efforts were compensated by the possibility of contributing to an emergent field of research such as sensory branding and to the discussion of alternative ways of building strong and meaningful brands. Throughout all the thesis process, a great support and intellectual guidance has been given by my supervisors Prof. Carlos Brito and Prof. Bertil Hultén. I gratefully acknowledge their contributions for always being there ready to read, comment and help me focusing on the essential. My special thanks to Prof. Bertil Hultén for continuously challenge me with alternative view points and for his outstanding encouragement since we first met in 2010 in Copenhagen. His resolute and methodic guidance was inspirational to me and has strengthened my passion for academic research. I truly thank him for believing in me and I hope we continue to develop academic research on sensory branding and marketing in the near future. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Vitorino Martins for his immense support since May 2013. His straightforward orientation was precious to conduct the empirical research of this thesis. In the managerial field, I would like to thank ACP – the Portuguese Automobile Association, and in particular Luís Figueiredo and Rita Alvim. Their outstanding collaboration was determinant to the success of the survey online, allowing me to gather data from a real consumer sample which otherwise would be impossible. A special thanks is also given to Teresa Lameiras (Seat Marketing Manager), Hugo Morgado (Chevrolet Marketing Manager), Aires de Mello (Volvo PR and Marketing Manager) and Ricardo Amaral (Toyota Marketing and Communication Manager) for sharing their knowledge about automobile industry and how the car brands appeal to and interact with consumers. iii Writing a PhD thesis is a very demanding task and it implies new priorities in our lives. During hard times, my family has supported me unconditionally so that I could concentrate myself on fulfilling one more dream. To my parents, who always taught me to work hard and not give up my dreams, my special thanks for supporting me all the time. To my dear husband Fernando and daughter Sofia, who gave up so many times my presence and dealt with my constant mood changes, I dedicate this thesis with special thanks for their overwhelming patience and support. iv ABSTRACT Contemporary branding and sensory marketing literature stresses the significance and positive impact of sensory dimensions through brand sensuality in relation to brand experiences within a value-generating process. Moreover, it also accounts for the need to fulfill a research gap concerning how sensory dimensions contribute to enhance consumer-based brand equity when consumers experience products and services. Therefore, the main objective of this thesis is to explore, analyze and explain the relationship between brand sensuality and CBBE by answering the overarching research problem: Is the construct of brand sensuality an antecedent to CBBE in a B2C context? In this context, three research questions are raised and discussed in the three Essays compiled in this thesis, namely: (1) From a strategic point of view, how can brands express their sensuality to consumers in the value-generating process?; (2) Which is the relationship between brand sensuality and CBBE within a sensory branding framework? and (3) From an empirical point of view, does brand sensuality impact directly or indirectly on CBBE? Three main conclusions are derived from aforementioned research questions, namely (1) brand sensuality can only be expressed to consumers using sensorial strategies along the value-generating process; (2) brand sensuality, as a construct, is a key driver of brand value in the focus of service provision and (3) brand sensuality impacts directly on brand experiences and indirectly on CBBE. The main contribution of this thesis consists in integrating brand sensuality for the first time into a CBBE context, along with traditional branding constructs such as brand personality, brand relationship and brand experience, identified in literature as key drivers of brand value. Furthermore, this thesis is the first to explore the direct and indirect impact of brand sensuality on CBBE. Finally, the empirical research uses a sample of real consumers and was conducted online with the collaboration of ACP – the Portuguese Automobile Association. In this regard, it is the first study on car brands, which incorporates brand sensuality as a construct within a sensory-branding framework. v ABSTRACT A gestão da marca contemporânea e a literatura sobre marketing sensorial destacam a importância e o impacto positivo das dimensões sensoriais na sensualidade da marca em relação às experiências da marca no processo de criação de valor. Além disso, também sugerem que existe a necessidade de colmatar uma lacuna de investigação relativa à forma como as dimensões sensoriais contribuem para aumentar o valor da marca para os consumidores, quando estes experimentam produtos e serviços. Consequentemente, o principal objectivo desta tese consiste em explorar, analisar e explicar a relação entre a sensualidade da marca e o valor da marca para os consumidores, respondendo ao seguinte problema de investigação: Será o construto da sensualidade da marca um antecedente do valor da marca para os consumidores num contexto B2C? Desta forma três questões de investigação são formuladas e discutidas nos três artigos compilados nesta tese: (1) Do ponto de vista estratégico, de que forma podem as marcas exprimir a sua sensualidade aos consumidores no processo de criação de valor?; (2) Qual é a relação existente entre a sensualidade da marca e o valor da marca para os consumidores dentro da estrutura teórica do branding sensorial? e (3) Do ponto de vista empírico, a sensualidade da marca tem um impacto direto ou indireto no valor da marca para o consumidor? Há três conclusões principais que decorrem das acima mencionadas questões de investigação: (1) em primeiro lugar, a sensualidade da marca só pode ser expressa aos consumidores através da utilização de estratégias sensoriais ao longo do processo de criação de valor; (2) em segundo lugar, a sensualidade da marca, como um construto, é a principal força motriz do valor da marca num contexto de fornecimento de serviços (3) e, por último, a sensualidade da marca tem um impacto direto nas experiências da marca e indireto no valor da marca para os consumidores. O principal contributo desta tese consiste em, pela primeira vez, integrar a sensualidade da marca num contexto de criação do valor da marca para os consumidores com outros construtos tradicionais da gestão da marca, como a personalidade da marca, a relação da vi marca e a experiência da marca, identificados na literatura como motores da criação de valor. Adicionalmente, esta tese é a primeira a explorar o impacto direto e indireto da sensualidade da marca na criação do valor da marca para os consumidores. Finalmente, a pesquisa empírica utiliza uma amostra de consumidores reais e foi conduzida em colaboração com o ACP – Automóvel Club de Portugal. Neste âmbito, é o primeiro estudo sobre marcas de automóveis que incorpora a sensualidade da marca como um constructo dentro da estrutura teórica do branding sensorial. vii viii 7 Finally, the sense of taste is considered one of the most distinctly emotional, due to its capacity to facilitate social exchanges among people, its inner connections to other senses and high degree of interaction between firms and customers at a personal level. Research shows that a taste experience persuades customers to stay longer in a shop, which in turn leads to higher consumption. Firms can apply tastes to flavor a brand and give it new hedonic dimensions and “spice” its brand, so as to keep it fresh in consumer’s memory. In conclusion, academic research on human senses stresses how sensory dimensions impact the brand value co-creation process as a result of multi-sensory brandexperiences (Hultén, 2011). These studies assume that human senses influence the ways brands are perceived by consumers, when they experience products and services, and highlight the importance of sensory dimensions as facilitators of emotional engagement and interaction between consumers and brands. 1.2 Problem discussion Recent literature on branding shares the perspective that brand equity takes place in consumer’s minds (Aaker, 1996; Kapferer, 1992; Keller, 1993). This highlights the importance of brands as operant resources in marketing strategy and consumers as active co-creators of brand value (Merz et al., 2009). Of particular interest is the assumption that consumer-based brand equity is multidimensional (Pappu et al., 2005). In this regard, some sub-dimensions of brand association, such as brand personality (Aaker, 1997; Keller, 1993), brand relationship (Blackston, 1992; Jones, 2005; Esch et al., 2006) and brand experience (Keller and Lehman, 2006; Brakus et al., 2009; Zarantonello and Schmitt, 2010) are suggested to antecedents of brand equity. Brand personality is identified in literature as the most important form of brand association which influences brand equity (Aaker, 1991, 1997) and has been proposed as antecedent to consumer-based brand equity, which enriches the measurement of brand knowledge (Pappu et al., 2005). More recently, Esch et al. (2006) proposed a model which combines brand knowledge and brand relationship as antecedents to 8 CBBE. This branding perspective suggests that the brand co-creation process is dynamic and relational (Blackston, 1992; Merz et al., 2009; Grönroos, 2007) and that its value rests in the minds of consumers, opinion makers and stakeholders as a result of a social interaction (Merz et al., 2009; Jones, 2005). Furthermore, Esch et al. (2006) claim that the research on brand relationship construct should be combined with experiential marketing techniques (brand experiences), since it results in increased emotional engagement and interactions between the consumer and the brand. Brand experience, as a concept, is considered a dimension of brand knowledge (Keller, 2003) and is intended to contribute to consumer-based brand equity directly and indirectly through brand personality associations (Brakus et al., 2009). The brand-building process has received increased research attention during the last decades as a result of more and more brands striving to differentiate in highly competitive markets. With the emergence of a society characterized by information overload, a lack of time and an aestheticization of everyday life, traditional brand strategies built upon transactional marketing (TM) or relational marketing (RM) are being challenged. Furthermore, theoretical concerns are raised of how sensory dimensions can create brand value for brands as Apple, Mercedes or Starbucks (Brakus et al., 2009). In this context, it might be argued that sensory dimensions stand as a way to theoretically link the human senses to brand experiences. Nevertheless, to this point, prior research on branding has not been able to capture this phenomenon as a whole and theoretically integrate sensory-based constructs into a conceptual framework with regard to the significance of sensory dimensions for brand experiences in the brandbuilding and value-generating process (Brakus et al., 2009; Schmitt, 1999, 2012; Krishna, 2011; Keller, 1993, 2001, 2002, 2003). As discussed earlier, consumers perceive brands through the human senses and derive brand images which are said to contain “the meaning of the brand for consumers” (Keller, 1993, p. 3) in the value-generating process. Each individual perceives and experiences service, both goods and service components, through the senses. It is in the human brain that the sensory information is stored (sensory memory) and an image is created in terms of mental conceptions and imagination (short-term memory) to be 9 further activated by long-term memory. This image is the result of the positive or negative sensory experiences an individual derives from a service that is synonymous with the brand (Grönroos, 2007). As suggested by Hultén et al. (2009, p. 13), deeping and individualizing new sensory experiences of different kinds “can increase the quality of customer treatment, which can lead to stronger brand recognition and brand image in the long term.” In this thesis, I conceptualize brand value as embedded in multi-sensory brandexperiences and created as a result of a distinct and unique brand sensuality. In this regard, brand value is proposed to be determined by perceived value when consumers experience services and goods by using their senses. My assumption is that by focusing on sensory dimensions following the human senses consumers are able to select brands to solve their hedonic and aesthetics orientated needs. Hence, brand sensuality plays an important role in the value-generating process by facilitating the interaction between appealing brands and active consumers, who look for sensory and experiential benefits in the value-generating process. Following this perspective, I define brand sensuality as: “The firm’s ability to seduce and engage consumers emotionally through the involvement of the five human senses, when consumers experience goods and services as a result of multi-sensory brand-experiences.” It is evident that although branding and marketing literature suggests a customer-centric view of a firm’s marketing strategy and tactics, as well as the multidimensionality of consumer-based brand equity, there is a strong call for theory development on the relationship between brand sensuality and CBBE. Furthermore, an integrated model of consumer-based brand equity incorporating brand sensuality with other branding constructs is needed, allowing marketing scholars to rethink each of constructs separately (i.e. brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality) and focus on the their relationships with consumer-based brand equity. 10 Consequently, there are theoretical and empirically problems that need to be addressed. Firstly, to rethink traditional branding strategies in the value-generating process in a society where consumers seek new consumption experiences in their everyday lives and the consumption process has been affected by the constant need for novelty, imagery, emotion and fun (Holbrook and Hirschmann, 1982; Schmitt, 1999). Secondly, to explore how brand sensuality as a construct interdependently and independently influence consumer-based brand equity and, finally, integrate this construct into a consumer-based brand equity context. 1.3 Research problem and purpose The insufficient knowledge on brand sensuality and its relation with consumer-based brand equity is the focus of this thesis. Brand sensuality, in my opinion, should be considered as a key determinant to create a strong brand image in consumers’ minds in the long term. Furthermore, brand sensuality allows both scholars and marketers to rethink brands as dynamic brands imbued of sensorial dimensions which constantly appeal to consumer’s senses along the value-generating process. Academic research substantiates the significance and positive impact of sensory dimensions in brand experiences, but there is a research gap concerning how sensory dimensions contribute to enhance the perceived value-in-use as a result of a multisensory brand-experience. Hence, brand sensuality, as a construct, is of significance in this thesis, since it can increase our knowledge about the role of human senses in contemporary branding. Seeking to address these empirical and theoretical research issues, the following overreaching research problem is stated: Is the construct of brand sensuality an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity in a B2C context? 11 This research problem gives rise to three research questions, namely (1) From a strategic point of view, how can brands express their sensuality to consumers in the value-generating process? (2) Which is the relationship between brand sensuality and consumer-based brand equity within a sensory branding framework? (3) From an empirical point of view, does brand sensuality impact directly or indirectly on consumer-based brand equity? Based on the overarching research problem, the main objective of this thesis is to explore, analyze and explain the relationship between brand sensuality and consumerbased brand equity. This will be achieved by (1) exploring and analyzing traditional brand strategies in comparison to sensorial strategies as a means to express brand sensuality in a B2C context; (2) proposing brand sensuality as an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity within a sensory branding framework and (3) providing empirical evidence that brand sensuality, as a construct, is a key antecedent to consumer-based brand equity. 