Inclusions and exclusions in the production and circulation of scientific knowledge: the case of the Royal Anthropological Institute (RAI) and the Portuguese Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (SPAE)

Inclusions and exclusions in he p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge: he case o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e ( ai) and o he Po uguese Socie y o An h opology and E hnology (spae) Pa ícia Fe az de Ma os 1 7. 408 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in in oduc ion This ex examines and demons a es why he ac i i y o wo Eu opean scien i ic socie ies ca ied ou app oxima ely om 1918 o 1960 (al hough bo h a e s ill ac i e oday) enables us o s udy inclusion and exclusion dynamics.1 These dynamics will be analysed based on he s udy o he ela ionship be ween he Royal An h opological Ins i u e ( ai) – c ea ed in 1871 and s ill ecognised and enowned in e na ionally oday – and he Po uguese Socie y o An h opology and E hnology (spae, Sociedade Po uguesa de An opologia e E nologia) – ounded in 1918 and whose ac i i y is nowadays conside ed pe iphe al. Ne e heless, du ing he i s hal o he 20 h cen u y, hese socie ies sha ed some o hei membe s, exchanged ideas, esea ch and publica ions, and coope a ed in he o ganisa ion o se e al in e na ional e en s. The esea ch p esen ed in his ex is ela ed o wo wide esea ch p ojec s: one en i led “The wea ings o science: an an h opological iew on he ne wo ks unde lying he o ging o scien i ic knowledge”, which I am wo king on a he Ins i u e o Social Sciences o he Uni e si y o Lisbon; and ano he on he his o y o he ai, sponso ed by his same ins i u ion. My p ojec a ics aims o con ibu e owa ds he s udy o he ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology in Po ugal, based on an analysis o he people and knowledge ne wo ks connec ed o spae and he Uni e si y o Po o, up o he 1970s. On he o he hand, he ai p ojec , encompassing he his o y o he ins i u ion i sel , is a long- e m s udy on which specialis s om se e al coun ies a e cu en ly wo king. The analysis p esen ed he e is he e o e se ou as wo k in p og ess and no as an accoun o inal esul s, since bo h p ojec s a e s ill unning. This is, as ye , an unde - explo ed subjec , mainly om he pe spec i e o he social s udies o science, and some o he ma e ials used, and which I in end o le e age, a e widely unknown, o ha e been sca cely s udied. This can also be due o he di icul y in accessing and wo king on a signi ican pa o hose p ima y sou ces. The eason why I decided o widen my esea ch o he ai a chi e is he ac ha his ins i u ion has played a cen al ole in he his o y o an h opology, ga he ing a ound i a se o people who ha e o ganised se e al ac i i ies ela ed o his ield. I has also been a s a ing poin o se e al ini ia i es, bo h 1 My since e hanks o Sa ah Walpole (a chi is a he ai) o he suppo gi en o me du ing my esea ch. I also hank spae’s boa d, pa icula ly i s chai man, Ví o Oli ei a Jo ge, o allowing me o access he a chi e. p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 409 a a na ional and in e na ional le el. I s a chi e has a conside able olume o co espondence sen by people and ins i u ions om all con inen s, which could be he possible basis o mapping a ela ionship. Al hough his analysis is ocused on he ela ionship be ween hese wo ins i u ions, in some ins ances i can be widened, conside ing o he Po uguese ins i u ions wi h which he ai has had connec ions, namely he Uni e si ies o Coimb a and Lisbon, as well as ins i u ions in o he e i o ies once adminis a ed by he Po uguese, such as Goa (in he hen Po uguese India and unde Po uguese dominion un il 1961). The ma e ial held by spae and he ai may o e us much use ul in o ma ion o he s udy o he ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology, as a discipline, bo h in Po ugal and in England, bu also a a global le el. My me hodology is inspi ed, among o he s, by he wo k o B uno La ou (1987), bu i is no s ic ly guided by i , as in o he s udies (Bas os and Ba e o 2013), and conside s i s limi a ions. Conce ning he analysis o a ne wo k o people, i is impo