On marginal inclusion: refugees at the fringes of citizenship in Portugal

On ma ginal inclusion: e ugees a he inges o ci izenship in Po ugal F ancesco Vacchiano 4. 100 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in in oduc ion: on bo de s and c ises Acco ding o da a p o ided by he easo (Eu opean Asylum Suppo O ice), almos 2,700,000 asylum applica ions we e lodged in he eu+ in 2015 and 2016.1 Al hough he deba e on whe he his igu e po ays an unp eceden ed, and unexpec ed, “humani a ian c isis” is s ill open, i is ce ainly a numbe o people in mo ion ha Eu ope has no wi nessed since he Second Wo ld Wa . Howe e , assuming ha he Eu opean coun ies ha e been simply su p ised by a phenomenon o unexpec ed magni ude would se iously downsize he ole o he eu in con ibu ing o his ou come, pa icula ly h ough i s bo de policy and i s gene al a i ude owa ds asylum seeke s. Al hough he e ec s in e ms o human displacemen p oduced by wa and ins abili y in A ghanis an, I aq, Sy ia, Nige ia, E i ea – o name jus he mos ep esen a i e cases – we e highly p edic able, he eu coun ies elen lessly e used o es ablish a common policy o ecep ion, one which would allow egula a el o Eu ope in sea ch o empo a y o pe manen p o ec ion. As a esul , hund eds o housands o people mo ed en masse h ough makeshi means, spending all hei sa ings and pu ing hei li es a isk in o de o each coun ies whe e, pa adoxically enough, he majo i y o hem we e en i led o ecei e asylum. The mos d ama ic e ec o his choice consis s o housands o dea hs in he Medi e anean Sea (almos 15,000 in he las ou yea s)2 and unp eceden ed p essu e om illegalised people a he Eas e n eu bo de . A e ible se ies o agedies un olded in he Medi e anean Sea be ween 2013 and 2016. Each one, culmina ing in he disappea ance o p obably 900 people in a shipw eck in he Sicilian Channel on 18 h Ap il 2015, se a new eco d o casual ies and was in a iably labelled as “ he wo s agedy o he Medi e anean” ( Vacchiano 2015). The manu ac u ed massi ica ion o mig an s’ despai , as a ious au ho s ha e claimed,3 se es he aim o con eying images o eme gency and in asion ha end up jus i ying mo e su eillance and, ul ima ely, mo e bo de s. An emblema ic case he e is ha o he Eu opean Agenda on Mig a ion, a se o measu es showcased as he eu solu ion o he ongoing “ e ugee c isis”. P esen ed as a way o wa ding o u he casual ies, he Agenda is la gely aimed a p e en ing new a i als o asylum seeke s and o he mig an s, mainly 1 eu Membe S a es plus No way, Swi ze land, Iceland and Lich ens ein. 2 h ps://missingmig an s.iom.in / egion/medi e anean. 3 See he no ion o “bo de spec acle” in De Geno a (2013). See also Casas-Co es e al. (2015). on ma ginal inclusion: e ugees a he inges o ci izenship in po ugal 101 h ough coope a ion wi h ansi coun ies (Ca e a, G os and Guild 2015; Vacchiano 2015). Beyond hese de e en s, he Agenda includes an ini ia i e o “bu den sha ing” based on a scheme o eloca e 40,000 people hos ed in I aly and G eece in o o he Membe S a es (a numbe la e inc eased o 98,000) and, as he only conc e e measu e o acili a e ecep ion, a p og amme o ese le up o 22,000 e ugees ecognised by unhc om ou side he eu.4 No di e en ly om p e ious eu ini ia i es, he Agenda is concei ed in con o mi y wi h he a ionale ha human lows mus (and can) be channelled in o di ec ions ha a e “use ul” and “p oduc i e” o he des ina ion coun ies ( an Hou um and Pijpe s 2008; Amb osini 2008; Mezzad a and Neilson 2013). This way o enginee ing human mobili y is based on he assump ion ha people a e willing o accep he p imacy o go e nmen al p io i ies o e hei pe cei ed needs and expec a ions. As we will see, his is one o he mos signi ican ac o s explaining he ailu e o many ecep ion and social inclusion p og ammes. In ac , he s onges opposi ion o he Agenda, and pa icula ly o he eloca ion plan con ained in i , came om a numbe o eu coun ies ( he uk, I eland, F ance, he Czech Republic, Hunga y and Poland) ha esolu ely e used o comply wi h i . Owing o p essu es exe ed by he eu Commission, he ini ial esis ance was mainly o e come, excep o he uk, he Czech Republic, Hunga y