An assessment of classroom violence as a mens of discipline: perspectives of teachers and students of secondary school in Timor-Leste

! i! ! ! ! An Assessment of Classroom Violence as a Means of Discipline: Perspectives of Teachers and Students of Secondary Schools in Timor-Leste! Joana dos Santos Camões! ! Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação da Universidade do Porto 2016 ! ii! ! ! An Assessment of Classroom Violence as a Means of Discipline: Perspectives of Teachers and Students of Secondary Schools In Timor-Leste! Joana dos Santos Camões ! Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada à Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação da Universidade do Porto para cumprimento dos requisitos necessários a obtenção de grau de Mestre em Educação, sob orientação do Prof. Dr. Tiago Neves ! iii! DEDICATION To my late father, Luis de Camões and my mother, Esperança dos Santos Hornay. This accomplishment is an honor to your loving guidance and your willingness to believe my dreams. Dad, you are my shining star in heaven and I hope you are proud. Mom, you have been there every step in the journey of my life. I know there were times when I was discouraged and you struggle to make it better. You are my inspiration to go forward. To my mom and my loving dad in heaven, I humbly dedicate this dissertation to you. Without your encouragement and support, this will not be possible. To my beloved husband, Joaquim do Carmo Belo, for his unconditional love, encouragement, fidelity be with me in all my life. Your kindness and tireless support contribute to accomplish this dissertation. To my lovely daughter, Jottália Jacinta Sara Belo, your present is a miracle and makes my life been honor and valuable. I love you. ! iv! EPIGRAPH “Not violent individuals, but violent situations - this is what a micro-sociological theory is about. We seek the contours of situation, which shape the emotions and acts of the individuals who step inside them. It is a false lead to look for types of violent individuals constant across situations”. Randall Collins (2008:1) “The important thing in school is not only to study, not only work, It is also to create bonds of friendship, is to create camaraderie environment, It's live, is to "tie it!" ”. Paulo Freire (Poetry "The School"). “If education alone does not transform society, without it neither society changes”. Paulo Freire (2000a: 67).! ! v! ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ! There are countless people I would like to acknowledge for their contribution and support. First of all, I would like to give honor to God for all blessing that He has granted upon me. Because of God’s grace and mercy, I have come this far and completed another milestone of education. I would like to extend my deep gratitude and appreciation to the ERASMUS MUNDU scholarship, especially KITE program that has provided the financial support for my study. I also would like to appreciate the establishment of cooperation between Universidade Nacional Timor Lorosa’e (UNTL) and Universidade do Porto (UP) in providing the scholarship for students in developing countries. I am also grateful to Bohdan Fridrich (KITE program represent) and Dr. Ana Paiva (represent of ERASMUS MUNDUS scholarship in Universidade do Porto) who have been available and kindly facilitate in day-to-day assistance. I wish to also thank all the teachers and the Director of the Faculdade de Psicologia e da Ciências da Educação, Universidade do Porto (FPCEUP) for the direct and indirect academic assistance during my study. I am also extremely grateful and appreciative to prof. Sofia Marques da Silva as the course coordinator, who has constantly encouraged and supported me during my study and the accomplishment of this dissertation. I would like to express my deeply gratitude and appreciation to my academic supervisor Prof. Tiago Neves, for his guidance and constant support in my educational endeavors, and has supervised me with his expertise and knowledge for the completion of this dissertation. I would like to acknowledge all the students, teachers and the school directors of 4 public schools in Dili, Timor-Leste for their willingness to participate in the study and provide the significant information needed. I would like to acknowledge all my friends who were direct and indirect help in my study. I wish to thank to my friend Guilherme Bonifacio Guterres who helped me in initiating the study project. I wish to thank to my best friends Laura Ogden and Katherine Dobosz who assisted me in English Editing and providing ideas and suggestion during ! vi! the process of my thesis writing. I wish to thank also to Hélder Ferraz who has help me in SPSS analysis. And also whish to thank to Prof. Henrique Vas who helps me translate the abstract of the dissertation into Portuguese and France version. I also would like to give my grateful thanks for my beloved youngest brother, Guilhermino Camões Hornay who contributed to the conducting the research, in which he helped in distributing and collecting the questionnaires as well as organizing interviews via Skype. Finally, I also do not want to forget to thank to all my family, brothers and sisters in Timor-Leste for their love and affection and help me both direct and indirect during my study and the accomplishment of this dissertation. I love you all. ! vii! ABSTRACT ! This study deals with the perspectives of teachers and students in secondary schools in Timor-Leste about classroom violence, which was the standard means of discipline in Timorese schools during the foreign dominations. This research tried to assess whether there have been changes in this matter. We did so by applying a survey to 200 students in 4 schools in urban areas. In the second stage, we discussed the results of the survey with 8 teachers (2 from each school, including the headmasters). This enabled the production of a picture of the current situation of classroom violence in Timor-Leste, hopefully providing insights on what still needs to be changed. The research used both quantitative and qualitative research methods, using questionnaires and interviews as means of data collection. The research was conducted in light of the theories and concepts of violence (Galtung, 2013), education and violence (Freire, 2000) and punishment, discipline and control in education (Foucault, 1977 & Dewey, 2004). The research found that violence still exists in Timor-Leste’s schools with the purpose of disciplining and controlling as well as the means of imposing school rules and regulations. However, it was also found that having a person available at the school for students to report violence and having school regulations that forbid the use of violence are correlated with less violence. Keywords: Violence; school violence; classroom violence; discipline; secondary school; Timor-Leste. ! ! viii! RESUMO ! Este estudo aborda as perspetivas de professores e alunos de escolas secundárias em Timor-Leste sobre a violência em sala de aula, padrão de disciplina adotado nas escolas timorenses durante as dominações estrangeiras. Procura-se perceber as mudanças entretanto ocorridas nestas escolas, através da aplicação de um inquérito por questionário a 200 estudantes em escolas secundárias da área urbana. Num segundo momento, discutiram-se os resultados deste questionário com um conjunto de 8 professores (2 por cada escola, incluindo os directores). Este procedimento permitiu a produção de um retrato da situação actual da violência em sala de aula em Timor-Leste, desocultando possíveis abordagens em torno daquilo que é necessário ainda levar a cabo. A investigação fez recurso de métodos qualitativos como quantitativos, coletando dados através de questionários e entrevistas. A investigação foi conduzida à luz de teorias e conceções de violência (Galtung, 2013), educação e violência (Freire, 2000) e disciplina, punição e controlo em educação (Foucault, 1977 & Dewey, 2004). A investigação permitiu constatar a prevalecente existência de violência nas escolas secundárias de Timor-Leste, com a finalidade de disciplinar e controlar, mas também como meio de imposição das regras e regulamentos da escola. No entanto, permitiu igualmente verificar que, a existência de uma pessoa disponível a quem os alunos possam denunciar atos de violência, mas igualmente a existência de regras escolares que proíbam o uso da mesma estão correlacionados com menos violência. Keywords: Violência; violência na escola; violência na sala de aula; disciplina; escola secundária; Timor-Leste. ! ix! RÉSUMÉ ! Cette étude examine les perspectives des enseignants et des élèves des écoles secondaires au Timor-Leste sur la violence dans la salle de classe, discipline adoptée dans les écoles pendant les dominations étrangères. Il cherche à comprendre les variations cependant en cours dans ces écoles, par l’application d’une enquête sur 200 élèves dans les écoles secondaires dans la zone urbaine. Dans un deuxième, l’étude a examiné les résultats de ce questionnaire avec un ensemble de 8 professeurs (2 pour chaque école, y compris les directeurs). Cette procédure a permis la production d’un portrait de la situation actuelle de la violence dans la salle de classe au Timor-Leste, rendant plus visibles les changements qu’il faut encore aménager. L’étude a adopté des méthodes qualitatives comme quantitatives, collectant des données par le biais de questionnaires et d’entretiens. La recherche a été conduite sous la lumière de théories et conceptions sur la violence (Galtung, 2013), la violence et éducation (Freire, 2000), la discipline, la punition et le contrôle en matière d’éducation (Foucault, 1977 & Dewey, 2004).!Elle a permis constater l’existence encore répandue de la violence dans les écoles secondaires au Timor-Leste, dans le but de contrôle et de discipline, mais aussi comme un moyen de faire respecter les règlements de l’école. Toutefois, elle a également permis s’en apercevoir que l’existence d’une personne disponible à qui les étudiants peuvent signaler des actes de violence, mais aussi des règles scolastiques qui interdisent l’utilisation de cette même violence sont en corrélation avec moins de violence. Keywords: Violence; violence à l’école; violence en classe; discipline; école secondaire; Timor-Leste. ! 3! conduct a study with the topic of “An assessment of classroom violence as a means of discipline: Perspectives of teachers and students in secondary schools in Timor-Leste”. This research is aimed at examining the extent of violence in the classroom and its causes, to identify whether or not the violence still happens in Timor-Leste’s classrooms nowadays. These questions will guide the researcher in conducting the research. Does violence still happen in the classroom, conducted by the teachers against students? If so, for what purpose is violence used? What is the main cause for violence in the classroom? The researcher will apply both quantitative and qualitative approaches for data analysis and questionnaires and interviews methods will be used as the means of data collection. Teachers and students of the secondary school will be chosen as informants because they are considered the right source to provide the relevant information for this study. 1.2. Country profile Historically, Timor-Leste has experienced three distinct periods of colonialism and occupation before the restoration of its independence in 2002, including Portuguese colonialism, Indonesian occupation and the United Nations Administration of East Timor (UNTAET) during the transition to independence (UNESCO, 2009) Geographically, Timor-Leste is a half island bordering with Indonesia (see Figure 1). The country has 15,410 km2 (5,400 sq mi), with two small islands Atauro and Jaco and one enclave district (Oecuse). This small country consists of 13 districts with differents dialect and languages. 1 Source: Adapted (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Timor-Leste_divided_into_districts.png ) Figure 1. Map of Timor-Leste Demographically, Timor-Leste consists of 1,066.582 million habitants based on the 2010 national census (UNFPA, 2010). Timor-Leste is a new nation and a young country. In fact, according to the last census, 32% of the population is in the age of 1024 years old (Curtain, 2010:71). 1.3. Problem statement During colonialism and occupation in Timor-Leste, the school itself was not aimed at educating young people but for the reinforcement of their domination (Carmo Belo, 2010). Violence was used in the classroom as a means of discipline and controlling. Most of the teachers and family members who enrolled in school during the period of Portuguese colonialism shared the same experience of violence and physical punishment in the classroom, even some of them share that they got beaten with sticks in the palm of their hands for ten to fifteen times when they misbehaved or did not understand a lesson. Violence against students in schools both outside and inside the classrooms continued during Indonesian occupation during 24 years and was even legally used as a punishment and means of controlling the student’s misbehavior. This attitude has been rooted in the teachers’ mind and causes the violence that still happens today even in the era of independence, although the law of state has prohibited it. As a consequence of this negative experience, most of the current teachers believe that it is acceptable to beat students as a punishment when the students do not follow the rules or have difficulty in understanding the lessons. ! 5! Thus, Timorese people believe that beating is normal for the children and students. Parents and teachers believe that the children can learn well when they get beaten. Therefore, the researcher raised these questions: 1. Does violence still occur in Timor-Leste classrooms after the law prohibited the acts of violence at school and reinforced the importance of peaceful classrooms and the respect of human rights and the dignity of children? 2. What exactly is the purpose of the teacher to apply violence in their classroom? 3. To what extent is violence used as a means of discipline? 4. And what is the role of school rules and regulations towards the act of violence? These guiding questions will help the researcher identify the occurrences of classroom violence and its causes, as well as what exactly causes the perpetuation of violence in the classroom. 1.4. Objectives of the study ! 1.4.1. General objective This study is aimed to learn the rate of the classroom violence in Timor-Leste and to find out the purposes and the causes of the classroom violence conducted by teachers after against students. 1.4.2. Specific objective This study is specifically aimed: 1. To identify the existence of violence in the classroom. 2. To learn why and for what purpose violence is used in the classroom 3. To learn what is the role of school norms and regulations towards the act of violence. 4. To provide recommendations for stakeholders, including the schools, the Ministry of Education, and the government of Timor-Leste in order to provide some solutions for the problem. ! 6! 1.5. Scope and limitation In Timor-Leste there are many secondary schools both general, technical and vocational that are located in both urban and rural areas. Those schools are categorized as either public or private schools. The Catholic Church and other religious institutions mostly run the private schools. Whereas, the public schools are directly managed by the government. This research was conducted only in public secondary schools that are located in the urban area, Dili, capital of Timor-Leste. Regarding to the researcher’s limitation in terms of times, transport, and other facilitation, the researcher intentionally decided to conducted the research in four public schools located in Dili as these school are easy to visit and nearby the researcher’s home that do not require the researcher to expend more time and energy to travel. These school also have easily to access to the information on government policy, so it is reasonable to choose these schools in order to examine the implementation of the law to combat violence and promote human rights and respect in the school in order to obtain the quality of education. 