an o keep in mind he bounda ies o he ac o -ne wo k heo y and o he social s udies o science and echnology2 (Mendes 2010). On he o he hand, we canno o ge ha he e a e indi iduals and e en s o ced in o silence and in isibili y. Any c i ical analysis mus bea in mind he limi a ions o he scien is ’s scope and he ci cums an ial cha ac e o i s conclusions, when s udying he way scien i ic knowledge has been buil and dissemina ed. The ma e o in isibili y may also be ela ed o p ocesses o app ecia ion, selec ion and sponso ing. Some au ho s ha e classi ied he Po uguese scien i ic sys em as pe iphe al. Fo example, João A iscado Nunes and Ma ia Edua da Gonçal es (2001, 19) conside ha “ om he poin o iew o he capi alis economy/wo ld and o he in e s a e sys em, Po ugal is a pe iphe al coun y” and ha his condi ion is one o he “keys o unde s anding he speci ic ea u es o he his o y o science in Po ugal”. As ega ds an h opology, we ealise ha some examples ha e been shown o play a mo e cen al ole in he his o y o his a ea. This is he case o B i ish social an h opology, o Ame ican cul u al an h opology and also o an h opology in F ance, which, du ing he 1960s and 1970s, gained impo an s a us, mainly due o au ho s such as Claude Lé i-S auss (1908-2009). On he o he hand, wi h espec o he ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology, no all con ibu o s o his p ocess a e 2 On he challenges b ough o hese heo ies by he new echnologies, see Ma os (2017). 410 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in conside ed as such, and su ely no as p ecu so s, o as ha ing p esen ed wo k ha dese es o be emembe ed. These a e he ones Richa d Handle (2000) designa ed as “excluded ances o s”, ha is, hose au ho s who, despi e ha ing played a ole ha was conside ed impo an du ing hei li e ime, we e a ed o obli ion o o he denial o hei con ibu ion.3 Fo he easons p esen ed abo e, o s udy he way he wo scien i ic socie ies (spae and ai) we e ela ed a some ime is a con ibu ion o con i ming Po ugal’s pe iphe al s a us, al hough, in some ci cums ances, i has played a p ominen ole in compa ison o o he coun ies.4 I will s a by cha ac e ising he pa icula i ies I ound in bo h a chi es, ai’s and spae’s. I will hen desc ibe he con ex in which hese socie ies we e bo n and he ac i i ies hey ca ied ou , as well as hei publica ions. In a la e sec ion, I will analyse he ela ionship be ween hese socie ies, based on ins i u ional and pe sonal co espondence, on he exchange o esea ch and publica ions, on he in i a ion o o eign scien is s o become hono a y o co esponden membe s, and also on he o ganisa ion o scien i ic mee ings. This analysis was based, no only on he a chi al documen a ion o hese socie ies (in London and Po o, espec i ely), bu also on hei pe iodical publica ions, ha is, he Jou nal o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e ( o me ly Man) and T abalhos de An opologia e E nologia ( ae). Wi hin he scope o he wo k exchange and o he coope a ion in he jou nals published by bo h socie ies, I will app oach some o he subjec s inco po a ed in hese publica ions ha a e di ec ly ela ed o he his o ical con ex whe e hey we e b ough o li e. Fu he mo e, I will analyse he co espondence exchanged be ween he ai and o he Po uguese ins i u ions besides spae, as well as he join e o s a o ganising e en s, such as in e na ional cong esses, o he o ma ion o scien i ic commi ees de o ed o speci ic ma e s. We will see, in he pe iod unde analysis, ha bo h socie ies ha e con ibu ed o he specialisa ion o a g ea e numbe o people in a speci ic scien i ic domain – an h opology –, as dis inguished om o he a eas, as well as o sp eading he knowledge p oduced by his new s udy ield. 3 An example o hese au ho s in he Po uguese scien i ic wo ld, and pa icula ly in he his o y o an h opology, is Mendes Co eia (1888-1960), whose li e and wo k I analysed in my doc o al disse a ion (Ma os 2012). 