1.4 Essay compilation Three Essays are compiled within this thesis as a base for answering the aforementioned research problem. The Essays are summarized in Chapter 4 and are provided as a full version following the list of references for Chapters 1 – 5. The first research question concerning how brands can strategically express their sensuality to consumers in the value-generating process in order to differentiate and position a brand in the human mind is addressed in Essay 1. This paper is entirely conceptual in nature and it is developed through the context of discovery. It presents a review of literature of theoretically relevant work from marketing, branding and consumer psychology and demonstrates that in literature there is a gap with respect to how consumers perceive, as opposed to actually experience a brand image through the human senses. Moreover, it defines and elaborates the concept of sensorial strategies within a sensory branding framework and accounts for the need to apply strategic brand approaches in a B2C context. 12 The second research question aiming at exploring and discussing the relationship between brand sensuality and consumer-based brand equity is addressed in Essay 2. This paper is entirely conceptual and presents the main theoretical perspectives on consumer-based brand equity, followed by a discussion of CBBE multidimensionality, in which traditional constructs such as brand personality, brand relationship and brand experience are analyzed. Moreover, it discusses the relationship between brand sensuality and consumer-based brand equity within a sensory branding framework and ends by proposing brand sensuality as a possible antecedent to CBBE. Finally, the third research question, concerning the measurement of the impact of brand sensuality on consumer-based brand equity, is addressed in Essay 3. This paper analyze and discuss: 1) the significance of a brand sensuality construct and its effect on CBBE, 2) how brand sensuality as a construct could be seen as an antecedent to consumerbased brand equity and 3) how firms could apply brand sensuality in order to create a positive brand experience and thereby stronger brand image in enhancing consumerbased brand equity. 1.5 Thesis structure In addition to this introductory chapter, there are four chapters accounting for the theoretical framework, methodology, compiled Essays, and major conclusions and contributions of the present thesis. Chapter 2 presents the theoretical framework. Firstly, the main theoretical perspectives on consumer-based brand equity are presented, followed by a discussion of CBBE multidimensionality. Secondly, it is provided an overview about sensory branding, analyzing concepts such as multi-sensory brand-experiences, sensorial strategies and brand sensuality. The chapter ends with a conclusion, in which a theoretical synthesis is provided. Chapter 3 concerns the methodology. In this chapter the scientific approach behind this research is stated, and the overall research strategy is outlined. Firstly, a general 13 discussion is made over the undertaken research process followed by a detailed description of the pre-understanding process, literature review and the methods used in the empirical study, as well as a discussion in terms of validity and reliability. Thereafter, a brief note is given regarding the overview of the research process. Chapter 4 provides a summary of the compiled Essays, serving as an introduction to each of the Essays and accounting for the rationale of the study, research problem and aim, theoretical framework applied, empirical data, and theoretical and managerial contributions. Chapter 5 provides the reader with the major conclusions, implications and suggestions of future research. Based on the overarching research problem, the major conclusions are presented and contributions are accounted for theoretical, methodological and managerial issues. This chapter also discusses the limitations of the thesis and proposes ideas for future research. Following the five aforementioned chapters, the three Essays compiled for the thesis are provided in their full versions (Essays 1 - 3). Thereafter, the standardized questionnaire used in Essay 3 as a measurement instrument (Appendix I), the list of items (Appendix II) and the compiled data (Appendix 3) are appended. 14 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction The theoretical framework firstly outlines the theories on consumer-based brand equity and discusses the multidimensionality of CBBE, deriving three main key concepts: brand personality, brand relationship and brand experience. Secondly, it is provided an overview about sensory branding, analyzing concepts such as multi-sensory brandexperiences, sensorial strategies and brand sensuality. Finally, a theoretical synthesis is provided. 2.2 Consumer-based brand equity As discussed in the introduction, any direct or indirect encounter between a brand and a consumer might impact on the mental picture of a brand in the memory of consumers (i.e. brand image) and contribute to brand equity. This might occur when a consumer is exposed to any kind of environmental input and stimuli perceived by the human senses as a result of marketing activities (Keller, 1993, 2002; de Chernatony and Horn, 2003). The process immediately establishes primary and secondary associations with and/or perceptions of the brand (Keller, 1993, 2002). Raggio and Leone (2007) suggest that brand associations and/or perceptions create brand equity through their existence in the consumer’s memory, and not by the purchase itself. Furthermore, brand associations are identified as means of enhancing differentiation (McEnally and de Chernatony, 1999) and indicate whether or not the promise of a certain brand is salient (Raggio and Leone, 2007). In this regard, an overview of the main theoretical perspectives on consumerbased brand equity is provided, followed by a discussion about the key concepts within CBBE. 2.2.1 Main theories of consumer-based brand equity Theories on consumer-based brand equity put in evidence the differential effect on consumer response to marketing activities, whereas there is a large disagreement on its 15 sources. The most dominant influence on this body of research are Aaker’s (1991) and Keller’s (1993) conceptualizations. Aaker (1991, p. 15) defines brand equity as a “set of categories of brand assets (liabilities) linked to a brand’s name or symbol that add to (substract from) the value provided by a product or a service”. This multidimensional conceptualization of brand equity includes brand awareness, perceived quality, brand associations, and brand loyalty. On the hand, Keller (1993, p. 8) defines brand equity as “the differential effect of a brand knowledge on consumer response to marketing efforts of a brand.” In the theoretical framework proposed by Keller, brand knowledge is defined in terms of brand awareness and brand image. Kapferer (1997) also extended Keller’s conceptualization and proposed six brand assets: brand awareness, brand image, perceived quality, evocations and familiarity and liking. The common denominator in these conceptualizations is that brand equity has a consumer-based brand focus, since it exists “within a consumer” and not within a brand (Keller, 1993). As proposed by Keller (1993, p.2), brand equity “occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory”. Thus, the differential consumer response to the marketing of a brand moderates the “impact of marketing activities on consumer’s actions” (Raggio and Leone, 2007, p. 380). Moreover, brand equity is regarded as one of many possible factors contributing to brand value, and it has been suggested that brand equity stands for what a brand really means for consumers (Raggio and Leone, 2007). 2.2.2 Key concepts within consumer-based brand equity As discussed earlier, recent empirical studies explain the multidimensionality of consumer-brand based equity (Pappu et al., 2005) and suggest the incorporation of some sub-dimensions of brand associations, such as brand personality (Aaker, 1997; Keller, 1993), brand relationship (Blackston, 1992; Jones, 2005; Esch et al., 2006) and brand experience (Keller and Lehman, 2006; Brakus et al., 2009; Zarantonello and Schmitt, 2010) as antecedents of brand equity. However, the extent to which some of these sub-dimensions interdependently and independently influence consumer-based 16 brand equity has not been fully explored and is proposed in the literature as a future research direction. 2.2.2.1 Brand Personality The notion of brand personality is commonly accepted by many academics and advertising practitioners as a key determinant of brand equity (Aaker, 1991; Biel, 1993; Keller, 1993). The pioneering brand personality scale proposed by Aaker (1997) based on personality measurement theory (e.g. Norman, 1963; Osgood et al., 1957), initiated a new stream of research within a relational consumption approach (Keller, 2002; Azaoulay and Kapferer, 2003). Defined as “the set of human characteristics associated with a brand” (Aaker, 1997, p. 347), brand personality is either treated in the marketing literature as brand identity as a whole (Aaker, 1997) or a dimension of it (Kapferer, 1992; Keller, 1993; Azaoulay and Kapferer, 2003) and serves a symbolic or self-expressive function (Keller, 1993), providing the basis for distinct and sustainable competitive advantage (McEnally and de Chernatony, 1999; Freeling and Forbes, 2005). It is argued that consumers can easily ascribe human characteristics to inanimate brand objects and that they think about brands as if they were celebrities, famous historical figures or just human characters (Aaker, 1997; Plummer, 1984-85; Rook, 1985). In order for brands to serve as a legitimate relationship partner, Fournier (1998) and McEnally and de Chernatony (1999) suggest that marketers animate the brand as a dynamic entity in the consumer’s mind and constantly reinterpret individual perceptions about brand personality, so as “to keep the brand fresh”. Some scholars argue that a strong brand personality increases consumer preference and usage (Sirgy, 1982), as well as levels of trust and loyalty (Fournier, 1998), evokes emotions in consumers (Biel, 1993) and encourages active and systematic processing with high consumer motivation (Biel, 1993). Academic research on the antecedents of brand personality suggests that behaviorial trait inferences are based on both physical and psychological elements of the product 23 At an explanatory level, sensors are proposed as communicative means for determining the sensorial strategies, since it is possible to transmit stimuli and gather information about the human mind and senses, through technological devices, observation methods, employees and direct interaction with customers (ibid). On the other hand, sensations defined as “as emotion or feeling that deliberately links the human mind and the senses” (ibid, p. 264) aim at expressing a distinct and sensory-based brand identity and value and thus facilitate the multi-sensory brand experience. Finally, sensory expressions, conceptualized as “an experience trigger that clarifies a brand’s identity and values and leaves an imprint in the customer’s mind” (ibid, p. 265) aim at characterizing the brand’s identity and its uniqueness in relation to each of the five human senses. 2.3.3 Brand sensuality In the brand-management domain, little attention has been paid to how brand sensuality, as a concept, impacts on consumer behaviour in purchase and consumption processes. In a broad perspective, the existing studies acknowledge mainly for the impact of sensory dimensions on the pleasure created by the human senses, when consumers relate to appealing products and services. According to Krishna (2011), the appeal of a product or service can be increased either by creating new sensations or by emphasizing or drawing attention to existing sensations. In this regard, sensorial strategies are proposed as a means of differentiation which are able to affect perception, judgment and consumer behaviour and establish strong emotional ties with consumers (Hultén, 2011; Krishna, 2011). Research on consumer sensory processing shows that sensory dimensions enhance the product and atmospherics experience, increase preferences for a given product and purchase likelihood, lead to greater confidence in product evaluations, increase the amount consumers are willing to pay for products and services and affect behaviour and mood positively (Grohmann et al., 2007; McCabe and Nowlis, 2003; Peck and Childers, 2003; Peck and Shu, 2009; Herz, 1997, 1998, 2000; Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2000, 2003; Hirsch, 1995; Krishna et al., 2010; Hornick, 1992; Schiffman et al., 1995; Villemure et al., 2003; Baron, 1997; Milliman, 1982; 1986; Dubé et al., 1995). 24 Research on sensory processing also demonstrates that intrinsic sensory dimensions influence consumers’ perceptions of product freshness, taste, weight and quality. A study by Zampini and Spence (2004) demonstrates that changing the sound a potato chip makes when bitten (e.g. loudness and frequency) can influence the perceived characteristics of the product (e.g. how fresh the potato is perceived to be). Moreover, Raghubir and Krishna (1999) show that whereas consumers perceive elongated containers to contain more, their actual experience contradicts this belief, subsequently convincing them that they have consumed more from the less elongated container. On the other hand, empirical research on sensory dimensions provides evidence that brand-related stimulus create physical attraction, increase the level of attention, signals the status of a product, influence hedonic perceptions of products and have a positive impact on consumption behaviour (Bellizi et al., 1983; Chandon et al., 2008; Dubois et al., 2011; Leclerc et al., 1994; Allison and Uhl, 1964; Brown et al., 1973; Krishna, 2011; Ittersum and Wansinki, 2011; Hultén, 2012). A growing body of studies on consumer research demonstrate that sensory dimensions have a positive impact on product and store evaluations, brand recall and recognition. Moreover, as a whole, research suggests that consumer evaluations tend to be more positive when sensory dimensions are congruent and naturally reinforcing. Spangenberg et al. (2005) demonstrate that a pleasant ambient scent improve store evaluations when it was seasonally congruent with the background music. In another study, Spangenberg et al. (2006) find that consumers increased their expenditures in a store selling clothing when the scent released in the air was congruent with the type of clothing being sold. In a field study, Morrin and Chebat (2005) show that impulsive shoppers spend more money when pleasant music is playing in a shopping mall. By contrast, contemplative shoppers or those who do not make unplanned purchases increase their expenditures when a pleasant scent was being released. In the domain of advertising, researchers have addressed the impact of hedonic perception on consumer behaviour. Peck and Wiggins (2006) find that adding tactile cues to an ad, such as a feather or a pamphlet requesting donations that make the 25 consumer feel good, increase both persuasion and the likelihood of donation. Gorn et al. (1997) demonstrate that colours affect different reaction to ads, either feelings of relaxation (e.g. blue hues) or excitement (e.g. red hues). Park and Young (1986) suggest that music can trigger affective feelings or mood and act as a peripheral persuasion cue in advertising. Moreover, MacInnis and Park (1991) demonstrate that music heightens consumer involvement in an ad and stimulates the processing of advertised message and past emotion-laden experiences. Research also shows that when music is congruent with the ad message, brand and message recall is enhanced (Kellaris et al., 1993). Research has also tried to identify how sensory imagery affects brand evaluations and how consumers use extrinsic cues to infer product attributes. In an investigation of how German and French music influence wine selection, North et al. (1999) find that music activates wine shoppers related knowledge and the strong national associations have a positive effect on their product choices. Another study conducted by Areni and Kim (1993) shows that music generates associations regarding price, status and class, in that consumers purchase more expensive wines when classic music is playing in the store. As noted by Yorkston and Menon (2004), phonetic symbolism acts as a sensory cue that enables consumers to infer product attributes in the same way as a brand name. Research on visual imagery, which focuses on the inclusion of a product image in a package, demonstrates that it can be used as an extrinsic cue to communicate information about the product’s sensory characteristics (Pavio, 1986). Underwood and Klein (2002) demonstrate that product imagery on packaging impacts on consumers’ evaluations of both packaging and brands. As Keller and Lehman (2006) note product experiences are multi-sensory-based and impact on brand equity in several ways. It can be argued that the way the brand expresses itself to consumers deliver a brand promise by attaching sensory associations to a product or a service. These associations are able to enhance the intrinsic characteristics of products or services (e.g. the smooth sound of a Mercedes-Benz door closing, which is associated with a premium product), or create a distinctive sensorial identity (e.g. the raw sound of a Harley Davidson bike which gives you the feeling of being wild and free). Human senses therefore act as retrieval cues when exposed to 26 proximal, sensory brand-stimuli that are strong and positive enough to be reactivated through sensorial strategies. In this regard, consumers recognise brands unconsciously based on their brand sensuality. In this thesis, the definition of brand sensuality is grounded on sensory experiences based on pleasure stimuli and input perceived by the human senses, when consumers experience appealing products and services in their value-generating processes. Moreover, brand sensuality is both transactional and relational-based and results from an interactive and personalized relationship between the brand and the consumer, in which the five human senses have a central role in creating and delivering unique and meaningful multi-sensory brand-experiences. 