Transactional Links between Teacher-Adolescent Support, Relatedness, and Aggression at School: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study

In e na ional Jou nal o En i onmen al Resea ch and Public Heal h A icle T ansac ional Links be ween Teache –Adolescen Suppo , Rela edness, and Agg ession a School: A Th ee-Wa e Longi udinal S udy Te esa I. Jiménez 1,* , Jaime León2, JoséMa ín-Albo 1, And és S. Lombas 1, Sonsoles Valdi ia-Salas 1 and Es e anía Es é ez 3   Ci a ion: Jiménez, T.I.; León, J.; Ma ín-Albo, J.; Lombas, A.S.; Valdi ia-Salas, S.; Es é ez, E. T ansac ional Links be ween Teache –Adolescen Suppo , Rela edness, and Agg ession a School: A Th ee-Wa e Longi udinal S udy. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436. h ps:// doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph18020436 Recei ed: 11 Decembe 2020 Accep ed: 4 Janua y 2021 Published: 7 Janua y 2021 Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu- al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional clai- ms in published maps and ins i u io- nal a ilia ions. Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s. Li- censee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and con- di ions o he C ea i e Commons A - ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 1Depa men o Psychology and Sociology, Uni e si y o Za agoza, Ciudad Escola s/n, 44003 Te uel, Spain; jma ina@uniza .es (J.M.-A.); slombas@uniza .es (A.S.L.); sonso al@uniza .es (S.V.-S.) 2Facul y o Teache T aining, Uni e si y o Las Palmas de G an Cana ia, Juana de A co, 1, 35004 Las Palmas de G an Cana ia, Spain; [email p o ec ed] 3Depa amen o Heal h Psychology, Miguel He nández Uni e si y, A da. de la Uni e sidad s/n, 03202 Alican e, Spain; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: ijimgu @uniza .es; Tel.: +34-978-645-327 Abs ac : This s udy examines he ecip ocal e ec s be ween wo school-based ela ionships wi hin he class oom—namely, pe cei ed eache suppo and ela edness wi h classma es—and school agg ession (o e and ela ional) ac oss wo cou ses o seconda y educa ion. Pa icipan s we e 654 adolescen s (48% boys), who we e assessed in h ee wa es: i s , a he beginning o he academic yea (T0), second, a he end o he same academic yea (T1), and hi d, a he beginning o he nex academic yea (T2) (M age wa e 1 = 13.98 yea s). Au o eg essi e c oss-lagged modeling was applied. Resul s show a p o ec i e e ec o ela edness agains ela ional agg ession in bo h gende s. Mo eo e , we obse ed a p o ec i e e ec o pe cei ed eache suppo a he beginning o he cou se o la e school agg ession as well as a isk e ec i his pe cei ed eache suppo is main ained h oughou he cou se. These e ec s we e obse ed in ela ion wi h gende -a ypical o ms o agg ession (o e in gi ls and ela ional in boys). Finally, agg ession had nega i e consequences o ela edness in gi ls and o eache suppo h ough he media ion o ela edness in boys. Gende di e ences and p ac ical implica ions o hese indings a e discussed. Keywo ds: adolescence; school agg ession; ela ional agg ession; o e agg ession; eache sup- po ; ela edness 1. In oduc ion One o he challenges o he adolescen s age is he de elopmen o signi ican social ela ionships wi h pee s and non-pa en al adul s such as eache s [ 1 ]. Seconda y schools a e places whe e adolescen s spend a signi ican amoun o ime lea ning wi h and om pee s and eache s. S uden s who de elop suppo i e ela ionships wi h eache s and eelings o ela edness wi h classma es a e mo e likely o succeed academically and p omo e hei well-being [ 2 ] han hose wi h poo school-based ela ionships. Howe e , one o he da k sides o social ela ionships in he school se ing is he agg essi e beha io exhibi ed by some adolescen s owa d hei pee s. Among he