4 On he ela ionship be ween Po ugal and B azil, o example, om some o he mos enowned scien is s o his pe iod (1910s – 1960s), see Ma os (2013a). p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 411 The analysis o he ai and spae’s ela ionship will allow us o de e mine he inclusion and exclusion dynamics ega ding he p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge. This ela ionship, which in ol ed he selec ion o ac o s and a eas, o he p omo ion o ini ia i es, shows us ha some s uc u es ha e e ealed g ea e s eng h (by being associa ed wi h coun ies like he Uni ed Kingdom o F ance) and e en ually de e mined he s anda ds based on which a i udes we e s a ed, posi ions held and powe s a egies consolida ed, and which we e la e on ep oduced. E en oday we s ill ind some emnan s o hose phenomena. he ield and he con ex The challenges an a chi e esea ch p esen s o us a e huge, bu acco ding o T is an Pla , i can be as ocused as ieldwo k. Documen s e e o he same people and he same places we ind in he chao ic ieldwo k no es, ela ing hem o o he s, as unknown places (Pla 2012, 31). The e o e, simila ly o he li e o indi iduals, he a chi e sou ces a e open. They answe ce ain ques ions bu aise u he ones ha emain unanswe ed (Pla 2012, 32). The ai a chi e is comp ised o a g ea a ie y o ma e ials (documen s, pho og aphs, ilms and objec s). I is in a mul i-s o ey building, is well o ganised and accessible o esea che s; and my esea ch he e was an in e es ing and p oduc i e expe ience (Figu e 17.1). When I wen o spae, howe e , I did no ind an o ganised a chi e (Figu e 17.2). My s udy o ced me o c ea e he necessa y condi ions o an a chi e o , in his case, o my own ield. This ma e ial included monog aphs, pe iodicals, mul imedia documen s, he a chi e sec ion i sel , and a se o publica ions by he socie y. Gi en i s impo ance, I s essed i s alue o he membe s o his socie y and he need o i s due p ese a ion, in en o y and accessibili y o o he esea che s. Following se e al measu es aken since 2013, he ma e ial was in en o ied o he i s ime in 20155, in a p ocedu e ha in ol ed he P esiden o spae, he Rec o y o he Uni e si y o Po o, he Di ec o o he Facul y o Humani ies o his uni e si y, as well as he suppo o wo assis an s wi h a chi e aining. 5 Once he in en o y was comple ed, in Oc obe 2015, wi h minimal in o ma ion (au ho , da e, and edi ion), we ealised ha i con ained 36,403 eco ds, di ided in o 27,921 pe iodicals, 8,470 monog aphs and 12 mul imedia uni s. Addi ionally he e a e 12,048 olumes o publica ions by spae, ga he ed in 902 boxes. 412 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in ai A chi e, London, 2016. spae A chi e, Po o, 2015. Figu e 17.1 Figu e 17.2 All pho og aphies © Pa ícia Fe az de Ma os. p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 413 The pa pe aining o a chi e ma e ial has no ye been in en o ied, bu I ha e al eady s a ed consul ing i (Figu e 17.2). F om he monog aph and pe iodical in en o y, we can conclude ha he numbe o exchanges, as well as he numbe o indi iduals and places ha ha e had con ac wi h spae a e highe han p edic ed. This will allow me o make a wide and mo e comple e mapping han ini ially planned. The appea ance o ai and spae, as well as he ac i i ies hese ins i u ions ha e os e ed and de eloped, mus be seen in he con ex o he his o ic pe iod in which hey occu ed. On he o he hand, bo h he local and global ocus a e impo an , as well as conside ing he dynamics a a o mal and in o mal le el. Besides his, i is impo an o unde s and wha was decided o be included and excluded wi hin his con ex . As men ioned by Adam Kupe : Ea nes science s o ies, such as good e hnog aphies, mus encompass he p ac ices o i s ac o s, ins i u ional s uc u es, social ne wo ks, in ellec ual and ma e ial esou ces, as well as he ela ionships o o he disciplines and o eign schools o wi h o icial bodies. (…) We mus no e lec only upon wha an h opologis s speak o , bu also upon who hey speak o and who hey exclude om ha in e ac ion. The pe iod analysed in his ex uns om he end o he Fi s o ha o he Second Wo ld Wa . This pe iod also wi nesses he ounda ion and a i ma ion o spae as a scien i ic socie y, which s imula ed he de elopmen o an h opology and sough i s ecogni ion in he uni e si y en i onmen as an independen s udy domain. In England, he pe iod om 1918 o 1945 was ma ked by he eme gence o unc