1.6. Assumption There is a high probability of violence used as means of discipline in TimorLeste’s classrooms. Regarding the researcher’s assumptions, the following factors may contribute to teachers’ use of violence against students in the classroom as means of discipline, including: 1. The teachers have experienced violence in their lives during the period of colonialism and occupation, whether they were students or teachers, as there was no prohibition, and they are now familiar with using violence, especially to get the students’ attention or to control the students. 2. The teachers do not understand the negative impact of violence on the children in the long term. They only know the short-term impact so they just ignore it. They believe that students get hurt today but this is good for them because through this they will learn. If the teachers don’t beat the students, the students will not learn because they will not pay attention to teacher’s explanation. 3. Lack of alternative of discipline in the classroom. The teachers have little capacity and skill related to classroom management. Beating and yelling at the student is aimed to control and to get their attention. ! 7! 4. The socialization of the law is insufficient. A lack of law and policy reinforcement that results in teachers not understanding well the existing laws. 5. Other unexpected conditions, including big numbers of students in one classroom that is difficult to manage, lack of resources and facilities, violent environment, and so on can contribute to the act of violence in the classroom. As Timor-Leste is as post conflict country, and just coming out from several violent situations that impacted to the perpetuated violence behavior became in the characteristic of the Timorese people. Therefore it is needed to transform the culture of violence into peace. ! 8! CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ! 2.1. Introduction As the study concentrates on the violence in the schools and classroom that committed by the school personnel including teachers, students, school directors and other school personnel towards others as the way of education and discipline, It is important to understand deeply about what is violence and its applications. In order to have a clear description about the issues, a discussion of the relevant aspects – such as the nature of conflict, the concept of violence, and the nature or forms of violence, school violence specifically the classroom violence – is needed. With understanding these aspects the researcher will have a clear understanding of the big picture of the study that can lead to the achievement of the research objectives. Therefore, in the part of theoretical framework of the study, the researcher will present the relevant theories and studies about conflict, violence, school violence, and classroom violence. As the research took place in Timor-Leste, it is also necessary to discuss the Timorese experience of violence, the school situation in Timor-Leste as well the current law and policies of Timor-Leste. 2.2. Conflict Concerning the nature of violence, it is necessary to talk about conflict as violence starts from unsolved conflict that happens between individuals or groups. Conflict is unmet needs, drives, wishes, or demands. Conflict can be described into three parts: Intrapersonal conflict is an internal discord of oneself, interpersonal conflict means a disagreement between two or more people, and intergroup conflict is disagreement or discord between groups of people. Conflict is a natural and vital part of life and conflict can become an opportunity. It can create something that was not possible before. However, people who are involved in conflict need to understand and apply the principle of creativity in order to cooperate for the sake of human relationships. Conflict has the ability to allow people to improve themselves and assist in personal growth. However, the negative perception and reaction could cause damage or harm (Bodine & Crawford, 1998:35). ! 9! According to Cohen (2005), conflict plays an important role in human life and our psychological development. Conflict that we face in our daily life helps to form our characters, culture, and our world. Conflict can make us stronger and wiser. Conflict can teach us better ways to solve our problem and make our relationships stronger and help us understand the perception of the other and educate us to be aware of our own reality. However, conflict is not always positive. It can have both destructive and constructive consequences.!Furthermore, Cohen defines conflict as a “Normal and unavoidable part of living, the legitimate outcome of interaction between even the most well-meaning individuals. From our first moments of life to our last, human beings are continually involved in conflicts” (Cohen, 2005:12). Morton Deutsch support this statement as they explain that, “Conflict is an inevitable feature of all social relations. Conflict can take a constructive or destructive course; it can take the form of enlivening controversy or deadly quarrel” (Deutsch, 1993:512). As conflict is the consequence of human interaction in day-to-day life, it cannot be avoided; however, the conflict can be escalated into violence if it is approached in a destructive manner. As Wagner states, “Violence derives from conflict, but conflict is not inevitable result in violence. Conflict can often be constructive. Only under certain extreme conditions does conflict ultimately result in violence” (Wagner, 2001:15). Therefore, if conflict related to diversity cannot be managed well it can lead to violence. 2.3. Violence 2.3.1. Undesrstanding of violence It is not an easy task to define violence. The nature of violence is always associated with politics and power (Arendt, 1970, 2014; Correia & Matos, 2003; Debarbieux, 2007; Rochex, 2003). “Violence manifests itself in many dimensions. Violence can be expressed in physical actions or through coercive threats of physical action. Both violent acts and coercion are elements of violence” (North, Wallis & Weingast, 2009:13). As Arendt (1970:53) states, “If we turn a to discussion of the phenomenon of power, we soon find that there exists a consensus among political theorists from Left to Right to the effect that violence is nothing more than the most flagrant manifestation of power”. Similarly, Andrade et al (2014) emphasized that the practices of violence are the exercise of power and the extend violence are ! 10! discrimination. The World Heath Organization (WHO) defines violence as, “The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation” (Krug et al., 2002:4). Similarly, Gcabashe (2009) referring to Du Toit (1986), Singh (2006) and Virasamy (2004), states that violence is related to the possibility of the behavior including physical and emotional that could hurt other people to achieve a specific objective. Singh (2006) and Virasamy (2004) define “violence as actions that are emotionally and physically injurious to others and also refers to insidious incidents that include insults, name-calling, and rude and obscene gestures” (in Gcabashe, 2009:5). This definition of violence refer to physical injurious, Galtung (1969) highlights, “Violence is the exertion of physical force so as to injure or abuse” (in Opotow, 2001:102). According to Du Toit (1986), violence is “behavior that comprises the possibility of hurting or killing other people in an attempt to reach a goal” (in Gcabashe, 2009:5). Whereas Johan Galtung defines violence more broadly. According to this author, violence is not only about physical and emotional pain, but is also related to the decision and action that caused the human needs and human security been lower. Galtung (1990) states, “I see violence as avoidable insults to basic human needs, and more generally to life, lowering the real level of needs satisfaction below what is potentially possible. Threats of violence are also violence” (Galtung, 1990:292). So, violence can be include all the physical and nonphysical action that hurt other people directly and indirectly. 2.3.2. Types of Violence Typologically, violence can be divided into three main categories: direct, structural and cultural violence. Direct violence refers to an action directly against another individual or group and that can result in injury, pain and murder, as well as verbal actions that hurt other people. Structural violence refers to the exploitation, unequal distribution of public services or deficit that cause malnutrition, misery, illness and death. Cultural violence refers to the acceptance, legitimation, and perpetuation of direct ! 11! and structural violence, for example; rationalizing the existence of direct and structural violence through nationalism, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination through education, media, film and so on (Galtung, 1990, 2013). Similarly, Wagner (2001) categorizes violence as direct and structural. Structural violence is built into social, political and economical institutions. He defines direct violence as the overt from of violence committed directly by one or more disputants against those with who they are in conflict. It is a fight in everyday life – for example, family fighting, youth fighting, children beating up other children at school, gang attacks, and so on – that requires intervention, whereas structural violence is unequal distribution of power and prosperity within and between societies that cause dangers for the health, education and intellectual development of the children. For example, unequal distribution of resources and corrupt political systems inevitably produce conflicts. Opotow (2001: 102) describes direct violence and structural violence in this manner: “Direct violence is immediate, concrete, physical violence committed by and on particular identifiable people. Structural violence in contrast, is less obvious than direct violence”. It is often not visible and is considered as a normal thing in life. Similarly, Winter & Leighton (2001) emphasize that direct violence is terrible and dangerous; however, we can easily notice it and often respond to it because it simply gets our attention while structural violence is more dangerous as it is invisible and rooted in the whole social structure. It happens when people are deprived by political, economic and cultural traditions. Galtung frames “The term structural violence to mean any constraint on human potential caused by economic and political structures. Unequal access to resources, to political power, to education, to health care, or to legal standing, are forms of structural violence” (Galtung, 1969 in Winter & Leighton, 2001). According to Winter & Leighton (2001), structural violence itself is dangerous and also habitually leads to direct violence. It is constantly oppressive and renders direct violence possible. According to Schwebel & Christie (2001:120), “Structural violence is the unequal distribution of power and wealth within and between societies, and it has insidious effects on the health, intellectual development, and education and general welfare of millions of children”. In this context, structural violence happens not only in developing countries, but also in developed countries. There are millions of homeless and ! 12! unemployed people in high-income countries, as well as high rates of early school leaving, as they cannot provide equality for all citizens (Schwebel & Christie, 2001). Whereas, a WHO report (Krug et al., 2002) divides violence into three main categories related to the act of violence; self-directed violence, interpersonal violence and collective violence. The self-directed violence is the violence that a person causes to himor herself; interpersonal violence is the violence caused by an individual or by other small group of people against other people; and collective violence is violence caused by a large group of people against other people which aims to achieve a political, economic and social objective (Krug et al., 2002). Furthermore, Andrade (2014) agrees with this idea as he describes the nature of the type of violence, such as, self-inflicted violence means violence caused by an individual against himor herself, including (attempt to) suicide, self-mortification, and selfpunishment. Interpersonal violence can be divided into family violence, such as violence by an individual against another individual that has family or blood relation, and community violence is the violence between individuals that share a community. Collective violence is characterized by the group or state domination in social, political and economic areas, such as; wars, terrorist attacks, forms of social, cultural and economic inequality. 2.3.3. Forms of violence The nature of the act of violence includes physical, sexual and psychological violence (Krug et al., 2002). Moreover, Andrade et al (2014) describe more about the forms of violence including; physical violence, sexual violence, psychological violence, neglect or abandon, child labor, torture, human trafficking, and financial or economic violence (Andrade et al, 2014:75-76). Regarding to the physical, sexual and psychological violence, according to Andrade (2014), physical violence is an act of physical force that is done intentionally to a person or object that results in pain, suffering, destruction, or a mark evident in his or her body. Sexual violence is an action in which people take the benefit their position of power and use physical force, pressure, intimidation or psychological influence to involve another person of any gender to participate in or witness any sexual act, or to use any manner of their sexuality for their own intention, advantage or revenge. ! 19! Smit (2010), in her research on The Role of Discipline in in Combating Violence in Schools in East London, collected data from educators and learners and found that the culture of violence still exists in schools and corporal punishment is still practiced. She also found that bullying among students still happens, especially when the teachers are not around. Smith concluded that a safe school environment is mostly required for students and that promoting positive discipline is needed. Moreover, Dalimunthe (2013:415) argues, “In the teaching-learning process, children tend to make mistakes. Mistakes, basically, facilitate children to distinguish useful/useless actions; proper/improper things. However, some teachers respond to the process with force”. In the process of teaching and learning, teachers often apply violence against students as a means of discipline. They consider both physical and emotional violence as an effective way of controlling and managing students in their classrooms in both urban and rural schools. Dalimunthe (2013) in his survey of Protecting Commission of Indonesian Children in Indonesia shows that 87.6% of 1000 children who participated in the survey reported experiences of violence at school including at elementary, junior and high school levels. The violence entailed both physical and psychological violence such as yelling, insulting, beating, negative stigma, and child abuse. Motivation to learn should not come from punishment. As Ruddock (2003) points out, “Educationalists have long been aware that the motive to learn is one of the major determinants of a student’s progress. The motives of an individual joining a class are basic to their participation, their learning and any resultant change or growth in them” (in Bourdieu, 2003:186). It is important to help students to be encouraged and inspire them to study and behave properly. A safe environment is essential for students as it contributes to their social and academic development. Therefore, it is necessary for teachers as well as other school personnel to be aware that violence is a crime and not a proper way to educate and discipline students. 