di e en ac s in ol ing school iolence (i.e., agg ession owa d school s a , p ope y damage, andalism on he campus, and bul- lying), he cu en s udy ocused on school agg ession— ha is, on beha io s aimed a o he classma es o cause ha m in en ionally, a he physical, psychological, o ela ional le el. Resea ch in he las wo decades has iden i ied agg ession a seconda y school as a se ious p oblem in Eu opean [ 3 ], No h Ame ican [ 4 ], La in Ame ican [ 5 ], and Asian coun ies [ 6 ]. The ele ance o his issue is ela ed o he se e i y o he ela ed ou comes a he pe sonal (e.g., anxie y, dep ession, low sel -es eem and li e sa is ac ion), amily (e.g., con lic , communica ion p oblems, low a ec i e union), and school le el (e.g., nega i e In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ije ph18020436 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 2 o 19 a i udes owa d school, low academic achie emen , school d opou ) o his ype o agg es- sion o he ic ims as well as o he agg esso s [ 7 , 8 ]. Mos o he s udies in his ield ha e ocused on analyzing isk ac o s ha explain he de elopmen o school agg ession [ 9 ], bu ewe s udies ha e accoun ed o i s consequences [ 7 ]. Mo eo e , e y ew s udies ha e ocused on simul aneously analyzing he causes and consequences o school agg ession a a ela ional le el. Gi en he impo ance o he social school-based ela ionships wi h adul s and pee s needed o acili a e a success ul passage h ough adolescence [ 1 ], he main objec i e o his s udy is o analyze he ansac ional links be ween social school-based ela ionships (assessed h ough pe cei ed eache –adolescen suppo and ela edness wi h classma es) and agg ession owa d pee s while ollowing adolescen s o e wo cou ses o seconda y school. 1.1. Social Rela ionships a School In hei inc easing sea ch o au onomy om hei pa en s, adolescen s’ school-based ela ionships, such as pee and eache –s uden ela ionships, become highly in luen ial no only o hei academic adjus men bu also o hei psychosocial adjus men [ 1 , 9 ]. Fo example, s uden s who a e mo e liked by hei pee s o who a e mo e popula seem o be happie [ 10 ], and s uden s who epo be e ela ionships wi h eache s e idence highe sel -es eem and p osocial beha io , and ewe dep essi e and p oblem beha io s [ 11 , 12 ]. I is impo an o no e ha many p io s udies on social ela ionships a school ha e ocused on social suppo pe cei ed in he eache –s uden ela ionship and on sociome ic s a us among pee s and, in e es ingly, esea ch has ound ha bo h o hese school-based ela ionships in luence each o he [13–15]. Howe e , p io esea ch on school-based ela ionships has paid limi ed a en ion o ela edness [ 16 ]. Rela edness, wi hin he Sel -De e mina ion Theo y (SDT) amewo k, is concep ualized as one o he h ee basic human needs (au onomy, compe ence, and e- la edness) o well-being [ 17 ], and i is unde s ood as a need o es ablish and main ain posi i e, meaning ul, and endu ing ela ionships. The cons uc o ela edness e e s o he eeling ha one is close and connec ed o signi ican o he s, and i is posi ed ha posi i e adjus men will lou ish in con ex s whe e s uden s eel ha hey ca e o and a e ca ed o by key school igu es such as eache s o pee s [ 18 ]. Thus, an impo an ask o educa ional esea ch is o iden i y he de e minan s o s uden ’s sense o ela edness in he class oom con ex — ha is, o iden i y he con ex ual cha ac e is ics ha suppo he ul illmen o his basic psychological need. This issue has no been comple ely add essed in he SDT li e a u e [19,20]. In sum, p e ious esea ch sugges s a link be ween he quali y o eache –s uden and pee ela ionships, bu he pa ial and c oss-sec ional na u e o mos pas s udies makes i di icul o a ibu e di ec ionali y o hese ela ionships. S udies analyzing bo h school- based