ionalis e hnog aphy, he di ision o an h opology in o sub-disciplines and he de ini i e ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology in uni e si ies. The ai was connec ed o hese p ocesses and ollowed hei e olu ion by o ganising con e ences and publica ions. A he same ime, i expanded i s lib a y, c ea ed he In e na ional Union o An h opological and E hnological Sciences, and made se e al a emp s o allow an h opology o also play a ole as an applied science. Du ing ha pe iod, he ai was a con luence poin o indi iduals connec ed o se e al ins i u ions and sub-a eas in an h opology. The ai, c ea ed in 1871, and spae, c ea ed in 1918, we e p eceded by o he scien i ic socie ies, bu sough o bene i om hose p e ious expe iences, bo h in hei own, as well as in o he Eu opean coun ies and in he usa. In Eu ope, 414 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in he mos signi ican lea ned socie y, he E hnological Socie y o London, was ounded in 1843; and, in 1871, i was me ged wi h he An h opological Socie y o London (c ea ed in 1862) o o m he ai. I s i s membe s we e ama eu s and, la e on, colonial o ice s and missiona ies ollowed sui . These membe s we e g adually eplaced by p o essional an h opologis s and, in 1992, i s membe ship al eady eached 2,408 (U y 2006, 44). To ecei e ull ai ellowship, po en ial membe s mus be p oposed by Fellows who a e pe sonally acquain ed wi h hem. ai Membe ship is aimed mainly a schola s who ha e dis inguished hemsel es p o essionally o academically wi hin he scope o humani ies o social sciences. Fellows a e elec ed by he ai Council and can use he hono i ic pos -nominal le e s ai. Howe e , he ai does no include only academic an h opologis s, bu also indi iduals in e es ed in an h opology, o quali ied in an h opology, who a e cu en ly wo king in o he a eas. The ai publishes h ee jou nals: Jou nal o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e6 ( o me ly Man); An h opology Today; An h opological Index Online (launched in 1997). Besides hese, wi h he au ho isa ion o he ai Council, he i le Indian An iqua y was published, be ween 1925 and 1932. The ai’s collec ion is composed o ilms, pho og aphs, a chi e ma e ial and manusc ip s. Bo h he a chi e and he manusc ip s co espond o a pe iod o o e 150 yea s. The ai s ill main ains a close ela ionship wi h he B i ish Museum’s An h opology Lib a y, which inco po a es he o me ai Lib a y dona ed o he Museum in 1976. The ai encompasses all ields in an h opology (a a biological, e olu iona y, social, cul u al, isual and medical le el) and sha es in e es s wi h o he a eas, such as a chaeology, linguis ics and human gene ics. I s ield o ac ion is di e si ied by seeking o combine academic adi ion wi h he se ices o e ed o he an h opological communi y. The ac i i ies p omo ed by he ai seek o each a wide audience and in o m on he bene i s an h opology may o e in he esolu ion o cu en , conc e e issues. Among hese ac i i ies a e con e ences, wo kshops o e en s on speci ic opics. One o he mos app ecia ed is he In e na ional Film Fes i al, aking place e e y wo yea s in pa ne ship wi h Uni ed Kingdom uni e si ies. 6 The i le used be ween 1907 and 1965 was The Jou nal o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e o G ea B i ain and I eland. F om 1995 onwa ds, i bo e he i le The Jou nal o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e. p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 415 Such ai ac i i ies, indi idually and pa ne ed by o he ins i u ions, ha e con ibu ed o he di usion o his socie y and i s consolida ion in e na ionally. The publishing o se e al jou nals has allowed i o ake in new au ho s and ends, and o each mo e di e si ied audiences. The same applies o he o ganisa ion o e en s di ec ed a a specialised audience, bu also a he public in gene al. In he Po uguese case, he ins i u ionalisa ion o an h opology was pa allel o he a i ma ion and ins i u ionalisa ion o o he a eas. This occu ed in a simila manne o o he Eu opean and No h Ame ican coun ies, bu did bea i s own speci ici ies bo h a a local and egional le el (Ma os 2016). On he o he hand, his p ocess