2.4 Conclusion Consumer-based brand equity has been addressed as a significant construct in theory and practice for a long time in explaining how consumers perceive and experience brands. Nevertheless, the research in this domain is still sparse and requires more attention. Earlier models on brand equity have focused heavily on how consumers perceive, relate to and evaluate brands by investigating knowledge structures such as brand awareness, image and personality (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993) and brand relationships (Fournier, 1998; McAlexander et al., 2002; Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). More recently, researchers have argued that is important to consider how brand experiences impact on consumer-based brand equity and to analyze its moderate effect on building strong brands (Brakus et al., 2009). In this theoretical context, sensory dimensions are also taken into account in creating meaningful brand experiences, but are not explored enough in considering its effect on brand experiences and the way it impacts on consumer-based brand equity. Furthermore, it is commonly accepted that brand experiences increase interactions and emotional ties between brands and consumers and that consumers are looking for brands that provide them with memorable and unique experiences (Pine and Gilmore, 1998; Schmitt, 1999). 27 As discussed in Essay 1, the significance of sensory dimensions raises the question of how firms can create and deliver meaningful and personalized experiences and thus enhance brand image in the long run. With the emergence of sensory marketing (e.g. Essay 2), it is argued that brand sensuality could be seen as a concept that could contribute to position a brand as image in the human mind. Moreover, as stressed in Essay 3, there is a need to investigate the direct and indirect impact of brand sensuality on consumer-based brand equity that could better explain the influence of the human senses on how consumers perceive and experience brands as image. 28 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction As an introduction to the methodology chapter, a brief presentation on the scientific approach of this thesis will be presented, as well as an account for the research strategies followed in the three Essays. Thereafter, a general discussion is made over the undertaken pre-understanding and literature study process followed by a detailed description of the methods used in the empirical study and a discussion in terms of validity and reliability. Finally, a brief note is given regarding the overview of the research process. 3.2 Scientific approach Burrell and Morgan (1979, p.1) state that “All social scientists approach their subject via explicit or implicit assumptions about the nature of the social world and the way in which it may be investigated”. In this thesis, pragmatism guides the scientific approach allowing me, as a researcher, to verify and make generalizations deriving from obtained knowledge, either objectively through literature review or subjectively through my experience as a consultant. Moreover, by accepting a continuum between objectivity and subjectivity, grounded on a holistic form of pragmatism (Baert, 2005), I was allowed to move back and forth between theory and anecdotal evidence. In fact, pragmatism advocates a more broadly thinking in social science (Baert, 2005) and avoids the conflict between rational explanations of the social world (objectivist approach) and its interpretation (subjectivist approach). Furthermore, it allows the researcher to move away from the dominant and incompatible epistemologies of positivism and constructivism (Burrel and Morgan, 1979). Branding and marketing research is dominated by a deductive logic approach, which “represents the most common view of the nature of the relationship between theory and research” (Bryman and Bell, 2011, p. 11). According to this logic, researchers move from what is known about a particular domain and its theoretical considerations to 29 deducing a hypothesis that will be further subjected to empirical testing. On the other hand, inductive approach starts with observation of individual cases from which generalizable inferences are derived. In a broad view, a deductive approach guides quantitative researches whereas an inductive approach is typically associated with qualitative researches (Neuman, 2000). In this thesis, a deductive research strategy is chosen to capture the rational and subjective, observed knowledge. The adoption of a deductive scientific approach facilitated the process of exploring what was known about the phenomenon studied and contributed to build a consistent theoretical framework, which is presented in Essay 1 and 2. Moreover, the refinement of the existing theory along the research process provided the investigation with a strong deductive starting point, in order to develop and to test a new construct discussed in Essay 3. By interpreting both theoretical and empirical frameworks, it became possible to discover an underlying pattern that highlights the importance of brand sensuality as a key antecedent to consumer-based brand equity. 3.3 Research strategy Research strategies concern the general orientation when conducting a research, either by applying quantitative or qualitative methods. Quantitative methods emphasize a deductive approach between theory and research with a focus on theories testing, and consider social reality as external and objective. On the other hand, qualitative methods entail an inductive approach with an accent on generation of ideas, and embody social reality as a constantly shifting entity (Bryman and Bell, 2011). Moreover, it is commonly accepted that the context of the study determines the research strategy and that it should match the proposed research problem (Marschan-Piekkari and Welch, 2004). In this thesis, Essays 1 and 2 are entirely conceptual in nature and are developed through the context of discovery. In this regard, these Essays entail a deductive approach from the theoretical framework, providing a detailed review of theoretically relevant work from marketing and branding in the last decades. Furthermore, the two 30 Essays discuss and analyze significant branding constructs such as brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality in relation to consumer-based brand equity and suggest a strategic sensorial branding approach as a means of solving the theoretical dilemma in contemporary marketing models. Departing from a framework for analysis presented in Essay 2, the researcher derives to a more focused and structured theory which is further subjected to empirical testing in a B2C context. The results of the quantitative study are presented in Essay 3 and significant statistical generalizations are accomplished. 3.4 Pre-understanding My activity as an international marketing consultant awoke my curiosity about innovative ways of building strong brands in highly competitive markets. I remember that my senses were dazzled when I visited some stores and entertainment places across Europe and I got intrigued about the role of human senses on shopper experiences. In 2005, the book “Brand Sense”, authored by Martin Lindstrom, was published and I read it with the enthusiasm of a practitioner seduced by a more hedonic and experiential branding perspective. Further interesting readings followed, such as “Marketing Aesthetics” (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997) and “Emotional Branding” (Gobé, 2001), as well as some trending articles published in the international press about experiential marketing. Consequently, my interest on this research area grew rapidly and later on I decided to propose myself as PhD candidate. I was accepted in Oporto University in 2006 and I have attended doctoral classes during two years. In 2007, I have participated in ESOMAR Fragrance Conference that was held in Paris (France), which provided me with information about new trends, consumers insights and challenges for marketers in defining, measuring and evaluating the role of fragrances in branding. Furthermore, between 2007 and 2013, I have attended several conferences and seminars about marketing and branding, either in Portugal or other European countries. Having a wide experience as branding consultant and creative director in retail, fashion, cosmetics, wines, pharmaceutical and aluminum systems industries offers me the opportunity to collect data on real contexts, to learn about brand managers’ challenges 31 and expectations and to generate a broad overview of issues concerning brand-building process in contemporary society. This solid business experience facilitated my understanding of the research problem and helped me to develop the thesis from a scientific point of view. 3.5 Literature study The beginning of the literature study process focused on searching for books and articles, in order to start building a consistent theoretical framework in regard to the proposed research problem. Therefore, as a starting point, I read about marketing and branding theories such as relationship marketing, the service-dominant logic, transactional and relationship branding strategies, and sensory marketing. Hence, books such as “In search of a new logic for marketing: Foundations of contemporary theory” from Grönroos (2007), “Sensory Marketing” from Krishna (2010) and “Sensory Marketing” from Hultén et al. (2009), provided me with important insights of how a service-dominant logic could theoretically be linked to a sensory marketing approach. Thereafter, I felt the need to investigate deeper on the existing theoretical and empirical studies about human senses and multi-sensory brand-experiences as drivers of brand value. To achieve this goal, Oporto University online database was used to look for articles published in the last ten years on those issues. From the data research, it was possible to conclude that there was a growing field of empirical studies on the sensory dimensions of brands applied mainly to one or two senses individually. Nevertheless, research on brand experiences was very scarce and only three relevant empirical and conceptual articles were found (Brakus et al., 2009; Zarantonello et al., 2010; Hultén, 2011). My first Essay, entitled “Sensorial brand strategies for value co-creation”, derives from the first stage of the literature study in this thesis. The next step consisted in searching for articles which accounted for the value cocreation process following a service-dominant logic. The main objective was to understand how brands create brand value with consumers along the value-generating process and how can it be related to a sensory branding framework. Finally, a detailed 32 literature study was made on traditional key antecedents to consumer-based brand equity, such as brand personality, brand relationship and brand experience. In this regard, several relevant articles were identified and analyze, providing a solid basis to elaborate a framework for analysis, which is proposed in the second Essay entitled “Sensory branding: Towards an integrated conceptual model with propositions and evidence”. In general, my literature study focused on leading scientific journal, such as the Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Retailing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Marketing Management, European Management Journal, Journal of Product and Brand Management, Advances in Consumer Research, European Business Review, Journal of Brand Management, among others. 3.6 Empirical study 3.6.1 Methods description As discussed in Chapter 2, the review of relevant literature on branding and marketing shows that a majority of studies on consumer-based brand equity are conceptual and only a minority has investigated CBBE empirically. Consequently, there is a need for future research on the antecedents of CBBE encompassing a quantitative research strategy. In this regard, a questionnaire design appears to be the most appropriate means to answer the overarching research problem of this thesis “Is the construct of brand sensuality an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity in a B2C context?” together with the three stated research questions. Hence, following the framework for analysis proposed in Essay 2, an empirical study was undertaken with the collaboration of ACP – the Portuguese Automobile Association, allowing the researcher to use a sample of real consumers. Research in this domain has mainly focused on student samples, which tends to create some investigation bias. Some exceptions are Pappu et al. (2005) and Shamin and Butt’s 39 4. SUMMARY OF ESSAYS In this chapter, a compilation of the Essays will be presented and a brief summary of each Essay will be given. The summary begins with the rationale of the study, the research questions and the aims of the Essay. Thereafter, the theoretical framework is accounted for and the empirical study and research design is briefly mentioned, together with the findings of the Essay. Finally, each summary includes a note on the theoretical and managerial contributions. The full version of the Essays is included in the end of this chapter. 4.1 Essay 1 Rodrigues, C., B. Hultén e C. Brito (2011), “Sensorial brand strategies for value co-creation”, Journal Innovative Marketing, Vol. 7, Nº 2, pp. 40-47. Keywords: sensory marketing model, branding, human senses, sensorial strategies Inspired by service logic, an assumption is that the value of a brand emerges when interactions occur through the consumer’s multi-sensory brand-experiences in the valuegenerating process, creating a symbiosis between individual and brand. This view contrasts with the axiom of traditional marketing, that self-interest and competition are the drivers of value creation and is in accordance with relationship marketers who believe that it is mutual cooperation that delivers value. Furthermore, the significance of the human senses relating to seeing, sound, smelling, touching and tasting, where individuals perceive and experience goods and services as brand as image raises the issue of how companies can create and deliver meaningful and powerful personalized experiences. The paper is entirely conceptual in nature and it is developed through the context of discovery. A review of theoretically relevant work from marketing, branding and consumer psychology is presented and it is demonstrated that in literature there is a gap with respect to how consumers perceive, as opposed to actually experience a brand as image through human senses. The article discusses how to delve into the consumers 40 mind and treat them in a more personal manner through differentiating and expressing a brand. Moreover, it discusses the concept of sensorial strategies in contrast to transactional strategies and relational strategies and considers how a sensory marketing model can be regarded as an alternative to conventional marketing models. The contribution of the Essay is a conceptual understanding based on theory development in proposing a definition of sensorial strategies within a strategic sensorial brand approach. This should be seen as a practical means of solving the theoretical dilemma in contemporary marketing models. This approach integrates the human senses with branding and marketing theories, so as to consider the deliberate involvement of the human senses to construct an image of a brand, based on individual perceptions and sensory experiences in purchase and consumption processes. 