ela ionships simul aneously a e sca ce, e en mo e so om an SDT pe spec i e. F om his heo e ical amewo k, pe cei ed eache cha ac e is ics (such as pe cei ed eache suppo ) could acili a e o block ela edness need sa is ac ion wi h classma es. The p esen s udy add esses his gap in he li e a u e by examining he ansac ional ela ionships be ween eache suppo and ela edness wi h classma es. 1.2. Social Rela ionships as P edic o s o School Agg ession The e is a gene al consensus in conside ing nega i e social ela ions a school wi h classma es and eache s as isk ac o s o he de elopmen o agg essi e beha io s among adolescen s [ 21 , 22 ]. Fo ins ance, i has been shown ha low social p e e ence (o pee ejec ion) can p edic u u e agg ession e.g., [ 15 , 23 ], and his, in u n, can be ela ed o a s a us imp o emen [ 24 ]. Resea ch has also e ealed ha low pe cei ed suppo om eache s o pe cep ion o low eache in ol emen is ela ed o high agg ession [12,25,26] . Howe e , s udies gene ally ocus ei he on he in luence o pee s o o eache s, bu s udies in ol ing he in luence o bo h social agen s on school agg ession a e sca ce and show inconsis en esul s; see, o ins ance, [ 13 , 15 ]. In pa allel, p e ious s udies ha e highligh ed In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 3 o 19 ha al hough ela ionships wi h pee s and eache s a e impo an on hei own, a comple e unde s anding o hei con ibu ions o s uden s’ school adjus men equi es he examina- ion o hei join e ec s [ 2 , 27 ]. Fu he mo e, longi udinal s udies a e sca ce e.g., [ 15 ], and ha e no conside ed he con inui y and discon inui y o school-based ela ionships ac oss successi e academic cou ses, when he same g oup o classma es has a di e en eache each yea , which is ypical in he Spanish seconda y educa ional sys em. Mo eo e , ew s udies ha e ocused on he e ec s o ela edness in school agg ession wi hin an SDT pe spec i e. Mos o he s udies applying he SDT pe spec i e a school ha e ound e idence o a posi i e e ec o ela edness on academic engagemen , pe o mance, and well-being [ 2 , 16 , 28 ] bu ha e no explo ed beha io al ou comes. In s udies conduc ed wi h child en and adolescen s, indings indica e ha unsa is ied psychological needs a e linked o isk ac o s o adolescen agg ession, such as lack o sel -con idence [ 17 ] and nega i e emo ions [ 29 ]; and ha sa is ied psychological needs a e linked o p osocial beha io [ 30 ]. The ew s udies ha ha e ocused on pee agg ession ha e in o med ha pa en al s a egies ha block adolescen s’ au onomy posi i ely p edic ed adolescen s’ sel - epo ed ela ional agg ession [ 31 , 32 ]. Howe e , none o hese s udies ha e ocused on ela edness wi h classma es no ha e hey es ed he SDT hypo hesis o he media ional ole o his a iable be ween eache suppo and school agg ession. 1.3. Social Consequences o School Agg ession As seen, school agg ession has ele an social o igins bu , simul aneously, empi ical e - idence also suppo s he social consequences o school agg ession. Wi hin a bio-ecological amewo k, i is ele an o ocus on “child en’s cha ac e is ics (such as agg ession) which a e ea u es ha in i e o discou age eac ions om he social en i onmen ha can dis up o os e p ocesses o psychological g ow h” [ 33 ] (p. 796). Agg essi e beha io nega i ely a ec s he eaching and lea ning p ocess, class oom clima e, and eache s–s uden s’ e- la ionships [ 34 ]. In sociome ic s udies, one o he bes p edic o s o being ejec ed by pee s is a child’s agg essi e beha io e.g., [ 35 , 36 ]. In adolescen s, school agg ession has been nega i ely ela ed o a low pe cep ion o iendship in he class oom and posi i ely o loneliness [ 8 , 32 ]. In addi ion, he p esence o agg essi e beha io s in he class oom is ela ed o mo e nega i e eache –s uden in e ac ions [ 