was in luenced by he poli ical and ideological con ex owa ds he end o he 19 h and he beginning o he 20 h cen u y (Ma os 2012). spae was ounded in Po o in 1918. Conside ing he da es o o he an h opological socie ies c ea ed in Eu ope – in Pa is (1858), Be lin (1869), Vienna (1870), London and I aly (1871), and Sweden (1872) – spae (1918) was a he la e in appea ing. I is, howe e , impo an o no e ha spae had impo an p edecesso s in Po ugal, namely he Ca los Ribei o Socie y, c ea ed in Po o in 1888 (which included ou depa men s: Geology and Palaeon ology; Zoology and Bo any; An h opology; E hnog aphy), and he Socie y o An h opology, c ea ed in Coimb a in 1896. spae was ounded on he ini ia i e o Mendes Co eia (1888-1960), who g adua ed in Medicine om he Po o Medical and Su gical School in 1911 and would become he p ima y men o o he Po o School o An h opology, which exis ed as such in he i s hal o he 20 h cen u y. In he p ocess o c ea ing spae, Mendes Co eia coun ed on he suppo o mo e expe ienced pe sonali ies, connec ed o he Facul y o Medicine and o he Facul y o Sciences o he Uni e si y o Po o, and o he Poly echnic Academy in Po o. Howe e , despi e he p edominance o academics in i s di ec i e bodies, spae has always coun ed on he p esence o indi iduals om ou side academia, ha is, om he mili a y, eligious and business domains (Ma os 2016). The name o he socie y illus a es he ini ial di ision be ween an h opology ( he s udy o he human being in e ms o hei physical and biological dimension) and e hnology ( he s udy o he human being in e ms o hei social and cul u al dimension). spae ope a ed a he Ins i u e o An h opology o he Uni e si y o Po o (iaup), o ganised se e al scien i ic mee ings and egula ly published he jou nal T abalhos de An opologia e E nologia ( ae). 422 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in in 1948, in B ussels and Te u en. Subsequen ly, i was o ganised e e y ou yea s, as ini ially planned. The e o e, he ou h mee ing happened in 1952, in Vienna, he i h in 1956, in Philadelphia, and he six h in 1960, in Pa is. This cong ess had a Pe manen Council ha coo dina ed he e en . I included ou membe s o each coun y, assis ed by one o wo Na ional Sec e a ies.18 The membe s o his Pe manen Council we e elec ed, and i also included au ho s connec ed o Po ugal. Fo example, a he cong ess’ London Session, in 1934, he ollowing Po uguese ep esen a i es we e p esen : Mendes Co eia, Eusébio Tamagnini (p o esso a he Uni e si y o Coimb a), and he Na ional Sec e a ies, Ví o Fon es (P esiden o he An h opology Commi ee o he Lisbon Geog aphic Socie y), and J. R. dos San os Júnio (p o esso a he Uni e si y o Po o). O hese ou , only Mendes Co eia and Ví o Fon es ook pa in he e en . The consul ed documen 19 s a es ha “Fon es is a physical an h opologis and ead a pape on ‘Su la mo phologie du cou’”. Acco ding o he p e ious documen , he ai has no eco d o who we e he ep esen a i es o Po ugal and he usa in he Pe manen Council o he Copenhagen Mee ing in 1938. The analysis o hese documen s sugges s ha Po ugal exhibi ed a ce ain neu ali y, while o he coun ies, such as he Uni ed Kingdom o F ance, ough among hemsel es o p o agonism. This a i ude may ne e heless be ela ed o he goal o he scien i ic communi y in Po ugal, a leas pa ly, o be ecognised in e na ionally, wi hou le e aging na ional i al ies. Po ugal, and he indi iduals connec ed o his coun y, may also be included in he opics deal wi h in documen s hey we e no di ec ly in ol ed in. This happened, o example, in a le e 20 w i en by E. J. Lindg en (Liaison O ice , om he B i ish Council) o Da id Shillan (B i ish Council), on Ap il 14 h, 1944, whe e he men ions ha he in ends o deal wi h “Po uguese a ai s”: 18 The Pe manen Resea ch Commi ees a e: “S anda disa ion o an h opological echnique”; “In e na ional esea ch on A c ic peoples and cul u e”; “O ganisa ion and employmen o ilms in an h opology and e hnog aphy”; “Compila ion o a compa a i e ocabula y o an h opological and e hnological e ms”, la e called “The s udy and de ini ion o an h opological and e hnological e ms”. The subsequen Commi ees included: “The condi ions o an h opological and e hnological eaching in he coun ies ep esen ed a he Cong ess”, and “ he obs acles o he admission o hese s udies in public educa ion and Conse a ion o Abo iginal peoples whose modes o li e a e scien i ic in e es ”. 