2.6. About Timor-Leste 2.6.1. Violence in Timor-Leste Timor-Leste has suffered from violence and abuses that went unrecognized by the ! 20! world. Foreign colonialism and occupation as well as internal social and political unrest have affected Timorese people, who have been traumatized as experiencing and witnessing both direct and structural violence. Timor-Leste was colonialized by Portugal for a long period, as Othman (2005:42) states, “East Timor, a former Portuguese colony for over 450 years, traces its colonial past to the early 16th Century when Portugal first made contact and set up settlement. The seat of the colonial government was established in the island of Timor in the 18th Century, and the first Portuguese Governor nominated in 1710”. Although Timorese people experienced less violence during the colonialism of Portuguese, the experience of violence became worse during World War II when Japanese invaded Timor-Leste. Dewhurst (2008) points out, Many Timorese recognize the Portuguese colonial occupation to have been less aggressive towards the population than subsequent invasions. However, since the Japanese invasion during the Second World War […] country has suffered from exceedingly violent oppression with no respite. […] a third of the population died through killing or neglect under the Japanese. (Dewhurst, 2008:24). As one of the countries under the government of Portugal, Timor-Leste was given the opportunity of several options including self-determination when the revolution occurred in Portugal in 1974. “The 25 April 1974 coup d'etat in the metropolis ("Carnation Revolution") ushered in a wave for the dispossession of overseas territories. The new Government enacted a law on 27 July 1974, acknowledging that all non-self governing entities under Portugal's administration had a right to self-determination” (Othman, 2005:42). Therefore, one year after, on 28 November 1975, Timor-Leste declared its independence with the name of Democratic Republic of East Timor (RDTL), led by the FRETILIN political party. However, the other political parties such as UDT and APODETI proclaimed their support for integration with Indonesia that resulted in Indonesia invading Timor-Leste a few days after independence was proclaimed. (Othman, 2005). Violence and brutally was used by the Indonesian military including killing, abuses as well as displacement during the occupation from 1975 to 1999 that caused Timorese people become traumatized and vulnerable, as stated in the CAVR report, In the political conflicts in Timor-Leste young men constituted a group that frequently suffered and perpetrated violence. The emergence of the clandestine movement in the ! 21! 1980s resulted in many young people becoming engaged in resistance activities. Others were involved in groups formed by the Indonesian military to respond to the resistance. The education of many of these young men was disrupted by their involvement in clandestine activities, periods of imprisonment and serious injuries suffered as a result of torture and ill treatment. (CAVR, 2005:41) Related to the displacement of Timorese people as the consequences of the war and conflict, CAVR reported shows, “Displacement was widespread: 55.5% of surveyed households reported one or more displacement events, for a total of 2,011 reported displacement events between 1974 and 1999” (CAVR, 2005). Timor-Leste continues to struggle for its independence. As Othman states, “The turning point in East Timor's struggle for independence took place on 27 January 1999 when President B. J. Habibie of Indonesia announced that the East Timorese would be allowed, through a popular referendum, to choose whether they accepted or rejected the Indonesian Government’s proposal for autonomy” (Othman, 2005: 42). Whereas, the worse suffering experience by the Timorese people was in 1999 when Indonesia has to leave Timor-Leste. Before leaving the country, the Indonesian military organized their militia to kill civilians and destroy infrastructure. The country was totally destroyed in the tragedy of 1999. The United Nations (UN) coordinated and controlled the referendum election in August 1999. As a result of the election, 78% of the Timorese people voted for independence. As a result, Indonesia was forced to leave Timor-Leste and let TimorLeste prepare for its independence (Martin, 2001). As shown in the UNICEF report on Evaluation on Education Program in Timor-Leste (2010:34), “in 1999 almost 90 percent of Timorese schools were damaged or destroyed by burning and rioting throughout the country”. The state security sector was the responsibility of the UN peacekeeping troops in September 1999 and the transitional administration was in place by United Nation Transitional Administration of East Timor (UNTAET) from December 1999 to May 2002 to supervise the transition period and leading to independence. Timor-Leste became fully independent on 20 May 2002 (Unicef, 2010). After experiencing many violent incidents during colonialism and occupation, Timor-Leste had to face another violent event in 2006, four years after independence. Civic and political unrest in 2006 that involved gangs and street fighting and community ! 22! division caused Timorese people to continue suffering. As Arnold (2009) states, “The violence of April and May 2006 left 38 people dead and 150,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs), approximately 15 per cent of the national population” (Arnold, 2009:381). Myrttinen (2010) also mention about gang related issue as states, […] especially during the early days of the crisis in 2006 it almost became a trend for small, mostly harmless, neighborhood groups to call themselves gangs and gain more ‘street credibility.’ Once gangs became, in the public mind, connected with disrespectability and pointless violence, a number of the gangs chose to recast themselves as youth groups (Myrttinen, 2010:241) All of these violent events have influenced the Timorese character and mentality to consider violent behavior as normal and common in their daily life including educational sector as means of education. 2.6.2. Education situation in Timor-Leste The education systems were strongly affected by the different situations faced by the country. Portugal colonized Timor-Leste since the 16th century, for 450 years. “Timor-Leste was under Portuguese colonial rule from 1500 until 1974” (Justino, Leone & Salardi, 2011). During those years, the Portuguese government led all the administration governance in Timor-Leste including the educational system. Under Portuguese colonialism, the opportunity of education was very limited and organized by the Catholic Church. Basic education was only 3 years and only one school opened in each district and there was only one high school, located in the capital of the country. As Justino, Leone & Salardi (2011:12) state, “Under Portuguese colonial rule, education was administered via the Catholic Church. Churches were the major providers of education and schooling was mostly available to the elite in urban areas”. This is also mention by Pedersen and Arneberg (1999) as state, “The Catholic Church ran most schools, teaching was in Portuguese, and only a small fraction of children had access to education. Secondary or tertiary education was not available” (Pedersen & Arneberg, 1999:84). This condition caused Timorese people to have high rates of illiteracy, as they could not easily access education, especially formal education. The aims of schooling itself were not to properly educate young people but to intensify their colonialism (Carmo Belo, 2010; Jones, 2003). Almost no document shows that violence was used in the classroom as a mean of discipline; however, most of ! 23! the teachers and family members who enrolled in school during the period of Portuguese colonialism shared the same experience of violence and physical punishment in the classroom, even some of them share that they get beat with stick in their palm hand for 10-15 times when they did not understand the lesson taught. Physical punishment was used as the response for inadequate behavior or not understanding the lesson taught. After the withdrawal of Portuguese from Timor-Leste in 1975, the country was occupied by Indonesian military for 24 years, from 1975 to 1999. During 1975 to 1979, education activities were stopped, as the population took refuge in the mountains for security issues. The schools opened again after the Indonesian military took control of the state. During the Indonesian occupation, the opportunities of formal education were open for all citizens although the quantity of education was more prioritized than its quality. Justino, Leone & Salardi (2011), said, “The Indonesian government planned to expand education access to the whole population of Timor-Leste. Education was used as a means to control the population, and the Portuguese and Tatum languages were abolished.” This context of education issue also expressed by Pedersen & Arneberg (1999:85) who state that, ″after 1975, developing the education sector was of high priority for the Indonesian authorities in order to spread Indonesian language and policy. The education sector was important not only for the process of integrating East Timor into the Indonesian nation state, but also for the purpose of control”. Violence continues applied in the classroom during the occupation in 1975-1999. The education situation became worst in 1999 when Indonesia withdraws from Timor-Leste. Although 90% of the infrastructure, including school buildings, was burnt down and destroyed in 1999 when Indonesian military left Timor-Leste, the school started again in early 2000 although in very bad conditions. However, stated of lack of resources and bad condition, the schools still lacked of teachers, especially the secondary and higher education level as most of the teachers were from Indonesia. As Unicef (2010:11) reported, there was a lack of qualified teachers after the referendum as most of the teachers were Indonesian and left the country following the referendum; 20% of the elementary teachers were non-Timorese and 9 out of 10 of secondary school teachers were non-Timorese (Unicef, 2010:11). Facing this condition, Timor-Leste needed to start from zero to rebuild the country including the education sector in the era ! 24! of independence. Similarly, mention in the CAVR report (2005), The use of schools for propaganda and indoctrination severely interfered with the education of an entire generation of East Timorese youth. Education was used in this way as part of an integrated security approach whose overriding objective was to ensure that proindependence sentiment did not take root in a new generation. In this context, teaching children the skills that would enhance their prospects and enable them to fulfil their human potential was secondary (CAVR, 2005:145), The experience of violence and abuses during colonialism and occupation resulted in the violence becoming rooted in the Timorese mentality that makes them continue to use violence to each other as well as in the schools and as means of education and to achieved their objective. Timor-Leste still remains one of the poorest countries in the Asia and has a high rate of unemployment which is between 60-80% (AusAID, 1999 in Pedersen & Arneberg, 1999) and 50% rate of unemployment (SEPFOPE: 2013), Timor-Leste also experiences direct violence in the era of independence in all aspects of the society. As Dewhurst (2008) points out, the use of violence is largely accepted by the Timorese society both at home and at school as a means of response to the disagreements, revenge of past violence and to maintain the status, value and properties of the individual, family, group, gang and communities. The act of violence is also used as a part of the political landscape in the country and used to influence to gain power and respect (Dewhurst, 2008). Violence is even considered as a good a way of disciplining and educating children. Dewhurst quotes the co-founder of a local peace building organization, who said “Sometimes if teachers don’t beat the children, the parents complain, they think good discipline is physical discipline.” (Dewhurst, 2008). 2.6.3. Timor-Leste’s laws and policies regarding the use of violence The quality of education was the first priority for the young people and state development in the era of independence, as mentioned in the National Education Strategic Plan (ME, 2011:7): “In 2030 the people of Timor-Leste will be educated, knowledgeable and qualified to live long and productive lives, respectful of peace, family and positive traditional values. All individuals will have the same opportunities for access to quality education that will allow them to participate in the economic, social and political development process, ensuring social equity and national unity.” In order to ! 25! achieve this vision, it is important to be focused on the aspects that contribute to the implementation of the educational practices. For example, teaching materials, school buildings as well as professional teachers are essential for the achievement of the educational goal. Timor-Leste is a new nation and a young country. In fact, according to the last census, 32% of the population is in the age of 10-24 years old (Curtain, 2010:71). The quality of education was the first priority for the young people and the state development in the era of independence, as mentioned in the National Education Strategic Plan (ME, 2011:7): “In 2030 the people of Timor-Leste will be educated, knowledgeable and qualified to live long and productive lives, respectful of peace, family and positive traditional values. All individuals will have the same opportunities for access to quality education that will allow them to participate in the economic, social and political development process, ensuring social equity and national unity“. The main education goals are for young Timorese people to be knowledgeable, productive, and peaceful and have positive traditional values. Accordingly, since the restoration of independence in 2002, the state adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) Law and Convention of Children's Rights (CRC), which promote the rights of the citizens. The Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor (2002) also promote human rights and the rights of children; for example, Section 18(1) states, “Children shall be entitled to special protection by the family, the community and the State, particularly against all forms of abandonment, discrimination, violence, oppression, sexual abuse and exploitation”. Section 18(2) states, “Children shall enjoy all rights that are universally recognized”; Section 9 directly incorporates into national law the rules of international conventions (RDTL, 2002). The Decree Law No. 19/2009 approving the Penal Code penalizes many violations of children’s rights, among others: harm, mistreatment, cruel treatment, and sexual abuse. Everyone has the right to be free from violence and the rights of others need to be respected. As mentioned in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 5, “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment” (GA-UN, 1948). The countries that adopt the international law of human rights have the responsibility to respect the right of the citizens based on the law. However, the history of colonialism ! 