22 ] in e ms o low closeness and pe cei ed suppo , and high con lic [14,37,38]. Fu he mo e, indings indica e a ansac ional ela ionship be ween agg ession and social consequences. Fo example, in sociome ic longi udinal s udies, child en’s ex e - nalizing beha io consis en ly p edic ed low social p e e ence he ollowing yea , and in u n, he expe iences o low social p e e ence added o he de elopmen o ex e nalizing beha io [ 15 , 39 ]. The same has been ound conce ning he eache –s uden ela ionship [ 14 ]. This suppo s he en anglemen o pee social p e e ence, eache –child ela ionship, and ex e nalizing beha io du ing school age, wi hin a nega i e ein o cemen cycle [ 40 ]. In e - ec , om a bio-ecological amewo k, esea che s ha e epo ed ha p oximal social ela ionships (e.g., wi h pee s and eache s) may no only in luence child en’s adjus men bu may also p edic each o he h oughou de elopmen e.g., [ 41 ]. In ou longi udinal s udy, we con ibu e o he ield by examining how school-based social ela ionships and school agg ession ela e o each o he o e ime. Mo e speci ically, we seek o unde s and he ole o agg ession in shaping adolescen ’s pe cei ed eache suppo and ela edness wi h classma es simul aneously. 1.4. O e and Rela ional Agg ession and Gende Di e ences T adi ionally, he scien i ic li e a u e has ex ensi ely s udied he p oblems a ising om o e agg ession (physical o e bal di ec beha io s) a school [ 42 ]. Howe e , mo e ecen s udies ha e been also in e es ed in ela ional agg ession and ha e shown ha he mo e co e , sub le, and indi ec o ms o school agg ession such as social exclusion, os acism, and sp eading alse umo s may be as ha m ul o adolescen psychosocial adjus men as mo e o e and di ec o ms [ 43 , 44 ]. Two ele an issues can be added ha jus i y In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 4 o 19 he s udy o bo h ypes o agg ession in adolescen s. On he one hand, a di e en ial pe cep ion has been obse ed in he wo o ms o agg ession by adul s, who end o conside ela ional agg ession as mo e accep able han o e agg ession, pa icula ly du ing he s age o adolescence [ 45 , 46 ]. On he o he hand, when compa ing s udies conduc ed wi h longi udinal da a in Spanish schools (be ween 1999 and 2006), a dec ease in beha io s in ol ing o e agg ession in adolescen s, bu no in beha io s o ela ional agg ession was obse ed [47]. Mo eo e , he i s s udies ha di e en ia ed di ec and indi ec o ms o school ag- g ession we e ela ed o gende di e ences. These s udies concluded ha boys used di ec agg ession o a g ea e ex en [ 42 ]. Howe e , in he case o indi ec agg ession, mo e ecen s udies on gende di e ences ha e no been conclusi e. Fo example, he e iew by Ca d and collabo a o s [ 45 ], a me a-analysis conduc ed wi h 148 s udies, concludes ha whe eas he e we e signi ican gende di e ences in a o o boys in he use o di ec o ms o agg ession, he di e ences in indi ec agg ession we e minimal. These au ho s ha e a gued ha in adolescen s, indi ec agg essi e s a egies a e ye ully de eloped o bo h gende s. The issue o possible gende di e ences in he causes and social consequences o he di e en o ms o agg ession has no ecei ed much a en ion. In sociome ic s udies, a ela ionship o bo h open and ela ional agg ession and pee ejec ion in bo h gende s has been obse ed as well as a posi i e ela ionship be ween ela ional agg ession and pee ac- cep ance in boys [ 48 ]. Howe e , o he au ho s ha e ound wo-way ela ionships be ween ela ional agg ession and popula i y in gi ls bu no in boys, in whom popula i y p edic ed g ea e ela ional agg ession bu no he con a y [ 49 ]. Conce ning gende di e ences in social ela ionships wi h eache s and pee s, i is impo an o no e ha gi ls gene ally pe cei e highe le els o emo ional suppo om hei