4.2 Essay 2 Rodrigues, C., B. Hultén e C. Brito (2013), “Sensory branding: Towards an integrated conceptual model with propositions and evidence”. Keywords: conceptual paper, propositions, sensory branding model, consumer-based brand equity, business performance Brand equity models share the perspective that brand equity takes place in consumers’ minds (Aaker, 1996; Kapferer, 1992; Keller, 1993), which highlights the importance of brands as operant resources in marketing strategy and consumers as active co-creators of brand value (Merz et al., 2009). Moreover, the branding literature explains the multidimensionality of consumer-based brand equity (Pappu et al, 2005) and suggests the incorporation of some sub-dimensions of brand associations, such as brand personality (Aaker, 1997; Keller, 1993), brand relationship (Blackston, 1992; Jones, 2005; Esch et al., 2006) and brand experience (Keller and Lehman, 2006; Brakus et al., 2009; Zarantonello and Schmitt, 2010) as antecedents to brand equity. However, the extent to which some of these sub-dimensions interdependently and independently 41 influence consumer-based brand equity has not been fully explored and is proposed in the literature as a future research direction. The main contribution of this Essay is that is proposes a conceptual and integrated model within a sensory branding framework, encompassing the concepts of brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality as antecedents to consumer-based brand equity. In this context, a comprehensive review of previous research is the marketing and branding literature is conducted and a framework for analysis is proposed for future empirical testing. An important theoretical implication is that the proposed sensory branding framework brings together disparate constructs into a more cohesive integrated conceptual model with propositions and evidence. In this regard, marketing scholars are allowed to rethink each of the constructs separately and focus on the relationships between the constructs and the consumer-based brand equity. Another theoretical implication is that brand sensuality, as a construct, is proposed for the first time as key driver of brand value in the focus of the service provision. A managerial implication is that brand managers might benefit from adopting a sensory branding framework, so as to enhance consumer-based brand equity and achieve business performance. Moreover, the framework allows brand managers to appeal to consumers’ human senses through sensations and sensory experiences in positioning the brand as an image. This will facilitate firms and their brands to express their personality, manage relationships with consumers and build meaningful and memorable brand experiences, as well as expressing brand sensuality. 4.3 Essay 3 Rodrigues, C., B. Hultén, C. Brito e V. Martins (2013), “Brand Sensuality: An antecedent to consumer-based brand equity“. 42 Keywords: Empirical research paper, brand sensuality, consumer-based brand equity, sensory branding Consumer-based brand equity has been addressed as a significant construct in theory and practice for a long time in explaining how consumers perceive and experience brands. Earlier models on brand equity have focused heavily on how consumers perceive, relate to and evaluate brands by investigating knowledge structures such as brand awareness, image and personality (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993) and brand relationships (Fournier, 1998; McAlexander et al., 2002; Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). Within the emergence of sensory marketing, it has been argued that brand sensuality as a concept could contribute to create a positive brand experience and thereby stronger brand image in enhancing consumer-based brand equity. In the literature a theoretical gap has been identified concerning how the concept of brand sensuality could be seen as an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity. Moreover, there is a need to investigate the impact of brand sensuality in relation to brand experiences and measure its impact on CBBE in comparison to brand personality and brand relationship. In order to fill the existing theoretical gap, the present empirical study proposes brand sensuality as an antecedent of CBBE and raises the following research question: Is the construct of brand sensuality an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity in a B2C context? The data was collected from 482 users of car brands in collaboration with ACP – the Automobile Portuguese Association, using a convenience sampling technique. Data was analyzed using structural equation model to test the proposed relationships in the research model. The empirical findings support the research question that brand sensuality has a positive effect, through the mediation of brand experience, on consumer-brand based brand equity. Moreover, the direct relationship between brand sensuality and brand experience yields the highest standardized estimates when compared to brand personality and brand 43 relationship constructs, which accounts for the significance of brand sensuality as an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity. The main contribution of this Essay is that it proposes a definition of the construct of brand sensuality within a sensorial brand approach. Furthermore, it analyses and explains the impact of brand sensuality in relation to brand experience and measures its impact on consumer-based brand equity. An important theoretical implication is that this research contributes to our understanding of the antecedents of consumer-based brand equity by exploring the direct and indirect influence of the brand personality, brand relationship, brand sensuality and brand experience on CBBE. Additionally, the research enriches CBBE measurement by incorporating brand sensuality measures, which has not been accomplished before in the branding and marketing literature. The findings of the research have important implications for marketers, in particular for those who look for long-term brand success and innovative marketing techniques to interact with consumers in a more personalized manner. Developing an unique brand sensuality based on sight, sound, smell, taste and touch, will allow brands to engage with consumers emotionally when they experience products and services using their senses. 44 5. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH 5.1 Research problem The chosen methodology of this thesis stresses the significance and positive impact of sensory dimensions through brand sensuality in relation to brand experiences within a value-generating process. Moreover, it also accounts for the need to fulfill a research gap in contemporary branding and sensory marketing literature concerning how sensory dimensions contribute to enhance consumer-based brand equity when consumers experience products and services. As stated in the introduction chapter, the insufficient knowledge on brand sensuality and its relation with consumer-based brand equity gave rise to the formulation of the overreaching research problem: “Is the construct of brand sensuality an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity in a B2C context?” Based on the overarching research problem, I have concluded that brand sensuality, as a construct, can be seen as a key antecedent to consumer-based brand equity following a consumer-centric perspective. Furthermore, I argue that brand sensuality plays a central role in creating positive brand experiences and thereby stronger brand image in the long term. Hence, firms might benefit from adopting brand sensuality, based on sight, sound, touch, smell and taste in relation to different sensory dimensions in a B2C context to create brand value. 5.2 Main conclusions Branding literature shares the perspective that brand personality, brand relationship and brand experience, as concepts, are the most relevant antecedents to consumer-based brand equity. However, a consumer-centric perspective put in evidence the need to rethink how brand value is created within a sensory branding framework. Deriving from the aforementioned research problem of this thesis, three research questions were raised 45 in order to explore, analyze and explain the relationship between brand sensuality and consumer-based brand equity in a B2C context. 5.2.1 Research question 1 The first research question of this thesis consists in asking “From a strategic point of view, how can brands express their sensuality to consumers in the value-generating process?” Inspired by a service-dominant logic, I conclude that brand sensuality can only be expressed to consumers using sensorial strategies along the value-generating process in multiple encounters, such as products, communication, events and points-of- sale. This approach extends our knowledge of existing branding and marketing theories, so as to consider the involvement of human senses to construct a brand as image in a B2C context, based on individual perceptions and experiences in different purchase and consumption processes. It should be noted that the current marketing and branding literature offers no clear definition of sensorial strategies. In order to solve this theoretical dilemma, I define sensorial strategies as “an emotional and cognitive strategic approach developed by a firm or a brand in order to establish, maintain and enhance multiple and profitable relationships. This approach follows a service logic that delivers congruent consumer value and brand image with respect to a certain human sense or senses in the consumer’s mind” (Rodrigues et al., 2011, p. 44). 5.2.2 Research question 2 The second research question of this thesis consists in asking “Which is the relationship between brand sensuality and consumer-based brand equity within a sensory branding framework? The chosen methodology of this thesis allows me to conclude that brand sensuality, as a construct, is a key driver of brand value in the focus of service provision. Given this view, I propose the integration of brand sensuality, as a sensorybased construct, into a conceptual framework with regard to the significance of sensory dimensions in the brand-building and value-generating process. In this regard, brand 46 sensuality is proposed as central to creating strong and powerful brands in a B2C context. 5.2.3 Research question 3 The third research question of this thesis consists in asking “From an empirical point of view, does brand sensuality impact directly or indirectly on consumer-brand equity? The empirical findings allow me to conclude that brand sensuality impacts directly on brand experiences and indirectly on consumer-based brand equity. Moreover, the direct relationship between brand sensuality and brand experience yields the highest standardized estimates when compared to brand personality and brand relationship constructs, which accounts for the significance of brand sensuality as an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity. These findings yield new insights on how firms can apply brand sensuality in order to create a positive brand experience and enhance the perceived value-in-use in a B2C context. 5.3 Contributions This thesis aims at exploring, analyzing and explaining the theoretical and empirical relationships between brand sensuality and consumer-based brand equity within the brand value creation process in a B2C context. Hence, it provides a number of theoretical, methodological and managerial contributions, which will be further discussed in detail. 5.3.1 Theoretical contributions From a theoretical point a view, this thesis conceptualizes and proposes brand sensuality as a construct in explaining the role of sensory dimensions in the enhancement of the perceived value-in-use as a result of a multi-sensory brand-experience. This extends our knowledge of existing branding and marketing theories, so as to consider the deliberate involvement of human senses to construct an image of a brand, based on individual perceptions and experiences in different purchase and consumption processes. 47 Furthermore, this thesis analyses and discusses the significance of brand sensuality construct within a sensory branding framework and challenges both scholars and marketers to rethink brands as dynamic entities imbued of sensory dimensions, which constantly appeal to consumers’ senses along the value-generating process in multiple encounters, such as products, communication, events and points-of-sale. It should be noted that brand sensuality, as a construct, is integrated for the first time into a consumer-based brand-equity context, along with traditional branding constructs such as brand personality, brand relationship and brand experience, identified in literature as key drivers of brand value. Furthermore, this thesis is the first to explore the direct and indirect impact of brand sensuality on consumer-based brand equity. Another theoretical contribution is that this thesis provides the first definition of brand sensuality, i.e. “The firm’s ability to seduce and engage consumers emotionally through the involvement of the five human senses, when consumers experience goods and services as a result of multi-sensory brand-experiences”. This definition contributes to enhance branding knowledge on how brands can deliver value propositions based on brand sensuality and thus differentiate and position a brand as image in the human mind in the long term. Finally, this thesis provides empirical evidence that brand sensuality is one of the key antecedents to consumer-based brand equity through the mediation of brand experience. The findings suggest that brand sensuality plays an important role in facilitating a holistic interaction between brands and consumers who look for sensory and experiential benefits in the value-generating process. Following this perspective, I propose brand sensuality as central in creating a positive brand experience and thereby stronger brand image in the long term. 5.3.2 Methodological contributions From a methodological point of view, this thesis combines existing scales with adapted or new scales on constructs such as brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality in order to measure their direct and indirect impact on 48 consumer-based brand equity. This method facilitates the process of explaining how consumers perceive and experience car brands in the value-generating process and allows to measure disparate branding constructs within the same framework for analysis presented in Essay 2. The proposed scale, consisting of 24 items, is straightforward and easy to administrate in a B2C context for different product categories. Moreover, the scale is internally consistent and has successfully passed reliability and validity tests. Another important methodological contribution is that the present thesis enriches consumer-based brand equity measurement by incorporating brand sensuality measures, which accounts for the multidimensionality of CBBE as previously suggested by Pappu et al. (2005). In this regard, it should be noted that the brand experience scale proposed by Brakus et al. (2009) was split in two parts: one accounting for the experiential dimensions measures (brand experience scale) and another for the sensory dimensions measures (brand sensuality scale). Moreover, the proposed brand sensuality scale incorporates some new items in order to measure brand sensuality with more accuracy, following the theoretical framework presented in Essay 2. Finally, the empirical research uses a sample of real consumers to measure the impact of brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality on consumer-based brand equity, thus avoiding some bias in research as a result of nonstudent samples. The empirical study was conducted online with the collaboration of ACP – the Portuguese Automobile Association during August 2013. To my knowledge this is the first study on car brands, which adopts a multidimensional approach and incorporates brand sensuality as a construct within a sensory-branding framework. In fact, previous empirical studies on automobile industry focus predominantly on the impact of brand personality on consumer-based brand equity and use student samples as measuring tool. 5.3.3 Managerial contributions A managerial implication is that brand managers might benefit from adopting a sensory branding framework in order to create brand value. The findings of the empirical study 55 Fournier, S. 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Assim, pergunte a si próprio “Se o meu automóvel fosse uma pessoa, como é que eu o descrevia?” e assinale com um círculo o número que melhor carateriza os atributos do seu automóvel, sendo que 1 corresponde a “Muito inadequado” e 5 a “Muito adequado”. Sincero Muito inadequado 1 2 3 4 5 Muito adequado Excitante Muito inadequado 1 2 3 4 5 Muito adequado Competente Muito inadequado 1 2 3 4 5 Muito adequado Sofisticado Muito inadequado 1 2 3 4 5 Muito adequado Agressivo Muito inadequado 1 2 3 4 5 Muito adequado Apaixonado Muito inadequado 1 2 3 4 5 Muito adequado Divertido Muito inadequado 1 2 3 4 5 Muito adequado 9. O seu questionário está prestes a ser finalizado. Para o concluir, agradecemos que preencha o seguinte quadro com as informações sócio-demográficas. SEXO: □ Masculino □ Feminino IDADE: __________ PROFISSÃO (assinale a principal apenas): □ Exerce uma profissão por conta própria □ Doméstico(a) □ Exerce uma profissão por conta de outrém □ Reformado(a) □ Desempregado(a) □ Outra □ Estudante ESTADO CIVIL: □ Solteiro(a) □ Casado(a) sem registo □ Casado(a) com registo □ Separado(a) □ Divorciado(a) □ Viúvo(a) 72 □ Outra GRAU DE ESCOLARIDADE MAIS ELEVADO: □ 4º ano completo ou menos □ 12º ano □ 9º ano □ Curso superior completo AGREGADO FAMILIAR: ______________ DISTRITO ONDE RESIDE: _____________ ÁREAS DE INTERESSE: □ Design □ Leitura □ Música □ Viagens □ Tecnologia O QUESTIONÁRIO FOI CONCLUÍDO. REITERAMOS O NOSSO AGRADECIMENTO PELA SUA COLABORAÇÃO. 