19 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional des Sciences An h opologiques e E hnologiques. Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/3/7). 20 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional… Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/3/1). p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 423 I am aking he libe y o enclose, o you pe sonal use, a copy o a con iden ial accoun by Si John My es o he p esen posi ion ega ding he in e na ional cong esses o p ehis o y and an h opology which he did so much o es ablish be ween he wo wa s. His e e ences o he mau ais cong ès21 may be explained by saying, b ie ly, ha (as I ha e been old) a e he las wa he F ench insis ed on subs i u ing o a p e ious, ‘ uly in e na ional’, se ies one domina ed by he F ench and hei Eas e n Eu opean allies, and excluding ex-enemy scien is s. The B i ish delega es ough his in mee ing a e mee ing, o he execu i e bu , on being inally de ea ed owa ds he end o he wen ies, decided o sponso ano he se ies, o his old ype. The P ehis o ic ones me in 1932 and 1936 and he one o ‘An h opological and E hnological Sciences’ in 1934 (London) and 1938 (Copenhagen). The la e wo I a ended and hey we e a conspicuous success; hei in luence indeed sp ead a beyond hei pa icula sec o o he social sciences. You will see om Si John’s ema ks ha , e y wisely, he wishes us o a oid he mis ake he F ench made be o e, and ha is why he a ou s ou accep ing he ea lie Po uguese in i a ion (i enewed) a he han sugges ing ha we s a a esh once mo e, and once mo e in London. In any case I shall, as you see, be sounding ou he Cong ess o icials in usa, and, i I do e u n ia Lisbon (which is p obably), also he Po uguese an h opologis s who we e in Copenhagen in 1938. Acco ding o his le e , he o ganisa ion o cong esses dedica ed mainly o a scien i ic domain, in his case an h opology (sepa a ely om a chaeology and p ehis o y), could ac ually be a success. In a con lic i e a mosphe e be ween he Uni ed Kingdom and F ance, i is he p esiden o he ai himsel , John My es, who a ou s he accep ance o Po ugal’s o e o hos he ollowing In e na ional Cong ess o An h opological and E hnological Sciences, and no London; so ha o he coun ies migh be gi en an oppo uni y and o display a uly in e na ional a i ude. This example was ye ano he esul o he Po uguese scien i ic communi y’s e o s owa ds being included in he in e na ional meande s conce ning he o ganisa ion o la ge e en s. These le e s some imes un eil commen s and con idences ela ed o he con ex in which hey we e w i en and include ma e s ela ed o poli ics and wa . Among hem, I sough o de e mine i hese ma e s al e ed o dis up ed he ela ionship be ween Po ugal and he Uni ed Kingdom. Du ing he Second Wo ld Wa , some eminde s a ise ein o cing he idea ha science should be abo e poli ical in e es s. This happens, o example, in a le e by 21 Unde lined in he o iginal. 424 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in John L. Mye s ( ai Hon. Sec e a y), da ed Ap il 6 h, 1944, o E. J. Lindg en (B i ish Council), on econs uc ing he in e na ional cong esses, whe e he men ions ha he hopes “ o ge scien i ic p oblems and o ganisa ions ee om poli ical conside a ions”.22 Also in a le e om S allman ( ai Assis an Sec e a y, 1941-52), da ed July 3 d, 1944, o John L. Mye s, i is s a ed ha “ca e mus be aken o e ‘poli ical’ aspec s”.23 On he o he hand, he esea ch p oduced du ing ha pe iod, and he changes and limi a ions i b ough , we e among he subjec s deal wi h. The opic o wa was also he main heme o he a icle, “An h opology on he con inen o Eu ope in wa - ime” by William Bulle Fagg (Hon. Sec e a y o ai). Published in Na u e in 1946 (London, ol. 158, July 6 h), i alks o he mee ing o he Pe manen Council ha ook place in England ha same yea , and begins by saying: As has al eady been epo ed in Na u e o May 18, p. 665, he Pe manen