and Poland. Whe eas he incep ion o he B exi p ocess suspended de ac o any uk commi men o he Agenda, he o he h ee coun ies became he a ge o an in ingemen p ocedu e launched by he eu Commission in June 2017. In a comple ely di e en mo e, he Po uguese go e nmen s ongly suppo ed he ini ia i e and exp essed he in en ion o hos 4,775 people. In a la e mee ing in B ussels, held in Feb ua y 2016, he Po uguese P ime Minis e An ónio Cos a expanded his o e u he by opening up o 10,400 people h ough a scheme o bila e al ag eemen s. Acco ding o his decla a ions, hey would be employed in a eas a ec ed by sho age o manpowe , like ag icul u e and o es a ion and, i he si ua ion a ose, allowed o s udy a Po uguese uni e si ies (Gomes Fe ei a 2016). E en ually, he inal numbe ag eed in B ussels was 2,951 people, o be eloca ed om I aly and G eece ac oss wo yea s. 4 Eu opean Commission – P ess elease, Eu opean Agenda on Mig a ion: Consolida ing p og ess made, B ussels, 15 h No embe 2017, Annex 6: eloca ion (h p://eu opa.eu/ apid/p ess- elease_IP-17- 4484_en.h m, accessed 12 h Ap il 2018). 102 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in As a consequence, an issue ha had gone almos unno iced in he coun y (Po ugal egis e ed only 477 asylum eques s in 2014), ook cen e s age and u ned in o a ma e o in ense public deba e. Semina s and o he public ini ia i es ha p e iously would ha e ha dly a ac ed mo e han a hand ul o onlooke s, c opped up e e ywhe e and wen sold ou . De ac o s and de ende s wen epea edly on ai in hea ed deba es, while old and new expe s gleaned hei app op ia e sha e o a en ion. Opponen s ema ked ha coun y-na ionals, se e ely impo e ished by he economic c isis, should be p io i ised, while a numbe o local o ganisa ions and ngos esponded wi h an ex ao dina y mobilisa ion, c ea ing ne wo ks o solida i y and se ing up esou ces o he expec ed newcome s. Al hough some g oups en isaged he possibili y o gaining isibili y and S a e commissions, he majo i y we e mo ed by ideals o solida i y ha canno simply be educed o sel -in e es and p o i . Collec i e in ol emen and a gene ally benign a i ude owed la gely o he images o dea h and despai coming om Sy ia, Tu key, G eece and Eas e n Eu ope. And ye , he wish o alle ia e human su e ing was a mo i e o e hical engagemen acco ding o which a mino i a ian, al hough no negligible, po ion o socie y el compelled o do i s pa . As a esul , unde he ini ia i e o membe s linked o he Jesui Re ugee Se ice, a wide pla o m o olun ee s was es ablished, including public and p i a e bodies, banks, companies and uni e si ies. Th ough a la ge use o olun a y wo k, his ne wo k was mean o suppo he o hcoming ecep ion p ocess. On he side o he go e nmen , a “Wo king G oup o he Eu opean Agenda on Mig a ion” was cons i u ed. The uni is coo dina ed by he “Immig a ion and Bo de Se ice” o he S a e Police (se ) and wo ks wi h ep esen a i es o he Minis ies o he In e io , o Educa ion, o Heal h, he Na ional Ins i u e o Employmen and Voca ional T aining (i pp ), he Na ional Ins i u e o Social Secu i y, and he High Commissione on Mig a ion (acm). I s ole is o coo dina e ecep ion on a na ional le el by se ing up a sys em o local p og ammes based on public-p i a e pa ne ship. Among he equi emen s de ined o such p og ammes, he e a e he p inciples o “gi ing alue o he ecep ion po en ial o e i o ies o middle and low densi y, p e en ing he concen a ion o people” and “ensu ing he g adual acquisi ion o au onomy by e ugees”.5 Recep ion p og ammes a e o p o ide housing, language ui ion, 5 Wo king G oup o he Eu opean Agenda on Mig a ion, P inciples o ecep ion p oposals: h p:// www. e ugiados.acm.go .p /ins i uicoes/, accessed 17 h Ap il 2018. on ma ginal inclusion: e ugees a he inges o ci izenship in po ugal 103 oca ional aining, legal counselling, and accompanimen o medical needs and psychological suppo . They las 18 mon hs, du ing which bene icia ies a e suppo ed by a mon hly allowance o 150 eu os and a e equi ed o make he necessa y s eps o li e independen ly in Po ugal. As we will see below, eali y is much mo e complex: se ices a e o en una ailable, 