73 APPENDIX II Measurement scale (5-point Likert type scale, 1 = much inadequate, 5 = much adequate) Brand Personality BP 1 Sincere BP 2 Exciting BP 3 Competent BP 4 Sophisticated BP 5 Rough Measurement scale (5-point Likert type scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) Brand Relationship BR 1 My car brand cares about my opinion. BR 2 I use my car brand to differentiate myself from others. BR 3 Based on my car brand, other people can tell who I am. BR 4 My car brand mirrors who I am. Brand Sensuality BS 1 My car brand appeals to trial. BS 2 My car brand provides me sensory experiences. BS 3 My car brand is interesting in a sensory way. BS 4 My car brand stimulates all five senses. Brand Experience BE 1 My car brand makes me happy. BE 2 My car brand gives me pleasure. BE 3 My car brand is fun orientated. BE 4 I loved my car brand from the first time I tried it. Consumer-based brand equity CBBE 1 I am able to recognize my car brand among other competing brands. CBBE 2 Some characteristics of my car brand come to my mind quickly. CBBE 3 I can quickly recall the logo of my car brand. CBBE 4 I consider myself to be loyal to my car brand. CBBE 5 If I have to buy a new car, my actual brand would be my first choice. CBBE 6 I would be willing to pay a higher price for my car brand in a future purchase. CBBE 7 I recommend my car brand to my friends. 74 APPENDIX III 75 76 77 78 79 80 87 the consumer and the brand can be enhanced through a multi-sensorial communication platform. Moreover, the customer’s emotional mood will be enhanced and more intense, because of the appealing level of the brand experience and the number of senses involved in the sensory stimulation. In this regard, a sensory marketing model suggests both a transactional and a relational approach, in order to treat “customers through sensorial strategies to accomplish a supreme sensory experience” (op. cit., p. 14) based on a dyadic relationship between the consumer and the brand in a B2B or B2C brand relationship context. 3. Consumer behavior and sensorial strategies 3.1. The impact on consumer behavior Research on consumer psychology has demonstrated how sensory stimuli and cues are evaluated and guided by our perceptions which are linked to previous experiences. Through the sensory organs, individuals collect information in an active process that is coordinated to form a perceptual pattern which is stored in the memory. It is commonly accepted that our memory consists of three components: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory memory allows us to store information received through the senses for a very brief period of time. Provided the information captures the person’s attention – a strange sound, a pleasant smell, a smooth texture, a different colour or a tasty gift – it will be retained for further processing and transferred to short-term memory and subsequently to long-term memory. A clear grouping of the various pieces of information enhances memory performance and the upcoming sensory stimulus will be strong enough to reactive memories, based on the level of similarity between encoding and retrieval conditions. The different senses can also be used to capture consumers’ attention, depending on the relevance of the message, novelty of the stimulus and the consumer’s motivation (Jansson-Boyd, 2010). Academic research on the human senses has also shown that different sensory impressions impact on consumer behavior and perceptions of goods and services. Most of these empirical studies state that senses are linked to memories, emotions and feelings and establish strong physical and psychological interactions with goods and services. Research on the sense of sight indicates a high correlation between for example, the design quality of visual stimuli and financial performance (Hertenstein and Platt, 2001; Wallace, 2001). Advertisements, color, design, lighting, logo, packaging, product design and web-sites are other visual stimuli that make it possible to differentiate products, enhance loyalty, prevent clutter and fend off competition (Hultén et al., 2009). The sense of smell is regarded as one of the most powerful for creating associations and evoking memories (Aggleton and Waskett, 1999). The perception of olfaction is hedonic and based on an effective evaluation of smells and which impacts on consumer moods and psychological arousal (Ellen and Bone, 1998). Moreover, research has shown that ambient scents have positive effects on both store and product evaluations (Spangenberg et al., 1996) and that pleasant scents can enhance customer shopping 88 behavior in terms of increased expenditures and more money spent in the store (Spangenberg et al, 1996; Morrin and Chebat, 2005). In sensory marketing, scents can be used in strategic marketing to express the brand’s identity and strengthen its image, or as a marketing tactic to advertise a product. Tactile sense research points out the differences in individual motivations to touch, products attributes that support touch, as well as situational factors supporting touch (Peck and Childers, 2010) as drivers of individualized perceptions. By using touch as an individual’s preference for having information about a product, a positive affective response might result in more favourable attitudes towards a product (Peck and Wiggins, 2006). Material, surface, temperature, weight, form and steadiness can all contribute positively to the tactile experience of the brand and differentiate it from competitors, thus enhancing loyalty. Research on the sense of sound has shown that music exerts a positive impact on buying behavior and store atmosphere (Areni and Kim; 1993; Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Morrison, 2002) by creating associations and evoking memories. Several empirical studies reveal positive correlations between music and the time spent shopping (Milliman, 1982; Kellaris et al., 1992; Morrison, 2002), recognizing its evocative power as a means of differentiating a firm and impacting on consumer moods and buying behavior. Different kinds of sensory expressions (jingles, voices, music, atmosphere theme and advertency, sound brand and signature sound) can all facilitate a sound experience and can be applied consistently throughout a firm’s sensory marketing, so as to achieve differentiation (Hultén et al., 2009). The sense of taste is considered one of the most distinctly emotional, due to its capacity to facilitate social exchanges among people, its inner connections to other senses and high degree of interaction between firms and customers at a personal level. Research shows that a taste experience persuades customers to stay longer in a shop, which in turn leads to higher consumption. Firms can apply tastes to flavour a brand and give it new hedonic dimensions expressed by multiple sense expressions (Hultén et al., 2009). Hence, we propose that sensorial strategies can impact on consumer behavior in a completely different way to TM and RM, depending on how senses are related to one another in the specific context and how the sensory intensity level is managed, so as to achieve the multi-sensory brand experience. 3.2. Sensorial strategies in relation to the human mind and senses Research has shown that the consumer has become a “sense producer” (Filser, 2002), feeling both positive and negative experiences through purchasing and consumption processes. The consumer no longer relates only to utilitarian and cognitive values, but also to the symbolic, hedonic, and aesthetic values of consumption. In this sense, we propose that sensorial strategies are directed towards emotional and cognitive responses, aiming at creating sustainable and congruent brands in a sensory marketing context. A sensory marketing model “offers a firm the opportunity to differentiate and express a brand through sensorial strategies, based on cognitive, emotional or value-based 89 elements in relation to the human mind and senses” (Hultén, 2011, p. 4). His research explains why firms focus on the human mind and senses, suggesting that firms should apply sensorial strategies on a long-term basis. This process is expressed through sensors, sensations and sensory expressions, both related to and independent of each other, leaving individual and personal imprints of a good or service, thus distinguishing a brand effectively from competing ones. However, it should be noted that, the current marketing and branding literature, offers no clear and generally accepted definition of sensorial strategies. Hultén (2011, p. 16) advocates that a strategy can be defined as sensorial “when it appeals to a certain sense or senses in the customer’s mind.” We propose that a sensorial strategy can be defined as an emotional and cognitive strategic approach developed by a firm or a brand in order to establish, maintain and enhance multiple and profitable relationships. This approach follows a service logic that delivers congruent customer value and brand image with respect to a certain human sense or senses in the customer’s mind. A relational strategy has often been presented in opposition to a transactional strategy (Christopher et al., 1991) and these two approaches are considered opposing sides of the continuum of all possible marketing strategies (Slater and Olson, 2000). In this paper, we regard sensorial strategies as including both transactional and relational considerations, so as to convey the desired brand value to the customer. Therefore, we propose that developing a sensorial strategy of a brand consists of positioning the brand as image and establishing durable and profitable relationships with individuals, based on the human mind and senses, and that this is at the heart of the strategic process of the firm. The interaction established between the brand and its customers can be either relational or transactional, but it should always incorporate sensory interactions in delivering a multi-sensory brand-experience in relation to the human mind and senses. 4. A strategic sensorial brand approach In the prevailing society, which is characterized by information overload, a lack of time and a aestheticization of everyday life, we believe that it is no longer possible for firms to support brand strategies exclusively through transactional marketing (TM) or relational marketing (RM) as before. Instead, we propose that sensorial strategies, based on the sensory marketing model (SM), should be seen as a strategic branding approach to creating brand awareness and establishing a sustainable brand image in the long run. As previously stated, Hultén (2011) suggests that in a sensory marketing model, sensorial strategies are expressed by sensors, sensations and sensory expressions. In this paper, we propose that such strategies use sensors as multi-directional communicative means for determining the sensorial strategies, since it is possible to gather information about the human mind and senses through technological devices, observation methods, employees and direct interaction with customers. From this interactive process between firms and individuals, sensory expressions should be selected, in order to create cues or stimuli that express brand personality. By using sensors and sensory expressions in an integrated manner firms should create sensations based on an interactive multi-sensory 90 communication platform, neither transactional nor relational, that will impact on customers’ emotional state and mood in facilitating the multi-sensory brand-experience. Moreover, we claim that from a tactical perspective sensorial strategies for sight, sound, smell, taste and touch can be applied to products, communication, events and places, either individually or combined, and all tactic actions should be conducted according to a sensorial strategic marketing plan. In this regard, Hultén (2011) proposes dialogue and on-line interaction, multi-sensory communication and digital technology as means of reaching the customer’s mind in developing and implementing sensorial strategies. We have generally observed that more and more firms are building emotional linkages to their brands in addition to rational ones in attracting the human senses, according to the work of such practitioners as Gobé (2001) and Lindstrom (2005). Based on anecdotal evidence, we claim that companies like Starbucks, Apple and Absolut Vodka illustrate how it is possible to apply sensorial strategies in order to enhance the customer’s multi-sensory brand-experiences in a sensory marketing context. As early as the 1980s, Starbucks developed sensorial strategies for creating and developing an in-store customer experience through multiple sensory expressions related to the smell of coffee, the relaxing sound of music, the pleasant and restful interiors, the shapes of the armchairs and the taste of the freshly ground coffee served to customers. All of these sensory expressions create a multi-sensory atmosphere and customers perceive sensations that impact on their emotional state and mood. Differentiation at an individual basis is created to provide the multi-sensory brandexperience within a branding perspective following a service-dominant logic. Apple is yet another example of a symbiosis between a brand and its customers in terms of sensorial strategies for sight, sound and touch. All of its products are sensory and designed to create tactile sensations by touching the screens, shapes and materials. All Apple’s products reach the customer’s mind at a deep level, combining utilitarian functionalities with fantasies, feelings and fun towards a holistic consumption experience, which constantly renews itself in the form of multiple transactions. Absolut Vodka is another brand that interacts with its customers, using sensorial strategies based on sight, touch and taste, applied to the unique shape of its bottle and its innovative forms of communication and events, inspired by art and other cultural expressions. Add to this the Absolut Vodka bars, where sensory expressions are combined in a creative and congruent manner. As a brand, Absolut Vodka combines transactional strategies based on its product characteristics, and on relational strategies through adding new emotional dimensions to a tribalized consumption that derives from the product’s ability to link individuals a unique multi-sensory brand-experience in a sensory marketing context. Following this anecdotal evidence, we argue that all of these brands have been able to increase the quality of customer treatment and enhance brand recognition and brand image by developing a strategic sensorial branding approach. By doing so, these brands establish durable and profitable relationships with individuals, based on the brand as image, as the heart of the strategic process of the firm. This interaction is neither 91 transactional nor relational, but sensorial, in relation to the human mind and senses, and built on a dyadic relationship between the brand and the individual. Conclusions, theoretical implications and future research Researchers such as Krishna (2010), Brakus et al. (2009) and Lindstrom (2005) all emphasize the need for new conceptual thinking relating to brands, experiences and human senses. Our starting point has been to conceptualize a branding perspective within a sensory marketing model, in contrast to transaction marketing (TM) and relationship marketing (RM), as a theoretical dilemma. The analysis enhances our understanding of the factors that impact on customer brand experiences of goods and services, as well as how sensory cues and stimuli impact on consumer behavior through the human senses. The conceptual framework we have developed offers a different conceptual approach to how companies should view the strategic branding process in general and with respect to developing sensorial strategies in particular. This paper draws attention to the relationship between value co-creation through brands, sensorial strategies and human senses, as an important contextual issue for branding and marketing theory. The significance of the human senses relating to seeing, hearing, smelling, touching and tasting, where individuals perceive and experience goods and services as brand as image raises the issue of how companies can create and deliver meaningful and powerful personalized experiences. To conclude, we have demonstrated that sensorial strategies as a strategic brand approach for firms should benefit from involving the individual’s human senses, thus impacting on consumer behavior in purchase and consumption processes. In this regard, a sensory marketing model emphasizes a branding perspective, based upon sensors, sensations and sensory expressions as means of enhancing customer value and brand as image. We deduce that a dynamic, strategic sensorial brand approach should be seen as a practical means of solving the theoretical dilemma in relation to TM and RM. This approach extends existing branding theory and marketing theory, so as to consider the deliberate involvement of the human senses to construct an image of a brand, based on individual perceptions and experiences in purchase and consumption processes. It is not only a question of a shift in the logic of transactions or relationships for firms, but also of constructing a system with respect to the individual as a customer, based upon sensory cues, stimuli and experiences. Accordingly, we have identified a dilemma in contemporary marketing models and thus proposed the development of the multisensory brand-experience in a sensory marketing context and model. One outcome of this conceptual paper is the recognition of the need for further empirical research to validate the conceptual framework that we have proposed. 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Providing our value: measuring package design’s return on investment, Design Management Journal, 12, pp. 20-27. 