26! and occupations negatively influenced Timorese teachers, who considered using violence to discipline students was acceptable. The country has experienced violence and torture since the times of colonialism and occupation. This situation causes some Timorese teachers to still apply violence in their classroom, including at the secondary school level, although the law prohibits it. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 27! CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY ! This chapter deals with the research methods and methodology that were applied in the study. It describes the methodological approaches and how the research was conducted, such as how the research is designed, types of research methods, data collection methods, instruments of data collection, population and sampling methods, and data analysis methods that apply in this research, as well as ethical considerations. 3.1. Methodology approaches According to Silverman (2004:4), “Methodology refers to the choices we make about cases to study, methods of data gathering, forms of data analysis etc. in planning and executing research study. So our methodology defines how we will go about studying any phenomenon”. This study will apply the combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches in collecting the empirical data. As Punch (2014:338), emphasizes, “[…] it is important also to show the connection between the two parts”. The quantitative approach will be used as the primary sampling of data collection to collect the numerical data from the students related to the existence of violence in the classroom and the types of violence that mostly occur. The qualitative approach will be used as the secondary sampling to gather data from the teachers’ perspective, ideas and experience of classroom violence and on the main causes of violence. This information will justify the result of the numerical data from the students that will be gathered through questionnaires as the primary data. Punch (2014:304) refers to the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative methods and the benefit of combining methods: “Consideration such as simply that qualitative methods can be strong in those areas where quantitative methods are weak, and similarly that quantitative methods can be strong in those areas where qualitative methods are weak. Combining the two methods therefore offers the possibility of combining these two sets strengths and compensating for the weaknesses.” Thus, the researcher believes that the combination of methods is more relevant in this study as this study uses both quantitative and qualitative means of data collection. Clark ! 28! and Creswell (2015) point out, “Mixed methods studies include forms of quantitative data (i.e., numbers) and qualitative data (i.e., words or images) as part of the data collection” (Clark & Creswell, 2015:384). 3.2. Research design 3.2.1. Library and online research It is necessary to conduct library and online research in order to find out the relevant material for reference that needed to support the theoretical framework of the study, which is aimed to select the literature in order to collect and select the theoretical concepts of the predominant experts in education and social theory. The selected relevant theories will be used to contextualize the empirical data. 3.2.2. Field research The field research was conducted in public secondary schools in Timor-Leste that are located in the urban area. This field research is aimed to gather the related information that will be analyzed in this study. Teachers and students from four schools will be randomly selected to represent the data sources. The researcher will visit the selected schools with the purpose to gather the data as the empirical evidence. Questionnaires and interviews will be used as the means of data collection. Silverman (2004:4) states, “Methods are specific research techniques. These include quantitative techniques, like statistical correlations, as well as techniques like observation, interviewing and audio recording”. The questionnaires was used to collect the information from the students regarding the frequency of violent incidents that happened in the schools and classrooms as well as the rank of typical violence that is used as a means of discipline in the classroom. The interview approach was used to gather information from the teachers regarding the reasons and the purposes of the violence used in the classroom as well as how school regulations are used to reinforce school discipline. 3.3. Data collection methods Walliman (2001:226) points out, “The reasons for choosing a particular data collection method and analysis method are always determined by the nature of what you want to find out, and the particular characteristics of your research problem, and the ! 35! academic level and 132 students from third year of academic level. The numbers of students of second and third academic year is not balanced because selection was random. The researcher intentionally did not involve the first year students because the research was conducted in the month of January, which is the first month of the school year and the first year students were not familiar with their school situation. Table 2. Gender and the age group of the students School Gender Age group Total Male Female 15-16 17-18 19-20 21-up A 28 22 1 39 9 1 50 14.0% 11.0% 0.5% 19.5% 4.5% 0.5% 25% B 21 29 7 17 23 3 50 10.5% 14.5% 3.5% 8.5% 11.5% 1.5% 25.0% C 23 27 7 31 10 2 50 11.5% 13.5% 3.5% 15.5% 5.0% 1.0% 25.0% D 31 19 4 31 11 4 50 15.5% 9.5% 2.0% 15.5% 5.5% 2.0% 25.0% Total 103 97 19 118 53 10 200 51.5% 48.5% 9.5% 59.0% 26.5% 5.0% 100.0% The numbers of the boys and girls who were selected to fill out the questionnaires is not balanced despite the random selection. There were 103 male students and 97 female students involved in the research. As can be seen in the table above, the highest numbers of students who were involved in the research are with the age group of 17-18, followed by the age group of 19-20 and the age group of 15-16. Even though the age group of 21-up has the lower rank, this age of students still exists in secondary school. 4.1.2. Occurrences of violence at school based on the students’ perspective The results show that violence still happens in schools and in the classrooms in Timor-Leste, as demonstrated in the following tables. The types of violence described here include physical violence, emotional or psychological violence and sexual violence. It is also describes the victims and the perpetrators of violence. The perpetrators and the ! 36! victims of violence considered in this study include the students, teachers, school directors and other school personnel who is involved the school security, cleaners, and the school administrators. The students also were asked about the reason and the space of the violent incidents. 4.1.2.1. Students as witness of violence at school The students were asked about how often they witness different types of violence (everyday, once a week, once a month and never). The evidence in the tables (3,4,5 and 6) shows that most of the students report ‘never’ related to witnessing violence in their schools. However, there are some students witnessing physical, emotional and sexual violence at school, perpetrated by teachers, students, and other school personnel. Table 3. Students witness violence from teachers against students. Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator: Item-ofquestionEveryday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 19.5% 10.0% 17.5% 53.0% 100.0% 13 392035106200 Emotional violence 18.0% 13.5% 9.0% 59.5% 100.0% 31 362718119200 Sexual violence 14.0% 9.5% 14.0% 62.5% 100.0% 43 28 19 28 125 (200) Related to the physical violence that is committed by the teachers against students, there are 19.5% of the respondents reporting that they witness this type of violence everyday, 10% of the respondents report that they witness it once a week and 17.5 % report that they witness it once a month. Related to the emotional violence that is committed by teachers against students at school, 18% of the respondents report that they witness this type of violence everyday, 13.5% report that they witness it once a week and 9% report that they witness it once a month. With regard to sexual violence committed by the teachers against students, 14% of the respondents report that they witness this type of violence everyday, 9.5% of the respondents report that they witness it once a week and 14% report that they witness it once a month. ! 37! Table 4. Students witness violence from students against teachers Types of violence Frequency Total IndicatorItem-ofquestion- - Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 16.5% 14.5% 15.5% 53.5% 100.0% 14 33 29 31 107 200 Emotional violence 13.5% 12.0% 14.0% 60.5% 100.0% 32 27 24 28 121 200 Sexual violence 11.5% 10.5% 16.0% 62.0% 100.0% 44 23 21 32 124 200 Regarding the physical violence committed by the students against their teachers at school, 16.5% of the respondents report that they witness this type of violence everyday, 14.5% of the respondents report that they witness it once a week and 15.5% of the students report that they witness it once a month. Related to the emotional violence committed by students against their teachers, 13.5% of the respondents report that they witness it everyday, 12% of the respondents report that they witness it once a week and 14% report that they witness it once a month. Regarding the sexual violence committed by the students against their teachers, 11.5% of the respondents report that they witness this kind of violence at school everyday, 10.5% of the respondents report that they witness it once a week and 16% of the respondents report that they witness it once a month. Table 5. Students witness violence from students against other students Types of violence Frequency Total Indicatoritem-ofquestionEveryday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 21.0% 13.0% 22.0% 44.0% 100.0% 15 42 26 44 88 200 Emotional violence 18.0% 11.0% 13.0% 58.0% 100.0% 33 36 22 26 116 200 Sexual violence 13.5% 11.5% 15.5% 59.5% 100.0% 45 27 23 31 119 200 ! 38! Regarding witnessing violence that is conducted by the students against their peers in school, in terms of physical violence, 21% of the respondents report that they witness this type of violence everyday, 13% of the respondents report that they witness it once a week and 22% of the respondents report that they witness it once a month. Related to the emotional violence that is conducted by the students against their peers in the school, 18% of the respondents report that they witness it everyday, 11% of the students report that they witness it once a week and 13% of the respondents report that they witness it once a month. Regarding the sexual violence that is conducted by the students against other students in school, 13.5% of the respondents report that they witness it everyday, 11.5% of the respondents report that they witness it once a week and 15.5 % of the respondents report that they witness it once a month. Table!6.!!Students witness violence from other school personnel against students Types of violence Frequency Total IndicatorItem-ofquestion- - Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 16.5% 8.0% 12.5% 63.0% 100.0% 16 33 16 25 126 200 Emotional violence 10.0% 14.5% 13.5% 62.0% 100.0% 34 20 29 27 124 200 Sexual violence 8.5% 9.5% 10.5% 71.5% 100.0% 46 17 19 21 143 200 Related to the physical violence committed by the other school personnel against students at school, 16.5% of the respondents report that they see it everyday, 8% of respondents report that they see it once a week and 12.5% of the students report that they see it once a month. Related to the emotional violence committed by the other school personnel against students, 10% of the respondents report that they see this type of violence everyday, 14.5% of the respondents report that they see it once a week and 13% report that they see it once a month. Regarding the sexual violence committed by the other school personnel against students, 8.5% of the respondents report that they see this type of violence everyday, 9.5 % of the respondents report that they see it once a week and 10.5% of the respondents report that they see it once a month. ! 39! 4.1.2.2. Students as the victims of violence in school The students were asked about their victimization through physical, emotional and sexual violence in the school committed by their teachers, peers, school directors or the other school personnel. The results are shown in the tables bellow. The evidence in the tables (7,8,9 and 10) shows that most of the respondents report ‘never’ related to their victimization of violence in their schools. However, there are still some students witnessing physical, emotional and sexual violence in the school that is committed by the teachers, students, school directors as well as other school personnel. Table!7.!Students receive violence from teachers Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator Item of question Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 26.5% 17.0% 6.0% 50.5% 100.0% 1 53 34 12 101 200 Emotional violence 14.0% 11.0% 12.0% 63.0% 100.0% 19 28 22 24 126 200 Sexual violence 10.0% 9.0% 8.0% 73.0% 100.0% 35 20 18 16 146 200 Regarding the physical violence that is committed by the teacher against students in the school and classrooms, 26.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 17% of the respondents report that they receive it once a week and 6% of the respondents report that they receive it once a month. Related to the emotional violence committed by the teachers against students in the school, 14% of the respondents report that they receive emotional violence everyday, 11% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a week, and 12% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a month. Regarding the sexual violence committed by the teacher against the students at school. 10% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 9% of the respondents report that they receive it once a week and 8% of the students said that they receive this once a month. ! 40! Table!8.!Students receive violence from their peers Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator Item of question Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 13.5% 13.0% 12.0% 61.5% 100.0% 2 27 26 24 123 200 Emotional violence 13.5% 14.5% 12.0% 60.0% 100.0% 20 27 29 24 120 200 Sexual violence 11.5% 11.5% 9.5% 67.5% 100.0% 36 23 23 19 135 200 Regarding the physical violence that is committed by the students against other students, 13.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 13% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a week and 12% of the respondents said that they receive this type of violence once a month. Related to the emotional violence that the students committed against their peers, 13.5 % of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 14.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a week and 12% of the respondents said that they receive this type of violence once a month. Regarding the sexual violence that the students committed against their peers at school, 11.