Council o he In e na ional Cong ess o An h opological and E hnological Sciences isi ed England du ing Ap il a he in i a ion o he Royal An h opological Ins i u e, and a mos success mee ing was o ganised a Ox o d by Si John My es, one o he join sec e a ies o he Cong ess, o make a angemen s o nex ull mee ing and o ad ance he wo k o he s anding commi ees. The Royal An h opological Ins i u e ook ad an age o his ga he ing o in i e he delega es o ead sho pape s a in o mal mee ings o he Ins i u e in London, on he days immedia ely p eceding and ollowing he Ox o d mee ings, as a means o making be e known in B i ain and among he delega es hemsel es he p og ess made in an h opological science in hei se e al coun ies since he ou b eak o wa b ough in e na ional con ac s o a s op. (Fagg 1946, 1) The a icle by Fagg highligh s he mee ing o he cong ess’ Pe manen Council and s esses he ac ha his oppo uni y allowed some o he in e na ional delega es o ead hei pape s a in o mal mee ings. Among hem was he Po uguese Eusébio Tamagnini, who p esen ed he pape en i led, “P og ess in Po ugal in an h opological and e hnological s udies”.24 Fagg is e y posi i e abou Tamagnini’s ex and he wo k o o he Po uguese in he domains o physical an h opology and a chaeology: 22 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional… Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/3/2). 23 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional… Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/3/9). 24 ai A chi e: Cong ès In e na ional… Conseil Pe manen (a93, pape s 1934-54, 93/4/8). p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 425 In physical an h opology, as in domes ic e hnog aphy, G ea B i ain lags a p esen a behind, and P o . Tamagnini’s alk on Ap il 18, ou lining ema kable p og ess made in Po ugal, was esh salu a y p oo o his. A e a sho ske ch o he his o y o an h opological s udies in Po ugal (wi h hei emphasis om he beginning on he physical side), he summa ised cu en esea ch ac i i ies a Lisbon (unde Heleno, de Vilhena and Ba bosa Suei o), Po o (Mendes Co êa and Pi es de Lima) and Coimb a ( he speake himsel and Se a). Finally, he desc ibed his own Ins i u e’s e y la ge and impo an s a is ical unde aking, in which he genealogical me hod is being applied in he s udy o blood g oups and o he cha ac e s among g ea numbe s o amilies in he Depa men o Coimb a. (Fagg 1946, 7) The e o e, he ci cums ance o wa does no seem o ha e in luenced, a leas appa en ly, he ela ionship be ween Po ugal and he Uni ed Kingdom, no coope a ion in scien i ic p oduc ion. The co espondence wi h au ho s connec ed o Po ugal, o wi h e e ences o his coun y, also appea s in some olde s o he ai’s manusc ip collec ion conce ning he ollowing au ho s: William C ooke (1848-1923), e hnologis and olklo is ; A hu Kei h (1866- -1965), ana omis and an h opologis ; and He be John Fleu e (1877-1969), zoologis and geog aphe . The names o hese scien is s and he a eas hey we e ocused on ein o ce he idea ha , despi e he endea ou on behal o an h opology’s au onomy, he inpu ecei ed om specialis s in o he a eas also con ibu ed o u he deepening some o i s subdomains. conclusion F om he s udy o he ela ionship be ween he ai and spae, wi h a ocus on he p oduc ion, legi ima ion and knowledge ci cula ion p ocesses, we a e able o s udy inclusion and exclusion dynamics. The ai has allowed se e al indi iduals o in e na ionalise hei wo k and has consolida ed i s posi ion in he in e na ional con ex . Du ing he pe iod unde s udy, Po ugal was a pe iphe al coun y in e ms o scien i ic p oduc ion. Ne e heless, examples such as spae e eal he e o o he Po uguese scien i ic communi y owa ds in e na ionalisa ion. spae’s in e na ionalisa ion s a egy included con ac s wi h he ai. I in i ed membe s o he ai o be i s own membe s and collabo a o s. La e on, some o spae’s membe s and/o people connec ed o he Uni e si y o Po o became membe s o he ai. The e was also 426 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in mu ual collabo a ion in he o ganisa ion o e en s, such as in e na ional cong esses. Bo h he ai and spae ha e os e ed scien i ic s