18 mon hs is ba ely enough o ind one’s bea ings in a new socie y and he mon hly s ipend is li le mo e han pocke money. By la e 2015, he Wo king G oup was in place, he pla o m o olun ee s was eady o wo k, and a numbe o o he ins i u ions we e willing o do hei pa . E e y hing seemed impeccably se up o Po ugal o be like he o he eu coun ies. Excep o one de ail: e ugees we e no coming… Indeed, as ime wen on, i became clea ha e ugees, and pa icula ly he awai ed Sy ians, we e no keen on a i ing a all. G eek and I alian au ho i ies we e occasionally blamed o hei supposed o ganisa ional aul s, while some da ed insinua e ha people migh no wan o come o Po ugal. Some Po uguese ngos had e en ca ied ou missions o G eece so as o mee asylum seeke s and con ince hem o he many ad an ages o choosing Po ugal, al hough wi h poo esul s. In Decembe 2015, a g oup o people who we e supposedly eady o lea e G eece escaped om he ecep ion cen e and disappea ed a he han heading o Po ugal. Some hing simila happened again in Feb ua y 2016 (C uz 2016). And ye , s a ing om Ma ch, asylum seeke s inally began o low in and, acco ding o he las a ailable o icial da a, he coun y ecei ed 1,507 “ eloca ed” and 122 “ ese led” people un il No embe 2017.6 E i eans, Sy ians and I aqis cons i u e a signi ican pa o he sha e. They ha e been hos ed in acili ies p o ided by municipali ies, ngos and o he local o ganisa ions, wi h a e y di e se se o ou comes. While I w i e, almos hal o he people who a i ed h ough he eu eloca ion p og amme ha e al eady le he coun y (Dias Co dei o 2017). They ha e p e e ed o u n down hei igh o p o ec ion and he p o isions made a ailable in Po ugal o li e as i egula ized mig an s elsewhe e. In compliance wi h he ules es ablished o implemen he Eu opean Agenda on Mig a ion,7 6 Sou ce: Eu opean Commission, Repo “Reloca ion: eu solida i y be ween membe s a es. No embe 2017” (h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/home-a ai s/si es/homea ai s/ iles/wha -we-do/policies/eu opean-agenda-m ig a ion/20171114_ eloca ion_eu_solida i y_be ween_membe _s a es_en.pd , accessed 24 h No 2017). 7 See in pa icula he “Council Decision 2015/1601 o 22nd Sep embe 2015 es ablishing p o isional measu es in he a ea o in e na ional p o ec ion o he bene i o I aly and G eece” (h ps://eu -lex. eu opa.eu/legal-con en /EN/TXT/?u i=celex%3A32015D1601, accessed 12 h Ap il 2018). 104 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in some o hem ha e been in e cep ed and iden i ied in o he Eu opean coun ies and a g owing numbe o hem a e being depo ed back o Po ugal. Fo hem, he speci ic ca ego y o e omado (“ e aken”) was coined. And ye , a sys ema ic analysis o he ecep ion p ocess and i s esul s has no been unde aken in Po ugal so a and, in gene al, ela i ely ew con ibu ions a e a ailable on he opic o asylum in he coun y.8 Based on my e hnog aphic esea ch in he ield o mig a ion and asylum in Po ugal, his chap e will analyse he expe ience o some asylum claiman s wi hin he ecep ion p og ammes al eady es ablished in o de o show how hei expec a ions and possibili ies a e hwa ed by a numbe o obs acles which, well beyond in en ions and decla a ions, os e us a ion and sense o ailu e. I a gue ha asylum seeke s and e ugees, no oo di e en ly om o he immig an s, a e he objec o p ocedu es o hie a chical inclusion ope a ing h ough a speci ic bu eauc acy o ci izenship. While bu eauc acy, as an e ec o mode ni y, is he o m in which he S a e manages he o ganisa ion o social ela ions, o asylum seeke s i u ns in o a ool gene a ing speci ic o ms o expe ience, some in which people’s p io i ies and ime a e app op ia ed by he ecei ing ins i u ions in o de o p oduce social assignmen and geog aphical immobilisa ion. The meaning o “ e-localisa ion” seems he e o ake on he alue o a concep -me apho (Moo e 2004): a elling ep esen a ion o an impossible mo e om he assigned posi ion in ime and space. on e-localisa ion I me Redwan in la e 2016, in he small p o incial own whe e he was hos ed.9 He was sha ing a house, made a ailable by a local ngo, wi h his a he Sami , aged almos 90, and h ee o he people, wo Sy ians and a Po uguese ex-de ainee, a bene icia y o ano he p og amme un by he same o ganisa ion. On his way o a sa e place, Redwan had le his p egnan wi e and h ee child en in Is anbul wi h he in en ion o p o iding his a he wi h be e ea men in Eu ope and pa ing he way o he a i al o he es o he household. 