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 11.5 % of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a week and 9.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a month. Table!9.!Students receive violence from the school director Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator Item of question Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 14.5% 11.5% 7.0% 67.0% 100.0% 3 29 23 14 134 200 Emotional violence 11.0% 9.5% 11.5% 68.0% 100.0% 21 22 19 23 136 200 Sexual violence 11.0% 12.0% 9.0% 68.0% 100.0% 37 22 24 18 136 200 ! 41! Regarding the physical violence committed by the school director against students, 14.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 11.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a week and 7% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a month. Related to the emotional violence committed by the school director against students, 11% report that they receive this type if violence from the school director everyday, 9.5% report that they receive this type of violence once a week and 11.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a month. Regarding the sexual violence committed by the school director, 11% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 12% of the respondent report that they receive this type of violence once a week and 9% of the participants report that they receive this type of violence once a month. Table 10. Students receive violence from the other school personnel Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator Item of question Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 15.0% 10.0% 8.5% 66.5% 100.0% 4 30 20 17 133 200 Emotional violence 9.5% 13.5% 10.5% 66.5% 100.0% 22 19 27 21 133 200 Sexual violence 11.5% 8.0% 9.0% 71.5% 100.0% 38 23 16 18 143 200 Regarding the physical violence committed by the other school personnel in the school against students, 15% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 10% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a week and 8.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a month. Regarding the emotional violence committed by the other school personnel against students at school, 9.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 13.5% of the respondents report that they receive it once a week and 10.5% report that they receive it once a month. Regarding the sexual violence committed by the other school personnel against students at school, 11.5% of the respondents report that they receive this type of violence everyday, 8% of the ! 42! respondents report that they receive this type of violence once a week and 9% of the respondent report that they receive this type of violence once a month. 4.1.2.3. Students as offenders/perpetrators of violence at school Students can also be offenders. Therefore, in this study, the students were also asked about whether or not they use violence against school personnel including teachers, students, school director and other school personnel in the school. The evidence shows that most of the respondents said they never use violence against others at school, but still there are some students that use violence at their school as shown in the tables bellow: Table!11.!Students use violence against their teachers Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator Item of question Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 12.0% 5.0% 7.0% 76.0% 100.0% 7 24 10 14 152 200 Emotional violence 14.5% 11.0% 10.5% 64.0% 100.0% 25 29 22 21 128 200 Sexual violence 11.0% 9.5% 11.5% 68.0% 100.0% 39 22 19 23 136 200 Concerning physical violence, 12% of the respondents report that they committed this type of violence at school against teachers everyday, 5% of the respondents report that they committed physical violence against teachers once a week and 7% of the respondents report that they committed physical violence against teachers once a month. Regarding the emotional violence committed by the students against their teachers at school, 14.5% of the respondents report that they committed it everyday, 11% of the respondents report that they committed it once a week and 10.5% of the respondents report that they committed it once a month. Regarding the sexual violence committed by students against their teacher at school, 11% of the respondents report that they committed sexual violence against teachers everyday, 9.5% of the respondents report that they committed sexual violence against teachers once a week and 11.5% report that they committed sexual violence against their teachers once a month at school. ! 43! Table!12.!Students use violence against their peers Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator Item of question Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 10.0% 11.0% 13.5% 65.5% 100.0% 8 20 22 27 131 200 Emotional violence 14.0% 15.0% 10.5% 60.5% 100.0% 26 28 30 21 121 200 Sexual violence 12.0% 11.0% 9.0% 68.0% 100.0% 40 24 22 18 136 200 Regarding the physical violence that students committed against their peers at school, 10% of the respondents report that they committed this type of violence everyday, 11% of the respondents report that they committed it once a week and 13.5% of the respondents report that they committed it once a month. Regarding the emotional violence committed by the students against other students at school, 14% of the respondents report that they committed it everyday, 15% of the respondents report that they committed it once a week and 10.5% of the respondents report that they committed emotional violence against their peers once a month. Regarding the sexual violence committed by the students against other students at school, 12% of the respondents report that they committed sexual violence against their peers everyday, 11% of the respondents report that they committed it once a week and 9% of the respondents report that they committed it once a month. Table!13.!Students use violence against the school director Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator Item of question Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 8.5% 8.0% 7.5% 76.0% 100.0% 9 17 16 15 152 200 Emotional violence 6.5% 9.5% 7.5% 76.5% 100.0% 27 13 19 15 153 200 Sexual violence 8.5% 7.5% 11.5% 72.5% 100.0% 41 17 15 23 145 200 ! 44! Regarding the violence committed by the students against the school director at the school, 8.5% of the respondents report that they use physical violence against the school director everyday, 8% of the respondents report that they use it once a week and 7.5% of the respondents report that they use it once a month. Regarding the use of emotional violence by the students at school, 6.5% of the respondents report that they use it everyday, 9.5% of the respondents report that they use it once a week and 7.5% of the respondents report that they use emotional violence against the school director once a month. Regarding the use of sexual violence that by the students against the school director, 8.5% of the respondents report that they use it everyday, 7.5% of the respondents once a week and 11.5% of the respondents once a month. Table 14. Students use violence against other school personnel Types of violence Frequency Total Indicator Item of question Everyday Once a week Once a month Never Physical Violence 10.0% 8.5% 6.5% 75.0% 100.0% 10 20 17 13 150 200 Emotional violence 11.0% 10.0% 12.5% 66.5% 100.0% 28 22 20 25 133 200 Sexual violence 10.5% 9.5% 9.0% 71.0% 100.0% 42 21 19 18 142 200 Regarding the physical violence committed by the students against other school personnel including security, cleanness and other administration personnel, 10% of the respondents report that they use it everyday, 8.5% once a week and 6.5% once a month. Regarding the emotional violence committed by the students against other school personnel, 11% of the respondents report that they use emotional violence everyday, 10% once a week and 12.5% once a month. With regard to the sexual violence that the students use against other school personnel at school, 10.5% of the respondents report that they use this type of violence everyday, 9.5% once a week and 9% once a month. 4.1.2.3. The purposes of school violence The students were also asked about the purpose of the occurrences of violence at school whether they are the witnesses of violence, victims of violence or the perpetrators ! 51! Table 22. Hypothesis Test Summary People who answered “yes” to question 50 (Mdn = 96.67) were significantly less victims of physical violence from their teachers than people who answered “no” (Mdn = 119.22), U = 2185.50, z = -2.249, p < .025. Likewise, students who answered “yes” to question 50 (Mdn = 96.67) were significantly less victims of physical violence from the school director than people who answered “no” (Mdn = 119.22), U = 2185.50, z = - 2.484, p < .013. People who answered “yes” to question 50 (Mdn = 96.94) were significantly less victims of psychological violence from their teachers than people who answered “no” (Mdn = 117.88), U = 2231.00, z = -2.228, p < .026. Also, students who answered “yes” to question 50 (Mdn = 96.76) were significantly less victims of psychological violence from their school director than people who answered “no” (Mdn = 118.76), U = 2201.00, z = -2.446, p < .014. People who answered “yes” to question 50 (Mdn = 97.33) commited significantly less psychological violence against their school director than people who answered “no” (Mdn = 111.97), U = 2296.00, z = - 2.305, p < .021. Also, people who answered “yes” to question 50 (Mdn = 96.84) commited significantly less psychological violence against other school staff than people ! 52! who answered “no” (Mdn = 118.38), U = 2214.00, z = -2.361, p < .018. Finally, people who answered “yes” to question 50 (Mdn = 97.49) commited significantly less sexual violence against their teacher than people who answered “no” (Mdn = 115.19), U = 2322.50, z = -1.967, p < .049. 4.2. Interview data Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 8 teachers from 4 secondary schools in Dili, Timor-Leste. Two teachers from each school were selected to participate in the interview session, one school director or vice director (T1) and one regular teacher (T2). All selected teachers took part in the interview; however, there were two school directors unable to participate in the interview because they were not available at the time when the interviews were conducted but they delegated onto the vice directors. The following tables indicate the interview participants and the empirical data as the results of interview. Table 23. Subjects of the Interview data Code Respondentes and Tittle Schools Date of interview TA1 Vice Director of School A School A January 4th 2016 TA2 A Teacher of School A School A January 4th 2016 TB1 Vice Director of School B School B January 7th 2016 TB2 A teacher of School B School B January 7th 2016 TC1 Director of School C School C January 11th 2016 TC2 A teacher of School C School C January 11th 2016 TD1 Director of School D School D January 28th 2016 TD2 A teacher of School D School D January 28th 2016 The table (24) contained the classification of topics, categories and sub-categories and the empirical data evidence as the result of interview. Table 24. The results of the interview Themes, categories, sub-categories and the empirical evidence 1. Violence 1.1. Concept of Violence “I think Violence is a common word and everyone knows it very well. Violence must ! 53! have its objectives. For example, like sometimes the teacher beats the students in order to scare them into not breaking the school regulations, because when the students violate the regulations of the school, especially drinking alcohol or rioting, they create a rough environment. This violation affects the public as they are violating others rights in the process”(TA2). “Absolutely right as I said, if we use physical aggression towards the students, it is crime, but if we educate them, we are not committing a crime. A crime is when we injure their bodies; if we broke their hands or feet that is crime. But it is the responsibility of the teacher not just to teach, but to educate them, so we always educate them, but do not commit crimes towards the students” (TB1). “Concept of violence, based on my opinion, is someone who uses force towards others with some objective. Using violent force can be the use force toward an individual or group or towards whoever is against his objective. That is why he uses violence, because I think violence is pressuring someone to follow him. It can be a crime that can lead to murder or killing or pressing other people to fulfill his needs” (TB2). “My understanding about violence is that sometimes when the students are rude, when they are naughty, the teachers will slap them. And then when the students reject this violence act from the teachers, they will threaten the teachers” (TD2). 1.2. Types of Violence 1.2.1. Direct violence “There is the use of violence but it is not really big deal. It is just pulling ears or telling them to stand outside the classroom and not allowing them to attend the class. Those methods still exist in our country” (TA1). “Teachers use yelling, insulting, and pulling ears, when the students do not give their attention to the teacher” (TA1). “If the teacher gives more assignments, but they are still not doing the work, the teacher gives a sanction like scolding them, not allowing them to attend the lesson, or cleaning the school” (TA2). “When we compare, the beating is like direct contact. Generally beating to educate is the method used so the students will participate. Now giving assignments, some of them never comply with the deadline that teacher gives. So I think direct action is sometimes the better way so the students can follow or understand the lesson more quickly than giving more assignments” (TD1). 1.2.2. Structural Violence “If the students are absent, we call him/her personally to make a change. If the call makes no change, our final decision is to transfer the student. We call the parents to ! 54! come to school and surrender the student to them in order to find another school” (TA2). “Sometimes when the students did not do their homework, the teacher adds more homework for them to complete. This is done so that the student can understand that if they do not want more assignments, it is better that they obey the regulations. If the teacher gives more assignments, but they are still not doing the work, the teacher gives a sanction like scolding them, not allowing them to attend the lesson, or cleaning the school” (TA2). “The reality in Timor now is that one classroom can reach a minimum of 65/70 in each room, because the rooms that the government provides are limited. Because of this, there will always be a problem with the learning process” (TB1). “If they go against the regulations, the school has three ways to solve the issue. First, call it to their attention, second they will sign a letter stating that they will not repeat the actions, and the third is to move them to another school. Those are the regulations that we apply in our school” (TB1). 1.3. Sociocultural violence 1.3.1. Historical Change “Not all the teachers use violence in the classroom, but some teachers do because they are coming from a culture where toughness is used to solve problems. They believe this method gives them the solution, so they use a dictator’s system” (TA2.) “I just want to tell you that, our country only recently walked out from the violence we all know occurred during 24 years under Indonesian occupation; we saw a lot of violence happen in our country. So, how we act will be like “rough” or our characteristics are still rough in dealing each other, even if our intention is good” (TC2). “At that moment, I gave an example from Indonesia, saying do not use violence at school, but they also included you can, but in an educational way. Sometimes we have a harder time to manage the students, therefore it is needed to say no violence, but we say use violence in an educational way that is important” (TC1). 