eache s and school-based ela ed- ness han boys [ 28 , 37 , 38 , 50 ]. Bi ch and Ladd [ 51 ] ha e a gued ha boys a e mo e likely o dis up class, and his in u n can o lead o mo e nega i e in e ac ions wi h eache s. I is in e es ing o no e ha despi e some gende di e ences in he mean-le el o ex e nalizing beha io , eache –child ela ionships, and pee ela ionships, some s udies ha e shown ha he e a e no gende di e ences in he associa ions be ween hese a iables [ 14 , 15 ]. The e o e, bea ing in mind p e ious esea ch, i is in e es ing o analyze whe he o no di ec and indi ec agg ession a e simila in hei social o igins and consequences o boys and gi ls. 1.5. The P esen S udy Gi en he impo ance o school-based social ela ionships wi h adul s and pee s in adolescence and o agg ession as a common p oblem in he schools o many coun ies, in his s udy, we ex end ea lie esea ch by es ing bidi ec ional associa ions be ween ela- ionships wi h pee s and eache s and school agg ession in a longi udinal s udy ac oss wo cou ses o seconda y school. We conside wo o ms o school agg ession (o e and ela- ional) as well as social suppo and ela edness as measu es o school-based ela ionships wi h eache s and classma es, espec i ely. We we e pa icula ly in e es ed in examining how bo h o ms o agg ession a e di e en ially ela ed o eache suppo and ela edness o e ime. I is impo an o no e ha in Spain, wi h ew excep ions, middle-school s uden s (11 o 16 yea s) en e as a coho in he i s yea and emain wi h he same classma es h oughou seconda y s udies. In pa allel, a he s a o each school yea , hey a e as- signed a home oom eache who is in cha ge o aking ca e o s uden s’ academic and pe sonal- ela ed a ai s. To ake in o accoun he po en ial ansac ional links be ween bo h school-based ela ionships and agg essi e beha io , a ull c oss-lagged longi udinal design was applied ac oss wo successi e academic cou ses, which pe mi s he examina ion o ecip ocal e ec s be ween eache –child and pee ela ionships while aking in o accoun he p e ious le els o each a iable and wi hin- ime associa ions be ween a iables. On he basis o he heo e ical and empi ical backg ound, we can expec o ind he ollowing: (a) ecip ocals e ec s be ween he wo dimensions o school-based ela ionships (i.e., pe cei ed eache suppo and ela edness wi h classma es); howe e , consis en wi h In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 5 o 19 he SDT amewo k [ 17 ], we expec ed s onge e idence o e ec s om eache owa d pee s han ice e sa; (b) a media ional e ec o ela edness be ween pe cei ed eache suppo and agg ession consis en wi h he SDT pe spec i e [ 17 ]; (c) a media ional e ec o ela edness be ween agg ession and eache suppo based on he bio-ecological ame- wo k [ 33 , 41 ]; and (d) s onge p o ec i e e ec s o eache suppo o o e agg ession han o ela ional agg ession due o g ea e adul ole ance o his las o m o agg ession in adolescence [45,46]. Rega ding gende di e ences, ou hypo heses a e less s aigh o wa d. E en hough some p e ious s udies ound no gende di e ences in he pa e n o associa ions be ween ela ed a iables [ 14 , 15 ], empi ical e idence has shown consis en di e ences in he le el o hese a iables o boys and gi ls (highe le els o pe cei ed eache suppo and ela edness, and lowe le el o o e agg ession in gi ls). Hence, we easoned ha as causes, eache suppo and ela edness wi h classma es could ha e s onge and p o ec i e e ec s agains bo h o ms o agg ession in gi ls [ 37 , 50 ]. Conce ning gende di e ences in he social consequences o agg ession, some au ho s indica ed wo se consequences o ela ional agg ession o gi ls [ 43 ], bu o he s ound social bene i s o boys and gi ls [ 49 ]. The e o e, he e is no consis en p e ious e idence o his las issue, and we only had a gende explo a o y objec i e. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods 2.1. Pa icipan s A o al numbe o 826 s uden s a ending classes in 1s , 2nd, 3 d, and 4 h g ades o seconda y educa ion om i e seconda y schools pa icipa ed in he s udy. All schools we e loca ed in u ban a eas in he no heas o Spain. The pa icipan s we e e alua ed in h ee wa es: i s , a he beginning o he academic yea (T0), second, a he end o he same academic yea (T1), and hi d, a he beginning o he nex academic yea (T2). Fo 172 s uden s, da a om ques ionnai es we e missing wo o mo e wa es (he ea e , called d opou g oup), esul ing in a h ee-wa e longi udinal sample o 654 adolescen s who pa icipa ed in a leas wo wa es. D opou was due o inishing seconda y educa ion. The d opou g oup was elimina ed om he s udy. The mean age o he adolescen s in ou s udy sample was 13.98 yea s (SD = 1.41) a T0, wi h ages anging be ween 11 and 17; 22.6% o hem we e in i s g ade, 18.8 % we e in second g ade, 32.2% we e in hi d g ade, and 26.4% we e in ou h g ade, and 48% we e boys. Backg ound in o ma ion was p o ided by 97% o he adolescen s in ou s udy sample. O he amilies, 88.8% we e in ac , 9% we e single-pa en amilies, and 2.2% o he adolescen s li ed wi h o he amily membe s o non- amily adul s. Conce ning educa ion, 7.5% o he mo he s and 14% o he a he s had comple ed highe educa ion, 24.3 o he mo he s and 24.6% o he a he s had comple ed high school, 26.2% o he mo he s and 26.5% o he a he s had comple ed p ima y school, and 5% o he mo he s and 4.4% o he a he s had no s udies. The adolescen s om he d opou g oup did no di e signi ican ly om ou s udy sample in age o gende a T0, and ega ding s udy a iables ( eache suppo , ela edness, o e agg ession, and ela ional agg ession) a any o he h ee imes (de ailed esul s o hese analyses a e a ailable om he au ho s upon eques ). 2.2. P ocedu e We con ac ed he p incipal o each school o explain he pu pose o he esea ch and o eques pe mission o ca y ou he s udy. Then, we eques ed pa en s’ and gua dians’ consen o he s uden s o pa icipa e in his s udy. We explained he goals o he s udy o he s uden s and in o med hem ha pa icipa ion was olun a y and anonymous. A leas one quali ied esea che (wi h a Ph.D.) was p esen du ing he adminis a ion o he ins umen s o p o ide s uden s wi h he necessa y suppo . We collec ed he same measu es h ee imes, sepa a ed by a 5-mon h in e al. Measu es we e collec ed in all class ooms wi hin 2 weeks a each ime. The esea ch was conduc ed in compliance wi h e hical alues equi ed o esea ch on human beings, espec ing he basic p inciples In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 6 o 19 included in he Helsinki Decla a ion and he code o good p ac ice in esea ch o he hos uni e si y. The esea ch was also app o ed by he Vice-Chancello o Scien i ic Policy o he Uni e si y o Za agoza ( i le o he s udy: Sa is ac ion o basic psychological needs, emo ional egula ion and agg ession owa ds pee s in adolescence, wi h p o ocol numbe JIUZ-2017-SOC-04). 2.3. Ins umen s Da a we e collec ed o assess s uden s’ pe cep ion o eache suppo , ela edness wi h classma es, and agg ession a school. Reliabili ies o all measu es we e examined compu - ing McDonald’s [ 52 ] omega based on ac o loadings, a e conduc ing a con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA) using he weigh ed leas squa e mean and a iance adjus ed (WLSMV) es ima ion me hod. Cons uc alidi y was es ed using CFA. 2.3.1. Teache Suppo We used he In e pe sonal Rela ionships’ dimension o he Class oom En i onmen Scale (CES) [53], Spanish e sion o Fe nández-Balles e os and Sie a [54], which assesses he pe cep ion o he amoun o help, us , and iendship eache s o e o s uden s in he class oom (e.g., “Teache s show pa icula in e es in hei s uden s”). Response op ions anged om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 7 (s ongly ag ee). P e ious wo ks e.g., [ 13 , 25 ] and he p esen s udy ha e shown e idence o eliabili y (omega alues om 0.79 a T 1 o 0.85 a T2). 