8 See Malhei os (1995); Ba a da Cos a (1996); Gomes de Sousa (1999); San inho (2010); San inho (2013); San inho (2015); Cos a and Sousa (2016). Vacchiano and San inho ( o hcoming) ha e ecen ly p oposed he i s comp ehensi e analysis o he Po uguese ecep ion sys em. 9 Names and de ails ha e been changed o p ese e anonymi y. on ma ginal inclusion: e ugees a he inges o ci izenship in po ugal 105 Unde s andably, he was anxiously wai ing o an answe o his asylum claim, which would allow him o o gi e cou se o he p ocess o amily euni ica ion and see again his wi e, child en and, o he is ime, his new-bo n daugh e . He ecalls how, in G eece, hey we e eques ed o ill in a pape wi h eigh p e e ences o eloca ion. Needless o say, nobody chose Po ugal. S ill, easo o ice s insis ed ha Po ugal was a welcoming coun y, people we e iendly and a job, hey gua an eed, was easily a ailable. They had been wai ing in he small own o eigh mon hs and no imp o emen was in sigh . In ha u al a ea, no wo k was a ailable excep o pe y jobs in ag icul u e and his p ospec s we e u he na owed by his poo p o iciency in Po uguese. In ac , he ecei ing o ganisa ion was unable o p o ide a eache on a s eady basis and Redwan had only a ended o a hand ul o language classes. Du ing my isi , I ound mysel ac ing as in e p e e in a long-awai ed mee ing be ween him and he social s a , in which I was asked o help dealing wi h a numbe o issues. In pa icula , Redwan was upse by lea ning he was supposed o use his sca ce mon hly allowance, which he la gely employed o main ain his amily in Is anbul, o pay he cos ly ansla ion equi ed o ha e his Sy ian d i ing licence ecognised. Al hough his need co esponds o an impo an s ep on he way o inding a job in Po ugal, he ngo s a admi ed hey had no p o isions o add ess i . Simila ly, hey had no addi ional unds o pay o anspo , he only way o mee compa io s, and o he main enance o he house, he condi ions o which we e se iously ques ionable acco ding o any s anda d. When I me hem again, one yea la e , hei si ua ion had e en wo sened. Eigh een mon hs a e hei a i al, when he ecep ion p og amme was abou o come o an end, hey had hei asylum claim accep ed. Unable o ind a decen job, Redwan had insis ed on being eloca ed wi h his a he o Lisbon, whe e hey we e hos ed in some sha ed ooms a he ngo headqua e s. Redwan was alone in aking ca e o his a he , as no suppo was o e ed o imp o e his language skills o in looking o a job. He was also alone in dealing wi h he complex adminis a i e p ocedu e o euni e his amily, who we e s ill li ing in Is anbul. In Decembe 2017, almos wo yea s a e hei a i al and when hei u u e was s ill unce ain, Sami passed away due o a hea a ack. Fo Redwan, “he died o sadness” in a g ey pe iphe y o he Eu ope o un ul illed p omises. Redwan concedes ha he mus wai and le ime pass o lack o al e na i es. Di e en ly om many o his compa io s who ha e led Po ugal, he is de e mined o s ay, knowing ha elsewhe e he should s a 106 ambiguous inclusions: inside ou , ou side in om sc a ch and his would slow down he euni ica ion o his amily u he . Fo him, he idea o being oge he again one day – inally mee ing his new- bo n daugh e – enables him o ace ad e si ies and adminis a i e obs acles. Like Redwan, many o he “ eloca ed” people ace daily ha dships in inding a way h ough dull bu eauc acy and lack o esou ces. Yasi is a young I aqi man who was eloca ed om G eece o Po ugal in sp ing 2017. I was in oduced o him by a mu ual acquain ance, who was helping him ind a solu ion o his longs anding oo hache. Yasi had u ned o eme gency uni s se e al imes, ecei ing analgesic emedies bu no pe manen solu ions. As was explained o him, he had o app oach he local heal h se ice in o de o make a o mal appoin men o specialised ea men , a s ep equi ing a good deal o skills, bo h in e ms o