1.3.2. Cultural Context “There are also students perpetuating violence towards each other. This is characteristic of Timorese culture still exists and happens at school. Violence between teachers and students sometimes occurs, but not always. But it is a characteristic of Timorese students, as you know, that even if we give them the regulations, they don’t want to consider them as important, which means they often do not follow them” (TA1). “According to Timorese culture, the way you can make a naughty student obey the rules is by hurting them physically or emotionally. If we use the democratic ways, by give freedom precisely they will never give attention to the lessons and they don’t even ! 55! listening to the teachers” (TB2). “Related to our school, we do use violence but it is not really big deal. For example if there is a student stand and against the teachers and the teachers with good intention to educate means teach them how to understand in our term “O QUE É EDUCAÇÃO?” (What is education). This is part of education and one day they will realize that what was the teachers did are right. Every Monday, we do our flag ceremony, and I always give them courage and counseling. I always say if ever the teachers are angry with you, hit or slapping you, it is part of the education, and do not consider it as a big problem, but it teaches you, so that you and us as the teachers, we can cooperate and support each other so our learning process can go smoothly” (TC1). “Generally beating to educate is the method used so the students will participate. Now giving assignments, some of them never comply with the deadline that teacher gives. So I think direct action is sometimes the better way so the students can follow or understand the lesson more quickly than giving more assignments” (TD1). “But then in reality if we don’t use violence the students will not respect us and will not obey the rules and as a teacher we lose our dignity” (TD2). “Violence that happens in the classroom is a normal thing because some students are really interested in learning, but there are some students come to school just to get the diploma. Those students that just need the diploma are the ones who cause the problems and become a factor in creating the violence during the learning process in the classroom” (TB1). “That we cannot form students to be someone without violence, I don’t think so it is true. For me it is not true. But the reality still exists that teachers use violence against the students” (TD2). “If we give total freedom, like Human Rights, people say it can makes students worse and never want to give their attention. So it is better to use some physical aggression so they can give their attention to their teacher, especially here in Timor” (TB2). 1.3.3. Law and policy change “In order to be a good teacher, we must follow the rules of education, which do not permit violence” (TA1). “At school, type of violence that we are still using or that sometimes still exists is pulling the ear because when we look back at our regulations, when we scold them to kneeling down also already a big deal so you cannot scold them to kneel down” (TA1). “In Timor, the national level has not established an educational law or regulation. There is no regulation from the Minister of Education. So the regulation that we use at school is regulation created and implemented by its own leadership and based on the law of the ! 56! state not the national law” (TA1). “When we talk about part of law, if I am not mistaken, Chapter 59 talks about education, doesn’t it? This chapter mentions, “Everybody must access education.” If the law says so, we already understand that everybody must go to school, but we cannot apply it generally. We must break it down and make internal rules and regulations, depending on situation and condition of the school, and encourage the students to obey” (TC1). 1.4. Affirmation of power “When we are at home with our children, and they are not listening, as a parent it is up to us to pull on their ears a little bit. Similarly at school, when we give the advise and the students do not follow or like the regulations, does not means that we kick them out of school, but that we must train them to obey the rules” (TA1). “If we give a warning three or four times but the students never give their concern, the final solution is transferring the student to another school. Those are our regulations and we always use them” (TA1). “With regard to violence at school and what I know is that sometimes when teachers enforce a regulation, but the students don’t want to follow it, and then they will sometimes use physical violence toward the teachers” (TB2). 2. School Violence 2.1. The Existence of School Violence 2.1.1. The Existence of violence at school and in the classroom “There are also students perpetuating violence towards each other. (…) Violence between teachers and students sometimes occurs, but not always. But violence between teachers and students are sometimes but not all the time” (TA1). “The more common are teachers using violence towards the students, it happens so many times” (TA2). “Violence at school occurs more in the public schools in Timor. The violence exists, but it doesn’t means that it is a crime. There are different types of violence. Sometimes violence from the communities affects the school” (TB2). “When I talk specifically about our school, it has never happened, but violence still exists in some other schools. For example, recently violence occurred at school X and that time the students hit a teacher and broke her arm” (TC1). 2.2. Offender (manifestation of Violence) 2.2.1. Teachers “If a student has not attended school in two to three months, a teacher might yell at them and pull their ear, but so far no teachers have beat students with branches” (TA1). ! 57! “Not all the teachers use violence in the classroom, but some teachers are do (…). The more common are teachers using violence towards the students, it happens so many times. To the degree at which the teacher would use it as an educational tool/educational moment” (TA2). “Sometimes there is unpleasantness among students or unpleasantness between students and the teachers. And sometimes it disturbs the learning process and if the students do not obey the regulations of the school, that is why sometimes the teachers use a little violence toward them” (TB2). 2.2.2. Students “Students do use violent action toward one another, mostly in the form of fights. Sometimes they intentionally plan fights to occur at school” (TA1). “In my experience, last year in 2014, a student came to school with his machete was reckless and attempt to chop off the principal’s head at the school” (TB1). “The common types of the violence are what I have said. Students come with the different characteristics and threat each other. Threats are the most common. Last year students beat a teacher, and threatened verbally and sometimes physically” (TB2). “Reality reveals that when the director of the school gave counseling about discipline last year, a student brought his machete to school and threatened the director. This is violence from a student to the teacher” (TB2). 2.3. Causes of Violence 2.3.1. By Condition: Community and family and school. a. Community and family conditions “Sometimes, the attitude of the students is influenced by social media and makes unethical. Generally, violence happens because there is external provocation and the students are influenced by the people outside. The Students also influenced to do kidnapping especially to be drunk (alcoholic) and do things that everybody dislikes” (TD1). “The child’s behavior also depends on the environment in which he/she is living. For example, if at home the parents are not or cannot teach the students, when they come to school it difficult for the teachers to do so” (TA1). “Sometimes the student is not living with their parents; they live in a rented house, so nobody keeps a good eye on them. Some of them are living with their friends or relatives so they don’t receive good attention and affection. Those things can cause problems at school because they are a problem already at home because the place that they are living is not secure for them to stay in. If they cannot create problem at home, they express it when they are at school” (TB1). ! 58! “… especially those who live in Dili. They live alone and no one gives them attention and affection. Sometimes, when there are problems at home, they bring them to school” (TB2). b. School conditions “The second, student’s needs also become risk to violence; for example limited chairs and tables are risks for violence. And another possible cause of violence is juvenile delinquency” (TB1). “It’s somehow difficult to bring them to be good and positive because the number of the students is higher than the number of teachers, and that is why this discrepancy occurred” (TB1). “It will be better if the condition of school is better: like a school fence, clean classrooms, good and healthy environment that we can implement our rules and regulations. If the condition of school is still a concern they will never understand and what we are teaching, and then it is much worse if we use violence toward them. It is important that we create a good condition and facilities of the school so we can implement the regulations, and all students and teachers must follow the rules. Then we can control and teach them well” (TD2). “Violence happens at school. I just want to say that we gather a lot of people in the school, from the different places and different cultures, which means we find difficult it to control everybody because the number of the students equal more than the number of teachers” (TB1). “Yeah... you know in our country, especially in our school, one classroom can reach 4050 students. And the students come with the different personality traits, some passive, some active, and some naughty and some are quiet, and these all exist in the classroom” (TC2). 2.3.2. By Group “Violence that happens at the school most is caused by the martial art or martial organization” (TB1). “Generally, violence happens because there is external provocation, and students are influenced by the people outside. The Students also influenced to do kidnapping especially to be drunk (alcoholic) and do things that everybody dislikes” (TD1). 2.3.3. By Individual “There are times when a teacher gives an order or disciplines the students, and sometimes students do not obey. Sometimes this makes teacher get emotional or raises their blood pressure, and will sometimes slap them as a result, but with good intention” (TB2). ! 59! “Violence that happens in the classroom is a normal thing because some students are really interested in learning, but there are some students come to school just to get the diploma. Those students that just need the diploma are the ones who cause the problems and become a factor in creating the violence during the learning process in the classroom” (TB1). “If teacher tries to correct them because it interrupts others, sometimes these students misunderstand and it becomes an issue” (TB1). 2.4. The Aims of Violence 2.4.1. To educate “Yes, the actions of pulling student’s ear or scold them kneeling down was justified by the motive to educate the student. It is not to make them bleed or because we do not care about the student. Pulling ears is like giving a small motivation so he/she can be given responsibility in the process of learning” (TA1). “So, we use violence for good intention but not to destroy or destroying the future of the students. This is part of education and one day they will realize that what was the teachers did are right. Every Monday, we do our flag ceremony, and I always give them courage and counseling. I always say if ever the teachers are angry with you, hit or slapping you, it is part of the education, and do not consider it as a big problem, but it teaches you, so that you and us as the teachers, we can cooperate and support each other so our learning process can go smoothly” (TC1). “That happens when students do not give their attention to the instruction of the teacher. The teacher takes this action with motive to redirect the students to give their attention to the teacher when teacher is explaining the lesson in order that the students can understand the lesson” (TD1). “Sometimes there is violence that exists in this school but with objective or intention to educate the students to not misbehave” (TA2). 2.4.2. To discipline and control “It is one of the best way to control them because it does not mean that we use physical aggression, but it allows us teach them and educate them, and from this the students can be quiet or cool in the classroom” (TB2). “There are times when a teacher gives an order or disciplines the students, and sometimes students do not obey. Sometimes this makes teacher get emotional or raises their blood pressure, and will sometimes slap them as a result, but with good intention” (TB2). “Besides teachers are who use yelling and beating, another way is, as I have said, ! 60! scolding them outside of the classroom. When they do not listen, kick them out of classroom. This is a sanction for them to reflect on themselves, and understand that I got this sanction because I am not listening. This is one way to teach them. The other way is to give them assignments with short deadlines so they can understand the lesson. These are the methods other than yelling and beating” (TD1). 2.4.3. Reinforcement of school rules and regulation “When the students or the teachers come late, or when the students are not listening to the teachers or not obeying the regulations of the school, there is the use of violence but it is not really big deal. It is just pulling ears or telling them to stand outside the classroom and not allowing them to attend the class. Those methods still exist in our country” (TA1). “Pulling ears and beating are good methods and effective because they are high school students, and all big boys, so if we do not use it, they don’t give their interest or attention, according to my observation. The teachers here at the school are using those methods” (TB2). 2.5. The impact of violence “That is why I just want to say that it is a disadvantage when we do not use violence because sometimes our students follow the rules when you are in front of them, but when they are at the back, they don’t care and ignore everything and they continue bad habits. So, the advantage is that we go step by step, teaching the kids without violence and this is a positive part in growing the mentality of the kids to not be afraid if she/he wants to tell something the teachers. But if we slap or shout/ yell when they make a mistake, the consequence is that they don’t want to tell us their ideas or problems because they are scares or afraid of the teachers. So these are the advantages and disadvantages that we know” (TC2). “We keep challenging ourselves to be better but, we are just a young country, there will be always some mistakes. So, for me the way that we are applying at the school has not yet reached 100%. But we are trying to teach the students without violence, because violence from one side can affect their mentality to learning the coming future” (TC2). “I think when we use violence at school, it will cause them trauma and make them upset. So we need to look back to the rules and regulations on how to control the students. I do not commit any violence because the facility and the condition at the school are also bad that if we commit violence it will be severe” (TD2). 