96 ESSAY 2 Rodrigues, C., B. Hultén e C. Brito (2013), “Sensory branding: Towards an integrated conceptual model with propositions and evidence”. Abstract The paper addresses the theoretical development of a conceptual model within a sensory branding framework, encompassing the concepts of brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality as antecedents to consumer-based brand equity and its impact on business performance. The authors present a comprehensive review of previous research in marketing and branding literature, with regard to existing evidence on the concepts of brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality, in relation to consumer-based brand equity. The sensory branding framework facilitates the co-creation of value with consumers in the focus of service provision and thus impacts on consumer-based brand equity. Furthermore, it allows firms and their brands to express their personality, manage relationships with consumers and built meaningful and memorable brand experiences, as well as expressing brand sensuality. The proposed model has the potential to integrate concepts such as brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality in a conceptual framework with the regard to the significance of the human senses, sensations and sensory experiences in the branding building process. This allows marketing scholars to rethink each of the constructs separately and focus on the interrelationships between the constructs of consumer-based brand equity. Keywords: Conceptual paper, propositions, sensory branding model, consumer-based brand equity, business performance 1. INTRODUCTION As leading subphenomenon of mainstream marketing, the human senses have once again been recognized as the vehicles through which consumers experience the world around them. In relation to products and services, human senses, sensations and sensory experiences are considered emergent marketing paradigms (Achrol and Kotler, 2012). At the same time, there is a shift from a goods/service- to an experience economy, in which consumers are looking for memorable, unique and meaningful experiences (Pine and Gilmore, 1998; Schmitt, 1999). In this on-going transformation, some researchers suggest that firms deliver a value proposition, based on the co-creation of experiences where the brand ultimately becomes the experience (Lemke et al., 2010; Vargo and Lush, 2004; Prahalad, 2004). Moreover, brand- and sensory experiences are considered relevant assets in increasingly competitive markets for enhancing consumer-based brand equity, based on differentiation, personal relationships and emotional lift (Schmitt, 1999; Keller and Lehmann, 2006). Brand equity models share the perspective that brand equity takes place in consumers’ minds (Aaker, 1996; Kapferer, 1992; Keller, 1993). This highlights the importance of 103 relationship literature as one of the facets of brand relationship quality (Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Fournier, 1998). Furthermore, research on buying behaviour emphasizes the role of brand attachment, together with brand trust and brand satisfaction, in building successful brands in the long-term (Thomson et al., 2005; Esch et al., 2006). It is important to note that similarities between brand and interpersonal relationships facilitate high-quality relationships based on a sense of commitment and belonging that bonds consumers to brands as a result of positive experiences (Fournier, 1998; de Chernatony and McDonald, 1998; Ghodeswar, 2008). An empirical study by Reimann et al. (2012) shows that strong positive sentiment towards brands is more evident in recently formed, closer consumer-brand relationships. Furthermore, emotional arousal decreases over as the relationship develops or becomes irrelevant for brands towards which consumers are not willing to establish closer connections. Research also suggests that identification between the brand and consumer self-concepts increases over the course of the relationship, so that consumers tend to consider the brand as part of their lives. Proposition 2b: The greater the extent to which brand stakeholders are active cocreators of value, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence The shift in thinking about branding initiated a new marketing era in which both brands and consumers are regarded as operant resources in the brand value creation process (Merz et al., 2009; Vargo and Lusch, 2004). This relational perspective considers that individual consumers, brand communities and other brand stakeholders are active participants in the creation of brand equity. That is, value co-creation takes places in consumer’ minds, and brand value is determined by perceived value-in-use instead of value-in-exchange (Merz et al., 2009). Furthermore, the value co-creation process between the brand and the consumer as an individual is no longer solely relational (Fournier, 1998; Aaker, 1997). Rather, it implies highly dynamic and social interactions between the firm, the brand and all stakeholders (McAlexander et al., 2002; Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001; Ballantyne and Aitken, 2007; Ind and Bjerke, 2007; Jones, 2005; Matzler et al., 2011). According to Payne et al. (2007), value does not reside in the object of consumption, but in the experience of consumption. Consequently, high quality relationships that enable active and networked consumers to co-create and personalize experiences in multiple points of interaction with the brand are identified as sources of a firm’s competitive advantage (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004). This holistic perspective is consistent with a participatory and dynamic service-dominant logic which posits that value is defined and co-created throughout the consumer-brand relationship (Vargo and Lush, 2004), which is individual, longitudinal, contextual and interactive-based (Payne et al., 2007). Thus, co-created value can be regarded as the outcome of individual and personalized multi-sensory brand-experiences, in which dialogue, personalized treatment, interactions and customization play a central role in consumer-brand relationships (Rajah et al., 2008). 104 Proposition 2c: The greater the consumer is treated intimately and personally, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence Some scholars point to intimacy and personalized consumer treatment as one of the most emotional triggers for enhancing consumer-brand relationships (Pawle and Cooper, 2006). This view is consistent with a service logic perspective, which posits that consumers are relevant individually and that firms should treat them intimately and personally. Moreover, the sum of consumer inferences resulting either from brand attitudes and brand behaviour contribute to forming positive or negative judgments of its role as a partner in its dyadic relationship with the brand (Aaker et al., 2004; Fournier, 1998). As a result, consumers built mental images of ideal partners and these partners’ traits are considered before engaging in an intimate relationship with brands (Fletcher et al., 2000). Construct 3: Brand experience A significant part of the literature shares the perspective that customers interact with firms holistically and focus on specific contexts in isolation (Lemke et al., 2010; Verhoef et al., 2009). An experience results from an interactive process (Gentile et al., 2007) between a consumer and a firm and is conceptualized as “the customer’s subjective response to the holistic direct and indirect encounter with the firm” (Lemke et al., 2010). The seductive aspects of experience are considered to attract consumers’ attention and cause them to be intrigued, since experience is engaging, nonpartisan, pseudodiagnostic and endogenous (Hoch, 2002). Moreover, consumers are no longer passive receptors of firms’ marketing actions and their perceptions of brands are individually-based and dependent on past experiences, either positive or negative, shortlived or long-lasting (de Chernatony, 1993, Brakus et al., 2009; Verhoef et al., 2009). Proposition 3: The greater the significance of brand experience, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence The concept of brand experience was recently introduced into the marketing literature by Brakus et al. (2009, p. 59) and defined as “subjective, internal consumer responses (sensations, feelings, and cognitions) and behavioural responses evoked by brandrelated stimuli that are part of a brand’s design and identity, packaging, communications, and environments”. Drawing on insights from Pine and Gilmore (1998) and Schmitt (1999), these scholars identified four brand dimensions (sensory, affective, intellectual and behavioural) which are evoked, directly or indirectly, by a set of distinctive related stimuli when consumers search for, shop for or consume brands (Schmitt, 1999; Arnold et al., 2005; Brakus et al., 2009). With the emergence of the sensory marketing framework, branding has broadened its experiential perspective to include a multi-sensory brand approach (Krishna, 2010, 2011). 105 Few empirical studies have sought to document the impact of brand experiences on consumer behaviour. One exception is Brakus et al. (2009), which shows that brand experience has a positive behavioural impact on consumer satisfaction, loyalty and brand associations, through brand personality. Moreover, it has become clear that brand experiences are not motivationally orientated (Brakus et al., 2009) and that brand value can be created indirectly even, if consumers do not become brand buyers (Merz et al., 2009). Proposition 3a: The more the brand experience involves fantasies, positive feelings and fun, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence The consumer research literature focuses on bi-dimensional attitudinal behaviour, claiming that consumers purchase services and goods in order to simultaneously derive hedonic gratification from sensory attributes and to satisfy their utilitarian and varietyseeking consumption needs (Batra and Ahtola, 1990). The experiential perspective proposed by Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) focuses on primary process thinking, in which immediate pleasure and sensory gratification is pursued when consumers relate to brands (O’Shaughnessy and O’Shaughnessy, 2002). This pleasure-oriented consumption seeks sensory stimulation, arousal, fun, amusement, fantasy and enjoyment (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982) and suggests that brands which make consumers happy or joyful are associated with higher levels of attitudinal commitment and purchase loyalty (Chaudhuri and Holbrook, 2001). Furthermore, empirical research demonstrates that experiential and hedonic contexts result in stronger brand attitudes, in comparison with utilitarian contexts (Yoo and MacInnis, 2005) and shows that the relationship between brand attitudes and purchase intentions is strongest for holistic consumers and weakest for utilitarian ones (Zarantonello and Schmitt, 2010). Proposition 3b: The more memorable and rewarding brand experience, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence It is commonly accepted that experiences differ in their memorability, and few number are retrievable and result in word-of-mouth (Lemke et al., 2010). According to O'Shaughnessy and O'Shaughnessy (2002), pleasure derived from experiences is transient and short-lived. In this regard, pleasure will become enjoyment and an optimal experience if it generates intense attention, psychological growth and a sense of achievement (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Gordon (2006) argues that brands are coded in consumer memory on an emotional and cognitive basis. These somatic makers (Damásio, 1999) are held in long-term memory and result from the sum of positive or negative experience that consumers have with brands. Pham (1998) argues that experiences act as a source of information, in which positive feelings lead to favourable brand evaluations, whereas negative feelings the converse. Furthermore, differences in individual optimum stimulation levels 106 (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1992) and individual states of mind (Pine and Gilmore, 1998) influence how experiences are perceived and coded in memory. Proposition 3c: The greater the extent to which the brand experience involves direct trials, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence The experiential view claims that products and services project multi-sensory cues that need to be seen, tasted, heard, smelled or touched to be truly felt and appreciated (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982). In their dyadic relationship with brands, consumers are becoming more sceptical of advertising stimuli that can only be confirmed through experience (Hoch, 2002). Direct trial during a brand experience is sometimes regarded as a means of obtaining experimental benefits. Moreover, Zarantonello and Schmitt (2010) argue that experiential appeals activate impulsive or goal-directed behaviour and facilitate brand engagement. Construct 4: Brand sensuality The concept of brand sensuality was first introduced by Krishna (2010), who drew on insights into the pleasure created by the human senses, when consumers relate to appealing products and services. According to Krishna (ibid), the appeal of a product or service can be increased either by creating new sensations or by emphasizing or drawing attention to existing sensations. In this regard, sensorial strategies were proposed as a means of differentiation which are able to affect perception, judgment and consumer behaviour and establish strong emotional ties with consumers (Krishna, 2011). Proposition 4: The greater the significance of brand sensuality, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence The concept of brand sensuality is based on cognitive, emotional or value-based elements, which are intended to create brand awareness and brand image, enhance longterm customer-brand relationships and increase the quality of customer treatment, since it challenges the human mind and senses in a highly individualized manner. Moreover, in the brand-management domain, little attention has been paid to how brand sensuality impacts on consumer behaviour in purchase and consumption processes, since the main stream of sensory research has explored the impact of product and environmental sensory stimulus only individually (Krishna, 2010, 2011; Turley and Milliman, 2000) and cross-modal sensory interactions (Krishna, 2011). Of particular interest are some recent studies of sensory perception (Krishna, 2011), which have examined nondiagnostic sensory input (Krishna and Morrin, 2008), sensory dominance (Hoegg and Alba, 2007), congruence (Mattila and Wirtz, 2001), conflict (Krishna, 2006), overload (Lindstrom, 2005), imagery (Lwin et al., 2010) and load (Elder and Krishna, 2012). 