language and amilia i y wi h p ocedu es. Yasi was hos ed in a sha ed apa men made a ailable by he ecep ion p og amme. Howe e , his con ac wi h he hos ing ins i u ion was spo adic and he was mainly le alone in dealing wi h e e yday asks. Se e al mon hs a e his a i al, his communica ion skills we e s ill poo and he had s ill no been egis e ed in a language class. A e se e al a emp s o a ange an appoin men a he heal h cen e, he u ned o he uni e si y den al heal h uni , a low-cos se ice usually p o ided by s uden s in den is y. As Yasi claims, some hing wen w ong du ing he ope a ion and his oo h su e ed u he damage. No o he solu ion was a ailable bu seeking help om a p i a e den is , who demanded 500 eu os o ix he oo h, a sum g ea ly exceeding his mon hly allowance. The oo hache was s eady and acu e, bu e en mo e unbea able was he sense o humilia ion o his condi ion o po e y and soli ude. In he wai ing oom o my den is , he ecalls his happiness when his eques o eloca ion was accep ed by he Po uguese au ho i ies, a eeling ha , as he obse es, is a odds wi h he ce ain y he has been somehow swindled by a alse p omise o help and solida i y. Solida i y was a he co e o he idea leading o he ounda ion o he Pla a o ma de Apoio aos Re ugiados (Pla o m o Suppo ing Re ugees) in summe 2015. The ini ia i e, p omo ed by he Po uguese sec ion o he Jesui Re ugee Se ice, b ings oge he olun ee s and ins i u ions in o de o ecei e “ eloca ed” people wi hin hei ne wo k. Volun ee s who adhe e o he Pla o m sha e gene ally – al hough no exclusi ely – a Ca holic backg ound and ake an ac i e ole in asylum seeke ecep ion as a o m o e hical commi men . The Al-Akba i amily escaped om I aq and was on ma ginal inclusion: e ugees a he inges o ci izenship in po ugal 107 eloca ed om G eece in o Po ugal in Ap il 2017, being ecei ed by a g oup o olun ee s pe aining o he Pla o m. The si ua ion o he household, a couple wi h a son aged six, was conside ed po en ially c i ical due o he s a e o p egnancy o he mo he and an ex ended bu n on he child’s skin esul ing om an acciden occu ed in G eece. Volun ee s collec ed esou ces o en an apa men a ma ke p ice and mobilised an ac i e ne wo k o people o ace he needs o he newcome s, wi h heal h being a pa amoun conce n. Pa icula ca e was gi en o accompany hem o S a e o ices, hospi als and heal h uni s, so as o p o ide help wi h ansla ion and p ocedu es. The bi h o he new child, a e some mon hs, was welcomed by a suppo i e g oup o people, one ha was able o con ey a sense o communi y and con i iali y o he household. And ye , he amily had ecu en ly o ace nume ous obs acles dissemina ed on i s way, o en cons i uing inex icable chains o in e wo en hu dles. A delay in he enewal o he esidency pe mi igge ed a chain- eac ion in which he I aqi d i ing licence expi ed, p e en ing in u n he possibili y o ha e i con e ed in o a Po uguese one and apply o a job as a d i e . Simul aneously, i caused he suspension o he igh o exemp ion om hospi al ees and he ollowing deb wi h he adminis a ion o childbi h and successi e consul a ions. Th oughou hese occu ences, olun ee s so ened he impac o he di icul ies, p o iding com o and al e na i e solu ions. This was possible since hei mo i a ion allowed hem o es ablish a bond which la gely exceeded he common ela ionship be ween se ice p o ide s and use s. And none heless, he sense o loneliness commonly epo ed by e ugees ended up being ans e ed o olun ee s, who equen ly complained abou he lack o suppo om ins i u ions and he many hind ances hey had o help hei in e locu o s o es ablish a no mal li e as ci izens. on ambiguous p o ec ion and a “decen li e” The disc epancy be ween he ep esen a ions con eyed by he ins i u ions (a gene ous socie y, a suppo i e wel a e, a se o good p ac ices) and he expe ien ial na a i es o bene icia ies, in which penu y and decep ion p edomina e, is o en due o a misconcep ion o he no ion o p o ec ion and o a way o imagining he pe son in need. As I ha e shown elsewhe e (Vacchiano and San inho, o hcoming), he Po uguese sys em o e ugee “in eg a ion” is mainly based on ou main mechanisms: (1) a p ocess o