udies, no only in he coun ies whe e hey we e c ea ed (Po ugal and England), bu also in he coun ies unde hei colonial adminis a ion. The ac i i ies de eloped by he ai and spae demons a e he ole o scien i ic socie ies in con ibu ing o he de elopmen o an h opological s udies and o he consolida ion o an h opology as a uni e si y subjec , in he pe iod om 1918 o 1960. Bo h socie ies ha e isen as spaces o e lec ion on issues ega ded as pe inen and ha e allowed an e e g ea e numbe o people o specialise in a new scien i ic a ea. Fu he mo e, bo h he con e ences hese socie ies ha e o ganised, and he edi ions hey ha e published ha e con ibu ed o he di usion o he knowledge p oduced wi hin he scope o an h opology. In his p ocess, howe e , o e ime we obse ed s a egies o inclusion and exclusion (o indi iduals, ins i u ions, scien i ic domains and subjec s). Wi hin an h opology, I concluded ha one o he mos equen a eas in co espondence and publica ions was physical an h opology. Among his a ea’s main opics we ound “ ace”, he s anda disa ion echnique, blood g oups and eugenics. Howe e , despi e he in e es se e al Po uguese au ho s showed in hese opics, hese au ho s’ p esence does no s and ou and seems almos inexis en in ai’s publica ions. The s udy o he ela ionship be ween he ai and spae allows us o unde s and o he dynamics. O e he yea s, o example, he designa ion o la ge in e na ional cong esses kep changing, some imes emphasising an h opology, some imes a chaeology and p e-his o y, o else including hem all. My esea ch has e ealed how some esea che s ha e e used o coope a e wi h he iia, due o he la e ’s imposed ules (exclusion o esea che s om he Fi s Wo ld Wa ’s de ea ed na ions and he disdain owa ds a chaeology), and a ou ed hei ela ionship wi h he ciaap, mo e inclusi e a an in e na ional le el. Howe e , he i al ies be ween he iia and he ciaap, which led o dispu es some imes be ween au ho s and ins i u ions, some imes be ween he Uni ed Kingdom and F ance, pa ed he way o Po ugal, as a pe iphe al coun y, o be able o le e age hese ci cums ances and each some p ominence. This was also a consequence o he Po uguese scien i ic communi y’s a emp s a in e na ionalisa ion. Fu he mo e, and despi e na ional dispu es, he o ganisa ion o la ge cong esses led o au onomy o an h opology, h ough a di e en ia ion om subjec s such as a chaeology and p e-his o y. p oduc ion and ci cula ion o scien i ic knowledge 427 Finally, he ma e s ela ed o poli ics o he Second Wo ld Wa ha e appa en ly no in luenced he ela ionship be ween Po ugal and he Uni ed Kingdom. Ne e heless, i appea s ha se e al dynamics exis ed (in e nal and ex e nal) ha p omo ed ce ain scien i ic domains and subdomains, as well as hei sponso s, bu neglec ing o he s. This is due o ac o s ha in ol e some imes associa ions, some imes i al ies (pe sonal, ins i u ional, na ional), bu also mo i es in luenced by he in e na ional con ex , namely he wo wo ld wa s. The si ua ion also mean some s udies, such as hose ela ed o “ ace”, o an h opome ic s anda disa ion echniques and o eugenics, un il he end o he Second Wo ld Wa (1945). A a la e s age, he e was also he majo p omo ion o s udies ela ed o “cul u e” and biological s udies ha u ned away om acial (and acis ) analyses. The s udy o hese subjec s allows us he e o e o e lec on he way he his o ical, social, economic and geopoli ical con ex in luences, no only he o ma ion o ne wo ks in he academic and scien i ic en i onmen , bu also he cons uc ion o knowledge, i s di usion and i s ecogni ion a a na ional and in e na ional le el. acknowledgemen s This s udy was suppo ed by c unde G an s h/bpd 91349/2012, and by he Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, unde G an uid/soc/50012/2013. ____________________________________ pa ícia e az de ma os Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa A . P o . Aníbal Be encou 9 — 1600-036 Lisboa, Po ugal pa icia_ma[email p o ec ed]oa.p o cid.o g/0000-0001-7322-3756 ____________________________________ e e ences aa . 1957. “P o esso Mendes Co eia. Homenagem dos seus amigos e admi ado es”. 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