107 Brand sensuality is both relational and transaction-based and results from a dyadic relationship between the brand and the individual, in which human senses play a dominant role in the creation and delivery of meaningful and personalized multi-sensory brand-experiences. As Fournier argues (1991), as a primary dimension of brand meaning, tangibility determines whether the attribute basis of meaning is objective and verifiable through the senses (e.g. the sensory characteristics of products and services) or whether it is subjective and interpreted as the result of a multi-sensory brand experience (e.g. a specific brand personality). Moreover, sensorial strategies allow firms and brands to differentiate and to express a product, a service or a firm’s identity in relation to the human mind and senses. From a tactical and strategic perspective, sensorial strategies for sight, sound, smell, taste and touch, either individually or combined, can be applied to communication, products, places and events and expressed by sensors, sensations and sensory expressions in the value-generating process. Proposition 4a: The greater the input of sensory cues through the human senses, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence It is evident that human senses are the means by which consumers experience brands, allowing them to notice, filter and record a diversity of brand-related stimuli, form judgments about brand personalities and establish strong emotional connections with brands and other brand users. When consumers encode sensory information, the stimuli they encounter are transformed into a mental representation stored in the memory (Jansson-Boyd, 2010) that is synonymous with the brand (Grönroos, 2007). Following a hedonic experiential logic, consumer-based brand equity is embedded in the value that is created individually by each consumer when experiencing the brand through its senses. Research on consumer sensory processing shows that sensory cues enhance the product and atmospherics experience, increase preferences for a given product and purchase likelihood, lead to greater confidence in product evaluations, and increase the amount consumers are willing to pay for products and services. A study from Grohmann et al. (2007) found that tactile input, such as softness and texture, have a positive effect on the evaluation of high quality products. Preference and purchase likelihood increase when consumers are allowed to physically inspect product categories in shopping environments that vary in the diagnosticity of touch, such as bath towels and carpeting (McCabe and Nowlis, 2003). As noted by Peck and Childers (2003), a lack of direct experience results in less self-confidence for individuals with a higher in “Need For Touch” (NFT), for whom material properties with pleasant sensory feedback is not compensated for by written product descriptions. Furthermore, touching an object results in a greater desire for ownership and a greater willingness to pay (Peck and Shu, 2009). Despite the influence of contamination sources on consumer behaviour, Argo et al. (2006) showed that the more sources of contact, the more popular a product may appear to be. In the same line of research, Herz (1997, 1998, 2000) demonstrated that distinctive scents act as retrieval cues and are more emotional in nature than other sensory cues. In 108 this regard, Morrin and Ratneshwar (2000, 2003) conducted a laboratory experiment, in which they found that consumers have higher levels of brand recall and recognition with respect to a product package on a computer screen when simultaneously exposed to a pleasant scent. Hirsch (1995) also tested the effects of two pleasant ambient scents in a Las Vegas Casino and demonstrated that one of them has a positive effect on gambling mood and increased the amount gambled. These results are explained by the olfactoryevoked recall effect, in which memories are stimulated and generate a nostalgic gambling mood. More recently, Krishna et al. (2010) showed that product scent is a memory-enhancer and that olfactory cues improve verbal recall. Empirical research on visual cues provides evidence that colors are associated with physical attraction, but do not influence approach behaviour (Bellizi et al., 1983). These findings are consistent with Chandon et al. (2008), who found that visual cues in a store, such as price displays, increased the level of attention, but were not always effective in increasing expenditure. Furthermore, Bagchi and Cheema (2013) investigated the effect of colors on willingness-to-pay in auctions and negotiations and found that aggression is raised by the color red (compared to blue or gray) and therefore increases bid jumps in auctions and decreases offers in negotiations. In a recent food consumption experiment, Dubois et al. (2011) demonstrated that when consumers choose a product on the basis of its relative size, they believe they can signal their status. A similar experiment conducted by Ittersum and Wansinki (2011) shows that reducing color contrast between the dinnerware and its background has a positive impact on serving and consumption behaviour. Other empirical research on auditory cues expounds the effects of language associations with respect to brand names, products sounds, voices and music on consumer perceptions. A series of studies show that foreign names change hedonic perceptions of yogurt (Leclerc et al., 1994), influence perceptions of beer (Allison and Uhl, 1964) and affect the perceived taste of ice cream (Yorkston and Menon, 2004). Moreover, consumers tend to evaluate low-pitched voices more favourably than high-pitched ones (Brown et al., 1973) and the evocative power of music may carry both embodied and referential meanings (Krishna, 2011). It is commonly accepted that individuality and the subjectivity of individual experience is dependent on how human senses perceive brand stimuli and how they interpret multisensory brand-experience, based on actual or previous experiences. Researchers have shown that women have a higher need for tactile input than men (Citrin et al., 2003), and that motivation to touch and smell declines with age (Stevens and Patterson, 1995; Thornbury and Mistretta, 1981). In this sense, brand sensuality impacts on consumer behaviour in a personalized manner and facilitates the formation of brand as image, as the result of the experiential process. Thus, the more that firms stimulate the human senses to create a holistic experience and a distinctive brand as image, the more engaged the consumer will become and the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Proposition 4b: The greater the extent to which the sensory perceptions are perceived positively through the human senses, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. 109 Evidence A number of neuroimaging studies have documented that human senses are linked to our memories and this research provides evidence that sensory perceptions activate specific regions in the brain that are directly related to emotions (Krishna, 2011). Expressing and differentiating products and services as sensations, through sensorial strategies, allows firms to attract consumers’ attention, even in a message-saturated encounter, influence their brand perceptions and engage them emotionally (ibid). As Keller and Lehman (2006) note product experiences are multi-sensory-based and impact on brand equity in several ways. It can be argued that brand sensuality can deliver a brand promise to consumers by attaching sensory associations to a product or a service. These associations are able to enhance the intrinsic characteristics of products (e.g. the smooth sound of a Mercedes-Benz door closing, which is associated with a premium product), or create a distinctive sensorial identity (e.g. the raw sound of a Harley Davidson bike which gives you the feeling of being wild and free). Human senses therefore act as retrieval cues when exposed to proximal, sensory brand-stimuli that are strong and positive enough to be reactivated. In this regard, consumers recognise brands unconsciously. Furthermore, sensory pleasure is identified as a source of product enthusiasm (Bloch, 1986) and as an attribute that arouses high product involvement (Martin, 1998). Several studies on consumer research demonstrate that sensory cues have a positive impact on product and store evaluations, brand recall and recognition. Moreover, as a whole, research suggests that consumer evaluations tend to be more positive when sensory cues are congruent and naturally reinforcing. Spangenberg et al. (2005) demonstrated that a pleasant ambient scent improved store evaluations when it was seasonally congruent with the background music. In another study, Spangenberg et al. (2006) found that consumers increased their expenditures in a store selling clothing when the scent released in the air was congruent with the type of clothing being sold. In a field study, Morrin and Chebat (2005) found that impulsive shoppers spend more money when pleasant music is playing in a shopping mall. By contrast, contemplative shoppers or those who do not make unplanned purchases increase their expenditures when a pleasant scent was being released. Considerable evidence suggests that sensory cues impact on time processing and that music, scents and colours improves consumer affective response and increases their perception of time. In this regard, Gueguen and Petr (2006) found that the scent of lavender increased the time spent in a pizzeria by 15%, when compared to an unscented environment. Mitchel et al. (1995) demonstrated that congruent scents released in stores lead consumers to spend more time processing product information. In a study about the effect of music on consumer perceptions, Kellaris and Kent (1992) and Hui et al. (1997) found that perceived time durations increased for consumers exposed to positively valenced music, which triggers a positive emotional response. In a study in which websites’ background colours where manipulated during downloads, Gorn et al. (2004) found that colours induce feelings of relaxation (e.g. blue) and reduce perceived time durations. 110 A large body of consumer sensory processing research demonstrates that sensory cues affect behaviour and mood positively. In an interpersonal touch context (a bookstore, a restaurant and a supermarket), Hornick (1992) found that when an employee touched on the arm of a customer, positive feelings were elicited. Schiffman et al. (1995) and Villemure et al. (2003) found that pleasant fragrances, such as baby powder and perfume, improve mood and diminish some of the symptoms related to unpleasant otherwise physical conditions. Baron (1997) also demonstrated that individuals exposed to pleasant ambient scents in a shopping mall (e.g. roasting coffee, baking cookies) were more willing to help strangers. Moreover, Milliman (1982) found that background slower music created more leisurely in-store traffic and higher expenditures. A similar study showed that slow-tempo music in a restaurant leads diners to spend more time in a restaurant, drink more and increase their average expenditure (Milliman, 1986). Musicinduced arousal in a banking context was investigated by Dubé et al. (1995), who demonstrated that faster tempo music heightens arousal and leads to positive and friendly consumer attitudes towards the bank employees. Research on sensory processing also demonstrates that intrinsic sensory cues influence consumers’ perceptions of product freshness, taste, weight and quality. A study by Zampini and Spence (2004) demonstrated that changing the sound a potato chip makes when bitten (e.g. loudness and frequency) can influence the perceived characteristics of the product (e.g. how fresh the potato is perceived to be). Moreover, Raghubir and Krishna (1999) show that whereas consumers perceive elongated containers to contain more, their actual experience contradicts this belief, subsequently convincing them that they have consumed more from the less elongated container. In the domain of advertising, researchers have addressed the impact of hedonic perception on consumer behaviour. Peck and Wiggins (2006) found that adding tactile cues to an ad, such as a feather or a pamphlet requesting donations that make the consumer feel good, increase both persuasion and the likelihood of donation. Gorn et al. (1997) demonstrated that colours affect different reaction to ads, either feelings of relaxation (e.g. blue hues) or excitement (e.g. red hues). Park and Young (1986) suggested that music can trigger affective feelings or mood and act as a peripheral persuasion cue in advertising. Moreover, MacInnis and Park (1991) demonstrated that music heightens consumer involvement in an ad and stimulates the processing of advertised message and past emotion-laden experiences. Research also shows that when music is congruent with the ad message, brand and message recall is enhanced (Kellaris et al., 1993). Research has also tried to identify how sensory imagery affects brand evaluations and how consumers use extrinsic cues to infer product attributes. In an investigation of how German and French music influence wine selection, North et al. (1999) found that music activates wine shoppers related knowledge and the strong national associations had a positive effect on their product choices. Another study conducted by Areni and Kim (1993) shows that music generates associations regarding price, status and class, in that consumers purchase more expensive wines when classic music is playing in the store. As noted by Yorkston and Menon (2004), phonetic symbolism acts as a sensory cue that enables consumers to infer product attributes in the same way as a brand name. Research on visual imagery which focused on the inclusion of a product image in a 111 package demonstrated that it can be used as an extrinsic cue to communicate information about the product’s sensory characteristics (Pavio, 1986). Underwood and Klein (2002) demonstrated that product imagery on packaging impacts on the consumers evaluations of both packaging and brands. Proposition 4c: The greater the multi-sensory stimulation through the human senses, the higher the level of consumer-based brand equity. Evidence It has been suggested that brand experience becomes more effective and memorable, if a growing number of senses is engaged (Pine and Gilmore, 1998; Lindstrom, 2005). Human senses act as filters or vehicles for experiencing products and services (Achrol and Kotler, 2012) and are a fast-track for engaging consumers emotionally (Pawle and Cooper, 2006). Nevertheless, consumers are unaware of the influence of sensory cues on their preferences and judgments, which suggests that integrative judgments based on multisensory input are nonconscious or belong to a “hardwire genre” (Raghubir, 2010). The hardwire framework developed by Raghubir (ibid) proposes three information processing stages: nonconscious, heuristic and systematic. Research shows that human senses influence the way brands are perceived. As Brakus et al. (2009) note, since brand related sensory stimulation engages the mind and body, the consumer might be willing to receive further stimulation if the experience is positive. Thus, the intensity of the brand experience is dependent on the number of brand dimensions used to create the experience and on how stimulation is managed, so as to engage consumers emotionally (Zarantonello and Schmitt, 2010). In the last two decades, consumer sensory processing has begun to direct attention to the interplay of senses (Krishna, 2010). Various studies demonstrate sensory synergies between touch and vision (Balaji et al., 2011), sound and taste (Zampini and Spence, 2004), touch and taste (Krishna and Morrin, 2008), vision and touch (Raghubir and Krishna, 1999), and vision and taste (Hoegg and Alba, 2007). In a recent series of experiments, Elder and Krishna (2010) examined how multiple and single senses incorporated in ads (e.g. coffee, chewing gum, popcorn and potato chips) affected awareness, intention to purchase and taste perception. They showed that taste perceptions were heightened and that the ad’s effect on generating positive thoughts and sensory perception was moderated by the cognitive load, i.e., when the load is high, multisensory ads have a weaker positive effect. Furthermore, Elder et al. (2010) posit that adding multisensory cues to an ad may influence consumer imagery, perception, attitudes and behaviour and thus enhance the brand experience. It is important to note that consumers, as individuals, perceive brand stimuli differently, based on their sensory characteristics and information content (Sheth et al., 1999), which lead either positive or negative affective outcomes (Oliver, 1997). Moreover, Solomon (1999) argues that distinctive stimuli are more likely to be noticed. An empirical study from Gentile et al. (2007) demonstrated that the sensorial component was rated as most relevant across all well-known and successful products. The study also recognised the importance of experiential features in the value-generating process, 112 in which experiences dazzle the five senses and constantly stimulates consumers’ minds by creating holistic, integrated and memorable experiences (Schmitt, 1999). Dependent Variable: Consumer-based brand equity By maximizing and leveraging consumer-based brand equity, through the mediation of brand personality, brand relationships, brand experiences and brand sensuality firms might develop competitive and sustainable advantages with a positive effect on business performance. Proposition 5: Consumer-based brand equity, through the mediation of brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality, has a positive effect on business performance. Evidence As a construct, consumer-based brand equity is built upon distinctive and memorable multi-sensory brand-experiences and its positive associations in consumers’ minds, i.e., brand as image. Raggio and Leone (2007) argue that consumer-based brand equity contributes to the effectiveness of marketing activities and marketing costs reduction. Moreover, consumers react more positively towards product changes, product related harm, and brand extensions, which reduces firms’ vulnerability to new competitors (Raggio and Leone, 2007; Pitta and Katsanis, 1995). Ailawadi et al. (2003) claims that firm-level outcomes (incremental volume, revenue, price commanded, profit and cash flow) result from consumer-level effects (positive image, attitude, knowledge and loyalty) and thus also suggests a revenue premium as an outcome measure of brand equity. 4. CONCLUSIONS The paper has examined the need to develop an integrated conceptual model within a sensory branding framework. The model integrates such constructs as brand personality, brand relationship, brand experience and brand sensuality as antecedents to consumerbased brand equity and their impact on business performance. Such an integrated model has the potential to provide a new perspective in which sensory branding contributes to differentiating and positioning a brand in the minds of consumers through the human senses, sensations and sensory experiences. The composition and orchestration of the chosen constructs are perhaps most useful within this framework. 