2.6. Actions taken to manage school violence 2.6.1. Legal approach / process “Violence at school, whether fighting, or drinking, we need to call their parents to come to the school and talk about the violence they committed. For example, our school regulation states that the students are not allowed to bring a knife, machete, or any other ! 67! this study are including, physical violence such as beating with stick, kicking, punching, slapping, pulling hairs, and pulling ears. The emotional violence such as insulting, yelling, name-calling, and the sexual violence such as sexual harassment, sexual assault, genital touch, attempt to kiss, attempt to sexual abuse. The perpetrators of violence include teachers, students, school directors and other school personnel. This study aims to identify how often the students being witness and victims of violence in their schools, and also to see how often the students become the perpetrators of violence in their schools. Therefore, this part of the thesis will analyze how the students witnessing, victimization and committing violence in their schools. 5.2.1.1. Students’ witnessing violence at school Related to the students witnessing violence committed by teachers, students, and other school personnel against other students, the evidence is shown below. a. Physical violence When asked about how often they witnessed physical violence being committed by teachers against students, 19.5% of student respondents said everyday, 10% said once a week and 17% said once a month. When asked how often they witnessed physical violence committed by students against other students, 21% of student respondents said everyday, 13% said once a week and 22% said once a month. When asked how often they witnessed physical violence committed by the other school personnel against students, 16.5% of student respondents said everyday, 8% said once a week, and 12.5% said once a month. (See table 3, 5, and 6.) When asked how often they witnessed physical violence committed by the students against their teachers, 16.5% of student respondents said everyday, 14.5% said once a week and 15.5% said once a month. (See table 4). Based on the students witnessing of violence at school, the respondents’ report show that the highest rate of violent incidences at school are committed by the students against other students: 21.5% of respondents saw this every day. This is followed by violence committed by the teachers, which 19.5% of respondents witnessed everyday; and violence committed by the other school personnel, which 16.5% witnessed every day. Students reported witnessing physical violence committed by students against teachers at the same rate as violence committed by other school personnel against ! 68! students: 16.5% of respondents reported witnessing these types of violence every day. These result shows that there is no significant difference between physical violence committed by various perpetrators in the school against the students. b. Emotional violence When asked how often they witnessed emotional violence committed by teachers against students, 18% of student respondents said every day, 13.5% said once a week and 9% said once a month. When asked how often they witnessed emotional violence committed by students against other students, 18% of student respondents said every day, 11% said once a week and 13% said once a month. When asked how often they witnessed emotional violence committed by other school personnel against students at school, 10% said every day, 14.5% said once a week and 13.5% said once a month. (See tables 3, 5 and 6.) Regarding emotional violence committed by students against their teachers at school, 13% of student respondents reported witnessing this every day, while 12% said once a week and 14% said once a month. (See table 4.) The most common types of emotional violence witnessed by the student respondents was violence committed by the teachers and students against students, which 18.5% of respondents reported witnessing every day. c. Sexual violence When asked how often they witnessed sexual violence at school committed by teachers against students, 14% of student respondents said every day, 9.5% said once a week and 14% said once a month rate. When asked how often they witnessed sexual violence committed by students against other students, 13.5% said every day, 11.5% said once a week and 15.5% said once a month. When asked how often they witnessed sexual violence committed by other school personnel against students, 8.5% said every day, 9.5% said once a week and 10.5% said once a month. (See table 3, 5 and 6.) Student respondents also reported witnessing sexual violence committed by students against teachers, with 11.5% saying they saw this every day, 10.5% said once a week and 16% said once a month. (See table 4.) These result show that student still witness sexual violence at school, committed by various perpetrators including teachers, students and other school personnel. And there is no significant difference between the occurrences of different types of violence and different perpetrators. ! 69! 5.2.1.2. Students experience of violence at school In this part, I will discuss students’ experience of violence at school from various perpetrators including teachers, other students, school directors and other school personnel. The types of violence that are indicated here are physical, emotional and sexual violence. a. Physical violence Related to the students’ experience of physical violence committed by different perpetrators at school, 26.5% of student respondents reported being the victim of physical violence by a teacher every day, 17% once a week and 6% once a month. When asked how often they experienced physical violence from their peers, 13.5% said every day, 13% said once a week and 12% said once a month. When asked how often they experienced physical violence from the school director, 14.5% said every day, 11.5% said once a week and 7% said once a month. When asked how often they experienced physical violence from other school personnel, 15% said every day, 10% said once a week and 8.5% said once a month. Even though there is no big difference in the rate of violence practices between the perpetrators, the result shows that the physical violence is mostly practiced but the teachers against the students, which 26.5% of students said they experience every day and 15.5% said they experience once a month. (See tables 7, 8, 9 and 10). b. Emotional violence Related to the students’ experience of emotional violence at school, 14% of student respondents reported they experience emotional violence from teachers every day, 11% reported this happening once a week and 12% reported this happening once a month. When asked how often they experienced emotional violence from their peers at school, 13.5% said every day, 14.5% said once a week and 12% said once a month. When asked how often they experienced emotional violence from the school director, 11% said every day, 9.5% said once a week and 11.5% said once a month. When asked how often they experienced emotional violence from the other school personnel, 9.5% said every day, 13.5% said once a week and 10.5% said once a month. (See tables 7, 8, 9 and 10). ! 70! c. Sexual violence Regarding sexual violence, the results of the statistical analysis show that 10% of students experience sexual violence from teachers at school every day, 9% experience this once a week and 8% experience this once a month. When asked how often they experience sexual violence from their peers, 11.5% said every day, 11.5% said once a week and 9.5% said once a month. When asked how often they experience sexual violence from the school director, 11% said every day, 12% said once a week and 9% said once a month. When asked how often they experience sexual violence from other school personnel, 11.5% said every day, 8% said once a week and 9% said once a month. (See table 7, 8, 9 and 10). 5.2.1.3. The students committed violence at school Besides witnessing and experiencing violence, students are also the perpetrators of violence at school. In this section, I will discuss what the evidence shows us about the students’ perpetration of violence at school. In this case, not only other students but also teachers and other school personnel or staff. are the victims of their violent actions. The types of violence that are indicated here include physical, emotional and sexual violence. a. Physical violence When asked how often they used physical violence against a teacher, 12% of the student respondents said every day, 5% said once a week and 7% said once a month. When asked how often they used physical violence against their peers at school, 10% said every day, 11% said once a week and 13.5% said once a month. When asked how often they used physical violence against the school director, 8.5% said every day, 8% said once a week and 7.5% said once a month. When asked how often they used physical violence against other school personnel, 10% said every day, 8.5% said once a week and 6.5% said once a month. (See tables 11, 12, 13 and 14). b. Emotional violence Regarding emotional violence committed by students against teachers at school, 14.5% reported doing this every day, 11% once a week and 10.5% once a month. When asked how often they used emotional violence against their peers, 14% said every day, 15% said once a week and 10.5% said once a month. When asked how often they used emotional violence against the school director, 6.5% said every day, 9.5% said once a ! 71! week and 7.5% said once a month. And when asked how often they used emotional violence against other school personnel, 11% said every day, 10% said once a week and 12.5% said once a month. (See table 11, 12, 13 and 14). c. Sexual violence Regarding sexual violence committed by students against their teachers, 11% of student respondents reported witnessing this every day, 9.5% once a week and 11.5% once a month. When asked how often they witnessed sexual violence committed by students against their peers,12% said every day, 11% said once a week and 9% said once a month. When asked how often they witnessed sexual violence committed by students against the school director, 8.5% said every day, 7.5% said once a week and 11.5% said once a month. And when asked how often they witnessed sexual violence committed by students against the other school personnel, 10.5% said every day, 9.5% said once a week and 9% said once a month. (See table 11, 12, 13 and 14). All this evidence described above shows that violence still exists in Timor-Leste’s schools and is committed by teachers, students, school directors and other school personnel. The existence of violence is also confirmed by the teachers’ report. One interviewed teacher stated, “There are also students perpetrating violence towards each other. Violence between teachers and students sometimes occurs, but not always.” (TA1, 2016). And “More commonly, teachers use violence against the students, it happens so often” (TA2, 2016). Most of the student reports say that they never experience violence directly. It may be because of the conception of violence as an action that causes bleeding and injury, but if the action only hurts them with the reason of disciplining and education, it is not considered violence. However, related to the educational aspect, Freire considers using violence cannot educate but it is a domination and disrespect of the rights of others: “Whereas the violence of the oppressors prevents the oppressed from being fully human, the response of the latter to this violence is grounded in the desire to pursue the right to be human” (Freire, 2000:56). To educate means to improve the human capacity of the young people and enhance their human potential in social, academic and science as well as being a respectful person. ! 72! 5.2.2. Forms and manifestation of violence at school The forms of violence focused on in this study are physical violence, emotional violence and sexual violence, which are perpetuated by teachers, students, school directors and other school personnel. As Galtung (2013) states, “The object of violence is any carrier of life, particularly a human being, an actor, individual or collective (group, country). The subject of violence can be any actor, as in intended actor or direct violence” (Galtung, 2013:35). All the subjects mentioned here are the perpetrators as well as the victims of violence at school. Based on the statistic data report of this specific study, the most common perpetrator of violence at school are the teachers and the students are the most common victims of this type of violence. As there is 26% students who involve in the study reported that they experience physical violence with the frequent rate of everyday from their teachers, although there is no significant difference between the other perpetrators and the victims. This result aligns with the perspective of the teachers that violence is aimed at educating students. A secondary school teacher reports, “The more common are teachers using violence towards students, it happens so often. To the degree at which the teacher would use it as an educational tool/educational moment” (TA2, 2016). 5.2.3. Cause of school violence Even though the role of the teachers is to teach and to educate and the students have the responsibility to study, in any specific situation they may become violent to the each other. Collins (2008) states, “Not violent individuals, but violent situations - this is what a micro-sociological theory is about. We seek the contours of situation, which shape the emotions and acts of the individuals who step inside them. It is a false lead to look for types of violent individuals constant across situations” (Collins, 2008:1). There are factors that contribute to the violence at school and in the classroom in Timor-Leste; however, only the major factors that will be discussed here are the individual factor, school-related factor and the familyand community-related factor. 5.2.3.1. Individual factors Personal attitudes and behaviors among students that cause problems in the classroom include disrespect to the teachers and other students, laziness, disturbing the ! 