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With the emergence of sensory marketing, it has been argued that brand sensuality as a concept could contribute to create a positive brand experience and thereby stronger brand image. Nevertheless, a theoretical gap has been identified in literature concerning how the concept of brand sensuality could be seen as an antecedent to CBBE. Moreover, there is a need to a need to investigate the impact of brand sensuality in relation to brand experiences and measure its impact on CBBE in comparison to brand personality and brand relationship. The data was collected from 482 users of car brands in collaboration with ACP – the Automobile Portuguese Association and was analyzed using structural equation model (SEM). The empirical findings support that brand sensuality has a positive effect on CBBE through the mediation of brand experience. The main contribution of this paper is that it proposes a definition of brand sensuality within a sensorial brand approach. Furthermore, it analyses and explains the impact of brand sensuality in relation to brand experience and measures its impact on consumer-based brand equity. Keywords: Research paper, sensory branding, brand sensuality, consumer-based brand equity 1. INTRODUCTION The brand-building process has received increased research attention during the last decades as a result of more and more brands striving to differentiate in highly competitive markets. With the emergence of a society characterized by information overload, a lack of time and an aestheticization of everyday life, marketing has reinvented itself as a discipline in contemporary society and has drawn on the conceptual accomplishments of the past in order to create a renewed focus on consumers as individuals with human senses and brands as images. Interestingly, as leading subphenomenon of mainstream marketing, the human senses have once again been recognized as the vehicles through which consumers experience the world around them. In relation to products and services, human senses, sensations and sensory experiences are considered emergent marketing paradigms (Achrol and Kotler, 2012). With the emergence of sensory marketing, it has been argued that brand sensuality as a concept could contribute to differentiate and position a brand as image in the human mind. Recent literature on branding and sensory marketing stress the significance and positive impact of sensory dimensions through brand sensuality in relation to brand 126 experiences within a value-generating process. Moreover, theoretical concerns are raised of how sensory dimensions contribute to enhance consumer-based brand equity when consumers experience products and services. Nevertheless, to this point, prior research on branding has not been able to capture this phenomenon as a whole and theoretically integrate sensory-based constructs into a conceptual framework with regard to the significance of sensory dimensions for brand experiences in the brandbuilding and value-generating process (Brakus et al., 2009; Schmitt, 1999, 2012; Krishna, 2011; Keller, 1993, 2001, 2002, 2003). In order to fill the existing research gap, the present empirical study proposes brand sensuality as an antecedent to CBBE and it raises the following research question: Is the construct of brand sensuality through the mediation of brand experiences an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity in a B2C context? In this study we define brand sensuality as “The firm’s ability to seduce and engage consumers emotionally through the involvement of the five human senses, when consumers experience goods and services as a result of multisensory brandexperiences”. The aim of this paper is to analyze and discuss: 1) the significance of a brand sensuality construct and its effect on brand experiences, 2) how brand sensuality as a construct through brand experiences could be seen as an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity and 3) how firms could apply brand sensuality in order to create a positive brand experience and thereby stronger brand image in enhancing consumer-based brand equity. The paper is structured as follows. In section 2, the theoretical constructs, research model and hypotheses are presented. In section 3, the research design for the quantitative study is presented. In section 4, the findings are discussed. The paper concludes with a synthesis of the main theoretical and managerial contributions, as well as a number of limitations and suggestions for potential research. 2. THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTS AND HYPOTHESES Any direct or indirect encounter between a brand and a consumer might impact on the mental picture of a brand in the memory of consumers (i.e. brand image) and contribute to brand equity. This might occur when a consumer is exposed to any kind of environmental input and stimuli perceived by the human senses as a result of marketing activities (Keller, 1993, 2002; de Chernatony and Horn, 2003). Theories on consumer-based brand equity put in evidence the differential effect on consumer response to marketing activities, whereas there is a large disagreement on its sources. The most dominant influence on this body of research are Aaker’s (1991) and Keller’s (1993) conceptualizations. Aaker (1991, p.15) defines brand equity as a “set of categories of brand assets (liabilities) linked to a brand’s name or symbol that add to (substract from) the value provided by a product or a service”. On the other hand, 127 Keller (1993, p. 8) defines brand equity as “the differential effect of a brand knowledge on consumer response to marketing efforts of a brand.” The common denominator in these conceptualizations is that brand equity has a consumer-based brand focus and stands for what a brand really means for consumers (Raggio and Leone, 2007), since it exists “within a consumer and not within a brand” (Keller, 1993). As proposed by Keller (ibid, p. 2), consumer-based brand equity “occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong and unique brand associations in memory”. In this regard, consumer-based brand equity moderates “the impact of marketing activities on consumer’s actions” (Raggio and Leone, 2007, p. 380). Recent literature on branding shares the perspective that brand equity is multidimensional (Pappu et al., 2005). Given this view, branding constructs such as brand personality (Aaker, 1997; Keller, 1993), brand relationship (Blackston, 1992; Jones, 2005; Esch et al., 2006) and brand experience (Keller and Lehman, 2006; Brakus et al., 2009; Zarantonello and Schmitt, 2010) are suggested as antecedents to consumerbased brand equity. In this paper, as previously stated in the introduction, brand sensuality is proposed as a key driver of brand value in the focus of service provision, following a consumer-centric perspective. The brand personality construct Brand personality is identified in branding and marketing literature as a key determinant of brand equity (Aaker, 1991; Biel, 1993; Keller, 1993; Yoo and Donthu, 2001). Defined as “the set of human characteristics associated with a brand” (Aaker, 1997, p. 347), brand personality serves a symbolic or self-expressive function (Keller, 1993) and facilitates the process of animating the brand as dynamic entity in consumer’s mind as a result of its marketing activities and brand experiences (McEnally and de Chernatony, 1999). Support for this assumption is given by some scholars, who argue that a strong brand personality evokes emotions in consumers (Biel, 1993), encourages systematic and active processing with high motivation (Biel, 1993), increases the levels of trust and loyalty (Fournier, 1998) and enhances consumer preference and usage (Sirgy, 1982). In this empirical study it is hypothesized that brand personality has an effect on brand experiences and thereby being an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity. The following hypothesis is presented: H1: Brand personality, through the mediation of brand experience, has a positive effect on consumer-based brand equity. The brand relationship construct Considered as a logic extension of brand personality, the concept of consumer-brand relationship is identified as a long-term interactive process, involving the consumer, the brand stakeholders and the brand as an active, productive and enthusiastic relationship partner in the value-generating process (Blackston, 1992; Fournier, 1998; Grönroos, 2007; Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). In this regard, the brand is perceived as a behavioural 128 entity that adds meanings to consumers’ lives (Ligas and Cotte) and facilitates multifaceted holistic relationships in which the brand play an important role (Schmitt, 1999) in binding consumers together. Merz et al. (2009) argue that brand value is co-created by affective relationships that consumers form with brands as a result of direct or indirect brand experiences. In this context, the sum of the experiences that the consumer establishes with a particular brand in different encounters forms the brand relationship (Grönroos, 2007). Grounded on the relationship marketing literature, Esch et al. (2006) propose a model which combines brand knowledge and brand relationship as antecedents to consumer-based brand equity. This branding perspective suggests that the brand co-creation process is dynamic and relational (Blackston, 1992, Merz et al., 2009; Grönroos, 2007) and that its value rests in the minds of consumers, opinion makers and stakeholders as a result of a social interaction (Merz et al., 2009; Jones, 2005). In this empirical study it is hypothesized that brand relationships has an effect on brand experiences and thereby being an antecedent to consumer-based brand equity. The following hypothesis is presented: H2: Brand relationship, through the mediation of brand experience, has a positive effect on consumer-based brand equity The brand sensuality construct In this paper, the definition of brand sensuality is grounded on sensory experiences based on pleasure stimuli and input perceived by the human senses, when consumers experience appealing products and services in the value-generating process. Moreover, brand sensuality is both transactional and relational-based and results from an interactive and personalized relationship between the brand and the consumer, in which the five human senses have a central role in creating and delivering unique and meaningful multi-sensory brand-experiences. Academic research on human senses stresses how sensory dimensions impact the brand value co-creation as a result of multi-sensory brand-experiences (Hultén, 2011). These studies assume that human senses influence the ways brands are perceived by consumers, when they experience products and services, and highlight the importance of sensory dimensions as facilitators of emotional engagement and interaction between consumers and brands (e.g. Krishna, 2010, Hultén, 2011). As Keller and Lehman (2006) note product experiences are multi-sensory-based and impact on brand equity in several ways. Hence, it can be argued that the way the brand expresses itself to consumer delivers a brand promise by attaching sensory associations to a product or a service. These associations are able to enhance the intrinsic characteristics of products or services (e.g. the smooth sound of a Mercedes-Benz door closing, which is associated with a premium product), or create a distinctive sensorial identity (e.g. the raw sound of a Harley Davidson bike that gives you the feeling of being wild and free). Human senses therefore act as retrieval cues when exposed to proximal, sensory brand-stimuli that are strong and positive enough to be reactivated 135 such as products, communication, events and points-of-sale. Regarding brand attachment, findings show that consumers would be willing to pay a higher price for the same brand in a future purchase (CBBE 6 = 2,345) and recommend their car brand to their friends (CBBE 7 = 1,86). Interestingly, brand awareness deriving from visual stimulus such as brand logo yields the lowest coefficient in relation to consumer-based brand equity (CBBE 3 = 0,529). This may indicate that brand’s perceived value-in-use in not highly determined by symbolic brand features such as a logo as traditionally claimed by transactional marketing. Instead, it seems that consumers recognize their car brands among other competing brands (CBBE 1 = 1) based on an overall brand experience which include all the five human senses, allowing them to quickly recall of some car brand distinctive characteristics (CBBE 2 = 1,56). In this regard, it might be argued that positive brand experiences impact on consumer-based brand equity, thus enhancing a positive and strong brand image in the human mind. 5. DISCUSSION Branding literature shares the perspective that brand personality, brand relationship and brand experience, as concepts, are the most relevant antecedents to consumer-based brand equity. However, a consumer-centric perspective put in evidence the need to rethink how brand value is created within a sensory branding framework. From a theoretical point of view, this paper conceptualizes and proposes brand sensuality as a construct in explaining the role of sensory dimensions in the enhancement of the perceived value-in-use as a result of a multi-sensory brandexperience. This extends our knowledge of existing branding and marketing theories, so as to consider the deliberate involvement of human senses to construct an image of a brand, based on individual perceptions and experiences in different purchase and consumption processes. Furthermore, the paper analyses and discusses the significance of brand sensuality construct within a sensory branding framework and challenges both scholars and marketers to rethink brands as dynamic entities imbued of sensory dimensions, which constantly appeal to consumers’ senses along the value-generating process in multiple encounters, such as products, communication, events and points-of-sale. It should be noted that, brand sensuality, as a construct, is integrated for the first time into a consumer-based brand equity context, along with traditional branding constructs such as brand personality, brand relationship and brand experience, identified previously in literature as key drivers of brand value. Another important theoretical contribution is that this paper provides empirical evidence that brand sensuality is one of the key antecedents to CBBE through the mediation of brand experience. The findings suggest that brand sensuality plays an important role in facilitating a holistic interaction between brands and consumers who look for sensory and experiential benefits in the value-generating process. From a methodological point of view, this paper enriches consumer-based brand equity measurement by incorporating brand sensuality measures, which accounts for the multidimensionality of CBBE as previously suggested by Pappu et al. (2005). In this 136 regard, it should be noted that the brand experience scale proposed by Brakus et al. (2009) was split in two parts: one accounting for experiential dimensions measures (brand experience scale) and another for the sensory dimensions scales (brand sensuality scale). Moreover, the proposed brand sensuality scale incorporates some new items in order to measure brand sensuality with more accuracy. A managerial implication is that brand managers might benefit from adopting a sensory branding framework in order to create brand value. The findings of the empirical study yield new insights into the significance of adopting brand sensuality, based on sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste in relation to different sensory dimensions in a B2C context. By appealing to consumers’ human senses through sensations and sensory experiences, brand managers are allowed to position more efficiently the brand as an image in the human mind as thus enhance the consumer-based brand equity. To date, branding strategies have been more or less limited to standard marketing-mix techniques, in which the creation of strong brand personalities through advertising and loyalty programs for enhancing consumer-brand relationships are in the focus of the marketing strategy. Brand sensuality in a sensory branding framework opens endless possibilities to contemporary brand management by highlighting the need to engage consumers emotionally through unique sensory dimensions and in creating memorable multi-sensory brand-experiences. By defining consisting and appealing brand sensuality, a firm will be able to seduce its consumers through different sensory dimensions by using the five senses when they experience products and services. This may require that marketers should not only define how the brand behaves or relates to consumers, but also how the brand should express its sensuality to consumers through sensory dimensions, applied to products, communication, events and points-of-sale, either individually or combined. The shift into a more customer-centric perspective in the brand-building and valuegenerating process implies that marketers recognize the importance of brand sensuality in creating positive brand experiences and thereby stronger brand image in enhancing consumer-based brand equity. By recognizing the significance of brand sensuality as a key antecedent to CBBE, marketers will be able to adopt a more emotional-based brand strategy in order to differentiate and position a brand in the human mind. 6. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Research on the impact of brand sensuality on consumer-based brand equity is still in its infancy and offers exciting avenues of research. 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