73! class, making offensive gesture, , lack of participation in class activities, disinterest with schooling, competition over chairs, coming late, harassment, inappropriate use of school uniforms, answering telephone calls during the lesson, and confronting teachers. As a teacher of secondary school reports, “If teacher tries to correct them because it interrupts others, sometimes these students misunderstand and it becomes an issue” (TB1, 2016). Violence happens in the classroom because of a misunderstanding between teacher and students. For example, a teacher intends to discipline a student; however, the student considers that this action does not respecting the student so the student does not want to follow the teacher’s instruction, and the teacher considers this student is being disrespectful. This situation may cause violence between teacher and student . As a secondary school teacher argues, “There are times when a teacher gives an order or disciplines the students, and sometimes students do not obey. Sometimes this makes the teacher get emotional or raises their blood pressure, and will sometimes [the teacher will] slap them [the students] as a result, but with good intentions” (TB2, 2016). Learning motivation is one of the important factors for the young people related to schooling. However, there are some students who have less motivation and interest to learn. This can contribute to violence in the classroom and at school. Some students do not attend class seriously. A secondary school teacher states, Violence that happens in the classroom is a normal thing because some students are really interested in learning, but there are some students who come to school just to get the diploma. Those students that just need the diploma are the ones who cause the problems and become a factor in creating violence during the learning process in the classroom (TB1, 2016). It is essential for the teachers and parents to provide the attention and support to their children related to the importance of education. The aim of formal education is not only to get the diploma but also for the young people to learn and to experience the academic and social life to be better in the future. However, many young people are not aware of that and involve themselves in negative activities. Juvenile delinquency is also one of the factors that may cause violence at school. Alexander Salagaev (2004) states that, “While delinquency is a common characteristic of the period and process of becoming an adult, it is very important to note that juveniles often create stable criminal groups with a corresponding subculture and start to engage ! 74! in the activities of adult criminal groups, in effect choosing delinquent careers” (Salagaev, 2004:191). Secondary school students are boys and girls between 15-20 years or sometimes older. The young people in this age are in the process of transition to adulthood. People in this age group are prone to delinquent behavior and tend to involve themselves in various activities including negative activities such as crime, violence, excessive drinking and other negative behaviors. As a secondary school teacher said, “Another possible cause of violence is juvenile delinquency” (TB1, 2016). This statement is also supported by the other teaches, one of whom states, “The students also especially to be drunk and do things that everybody dislikes” (TD1, 2016). In TimorLeste many young people involve in martial arts groups that often create violence in their communities and schools. As a secondary school teacher reports, “Violence that happens at the school is mostly caused by the martial arts organizations” (TB1, 2016). This is a real risk for students, especially in Timor-Leste that is a post-conflict county. The young people are easily influenced by the condition of the country where instability is still a concern. The personal characteristics of the teacher and students, such as negative attitudes and aggression also may cause violence at school; for example, teachers who are violent and aggressive because they have experienced violence in their own lives and want to continue to apply it with their students. The teachers’ attitudes generally favor hardworking students and dislike lazy students and unequal treatment among the students. Students who live in violent environments may find it difficult to manage and may easily express their violent attitude with others at school. As a teacher reports, “Some of students are living with their friends or relatives so they don’t receive good attention and affection. Those things can cause problems at school because they have problems already at home because the place that they are living is not secure for them to stay in. If they cannot create problems at home, they express it when they are at school” (TB1, 2016). ! 75! 5.2.3.2. School related factors This study also found some school-related factors that contribute to violence at school. The main factors that I am going to discuss here include the physical condition of the school and the school rules and regulation related to violent behaviors. The poor condition of school buildings also may causes violence in the school. In Timor-Leste, most of the school buildings were destroyed in the tragedy of 1999 when Indonesia withdrew from Timor-Leste, and during the internal conflict in 2006. Many of the school buildings still have problems, such as no school fence, broken windows and doors of classroom. These conditions also contribute to the occurrences of violence at schools, as the students are forced to use the improper classroom facilities. That makes them not concentrate on the teachers’ explanation. Insufficient classrooms, chairs and tables for the students, and overcrowded classrooms – with 40 to 70 students in one class with one teacher – are other factors that can lead to violence in the classroom. Often the students fight over the chairs, leading to violence. A secondary school teacher said, “The students’ needs also become a risk for violence; for example, limited chairs and tables are risks for violence” (TB1, 2016). The teachers also have a difficult time managing the class because of the high numbers of students with only one teacher. This unmanageable class often leads the teacher to use physical punishment to control and discipline the class. As one teacher argues, “It’s somehow difficult to make them good and positive because the number of the students is higher than the number of teachers, and that is why this discrepancy occurred” (TB1, 2016). The absence of the good condition in both physical and not physical may cause violence in the school and classroom. Therefore it is important to provide a good and proper condition for the students and teacher, especially in the process of teaching and learning. Another main factor that causes violence at school is the how the school maintains the school rules and regulations. Using violence as the means of reinforcing for school rules and regulations perpetuates the cycle of violence at school. For example, when a teacher punishes a student in order to discipline him or her, the student may copy this behavior and apply it to other students. ! 76! Galtung defines cultural violence as, “as any aspect of a culture that can be used to legitimate violence in its direct or structural form” (Galtung, 1990:291). The teachers’ believe that beating students to educate them is an effective method that they can use to manage and control the naughty students or punish the students’ misbehavior, and they consider violence to educate as normal and acceptable. This situation exists in TimorLeste’s schools, as a secondary school teacher reports, “Generally beating to educate is the method used so the students will participate. Now giving assignments, some of them never comply with the deadline the teacher gives. So I think direct action (violence) is sometimes the better way so the students can follow or understand the lesson more quickly than giving more assignments” (TD1, 2016). 5.2.3.3. Family and community related factors Dili is the capital of Timor-Leste and is the urban area that hosts people from different areas of Timor-Leste. Since the withdrawal of Indonesia from Timor-Leste in 1999, many Timorese people moved to Dili for the purpose of economic activities, job and education, as all these essential activities were mainly centralized in Dili. Many young people come to this capital city to continue their studies as the most high schools and universities are located in Dili. However, many students that come to study in Dili do not stay with parents. So they live alone, renting a room or living with other relatives, while the family and the community where they live is not favorable for them to behave well to study properly. Many of the students who come from this kind of living situation are at risk of violence at school. So the problem is already happening at home and in the community where they live because these students lack of attention and affection from adults, especially their parents, therefore they bring their problems to school (TB1, 2016 & TB2, 2016). Another teacher agreed, saying, “The child’s behavior also depends on the environment in which he/she is living. For example, if at home the parents are not or cannot teach the students, when they come to school it is difficult for the teachers to do so” (TA1, 2016). This situation mostly occurs in Dili, the capital of the country, including schools. ! 83! experience violence at school because the teachers use it as a means of discipline. Related to this issues, the research suggests that both government and non-governmental agencies should provide relevant programs to support and enhance the school professionals regarding conflict management and mitigation, positive strategies of resolving violence and strengthening the zero tolerance policy to any form of violence at school in order to combat the culture of violence and promote the culture of peace. The social skills and knowledge of behavioral problem solving should provided to teachers for not using violence as the way of classroom management. Positive discipline and classroom management capacity building for the teachers should be in place and peer mediation services and training for the students should be promoted and reinforced. Lastly, the we would like to suggest to those who are interest in continuing similar research focused on school violence in Timor-Leste’s that it is important to investigate more deeply the impact of violence on children and young people who are witnessing and experiencing it. Also, to analyze more deeply the behavioral, physiological impact, sense of security as well as the impact on the academic achievement of the students. It is also important to search for and analyze factors that contribute to school violence, including individual, family, school, community, society as well as cultural and behavioral factors. An appropriate intervention method and strategies for dealing with school violence is also highly recommended to prevent and mitigate, reduce and combat school violence in order to create a safe and peaceful school environment. ( ! ! 84! REFERENCES ! Andrade, J.P.; Zacarias, A.; Arruda, R.; & Santos,, D. (eds). (2014). O que é Violência Social?. Lisboa: Escolar Editora. 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Gender-Based Violence in a Militarized Context: East Timor or Timor-Leste, 1974-2011. Masters Thesis, University of Otago. Accessed May 16, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10523/2393. ! 92! INTERVIEWS ! TA1. (2016). Vice Director of School A. Interviewed on January 4th 2016. TA2 . (2016). A Teacher of School A. Interviewed on January 4th 2016. TB1. (2016). Vice Director of School B. Interviewed on January 74th 2016. TB2. (2016). A Teacher of School B. Interviewed on January 7th 2016. TC1. (2016). Director of School C. Interviewed on January 11th 2016. TC2. (2016). A Teacher of School C. Interviewed on January 11th 2016. TD1. (2016). Director of School D. Interviewed on January 28th 2016. TD2. (2016). A Teacher of School D. Interviewed on January 28th 2016. ! 99! 38. During school time I have received one or some of the violence acts listed above from other school personnel in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. 39. During school time I have used one or some of the violence acts listed above against my teacher in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. 40. During school time I have used one or some of the violence acts listed above against other students in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. 41. During school time I have used one or some of the violence acts listed above against school director in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. 42. During school time I have used one or some of the violence acts listed above against other school personnel in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. 43. During school time I have witnessed one or some of the violence acts listed above conducted by teachers against other students in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. 44. During school time I have witnessed one or some of the violence acts listed above conducted by students against teachers in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. 45. During school time I have witnessed one or some of the violence acts listed above conducted by students against other students in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. 46. During school time I have witnessed one or some of the violence acts listed above conducted by students against teachers in the classroom or in the school compound: A. Everyday. B. Once a week. C. Once a month. D. Never. IV. Please tick (✗) in the colom of Yes or No answer for the following statements based on your own experience! Yes No 47 I receive clear explanation of the school regulation and I understand well the regulation that applied in my Scholl. 48 The copy of the school regulation is physically posted on the ! 100! wall for all the students to access it and easilly to read regularly. 49 The school regulations are also including the regulation about not to use violence at school and in the classroom 50 There is always a person available at school for the students to report the case when they have the problema. ! V. Please!describe!what!do!you!suggest!to!contribute!to!your!school! become! better!place!and!safe!place!for!you!to!study!and!develop!your!academic!and! social!life?! __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________! __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________! ! ! Thank!you!so!much!for!been!part!of!this!research.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 101! Appendix 2. Interview Guideline ! I. Brief introduction: a. Explain about the research function, objective, and researcher’s expectation, condition and the capacity of the researcher. b. Explain the context of the research, the confidentiality and anonymity, will use tape recorder during the interview and its function. II. Interview session Research objectives and research Question. 1. Identify the existence of violence in the classroom. Questions: a. Please tell me your personal understanding/ knowledge regarding to violence! b. Based on your observation or your experience, Do you think that the violence still happened in the school and classroom especially conducted by the teachers against students? c. What types of violence often happen in the classroom? And give me some examples! And why? 2. To learn why and for what purpose violence use in the classroom. Questions: a. Based on your comprehension, for what purpose the teacher often beat or yelling at students when the student misconduct? b. Do you think that by beating or yelling at the students, the students will follow the school rules and learn better? c. Do you think that using violence can discipline and control the students effectively? d. Do the teachers have any alternative of discipline rather than using violence? 3. To learn what is the role of the school norms and regulation toward the act of violence. Questions: a. Do your school have a school rules and regulation? Does it explained to all the students and school personnel to understand? b. Does the rules and regulation id created based on the national educational law? c. How the school rules and regulation function when the students commit the violence against peers of teacher. ! 102! d. How is if the teachers use violence against students or students against teacher in school? e. Is the school rule and regulation reflected to the non-violence used/ zero tolerance to violence in school? 4. What do you suggest to make your school be a better and save place for you in which you can do your work more effective and support the students for their success in their academic and social life? !