2.3.2. Rela edness S uden s comple ed he i e i ems o he Psychological Needs Scale [ 55 ], Spanish e - sion by León e al. [ 56 ], ega ding s uden ’s ela edness. These i ems measu ed he deg ee o need sa is ac ion o main ain posi i e, meaning ul, and endu ing ela ionships wi h classma es (e.g., “I eel app ecia ed and alued by my classma es”) and we e e alua ed on a Like scale anging om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 7 (s ongly ag ee). P e ious wo ks [ 56 ] and he p esen s udy ha e shown e idence o eliabili y (omega alues om 0.77 a T 0 o 0.86 a T2). 2.3.3. School Agg ession We used he Agg ession Scale o Li le, Hen ich, Jones, and Hawley [ 57 ] adap ed in o Spanish by Es é ez e al. [ 13 ]. Adolescen s indica ed he equency wi h which hey had engaged in agg essi e beha io s owa d pee s a school o e he las 12 mon hs, on a se en-poin scale om 1 (ne e ) o 7 (many imes). We used wo scales o measu e wo dimensions o agg ession: o e agg ession (4 i ems, e.g., hi ing o he s) and ela ional agg ession (4 i ems, e.g., sp eading umo s). P e ious wo ks [ 8 , 13 , 27 ] and he p esen s udy ha e shown e idence o eliabili y (omega alues om 0.81 a T0 o 0.82 a T2 o o e agg ession and om 0.71 a T0 o 0.84 a T2 o ela ional agg ession). 2.4. Da a Analyses We began by compu ing mean, s anda d de ia ions, and co ela ions among majo a iables and es ing mean di e ences ac oss gende in he h ee wa es o da a. Then, o s udy he longi udinal ecip ocal ela ions o pe cei ed eache suppo wi h ela edness and agg ession (o e o ela ional), mul i a ia e au o eg essi e c oss-lagged modeling wi h h ee measu emen wa es was used [ 58 ]. Wi h his kind o model, in compa ison wi h a c oss-sec ional model, we can make causal claims because causes a e assessed be o e media o s, and he media o s a e, in u n, measu ed be o e ou comes [ 59 ]. Since we a e in e es ed in wo o ms o agg ession ( ela ional agg ession and o e agg ession) and in di e ences be ween gi ls and boys, we es ed ou models: he i s wo wi h he a iables Teache Suppo , Rela edness, and O e Agg ession in boys and gi ls, and he nex wo wi h Teache Suppo , Rela edness, and Rela ional Agg ession also in boys and gi ls. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 7 o 19 We conduc ed analyses in Mplus 8 [ 60 ] using a Maximum Likelihood es ima o . Maxi- mum Likelihood equi es da a o be independen and no mal. Howe e , in his esea ch, s uden s we e selec ed om se e al schools; hus, he obse a ions migh no be indepen- den . To ga he e idence o non-independence, we es ima ed he in aclass co ela ion (ICC); ha is, he p opo ion o he o al a iance due o he g oup le el e sus he indi- idual le el. Values close o 1 indica e ha he a iable is comple ely g oup-dependen , whe eas alues close o 0 a e an indica o ha he a iabili y is due o he subjec s and no o he g oup. Since ICC alues indica ed ha da a we e no independen (see Table 1), o a oid chi-squa e in la ion and s anda d e o s unde es ima ion in he S uc u al Equa ion Model (SEM), we used he co ec ion o non-independence (Type = complex in MPlus). In addi ion o he non-independence o ou da a, he indica o s in ou model we e i ems om Like scales. These i ems had se en ca ego ies; hus, ou da a we e o de ed- ca ego ical and non-no mal. Howe e , Rhem ulla e al. [ 61 ] showed ha wi h six o se en ca ego ies, maximum likelihood wi h co ec ions o non-no mali y [ 62 ] p oduces accep able esul s (Es ima o = MLR in Mplus). To diminish model complexi y and allow compa ison be ween wa es, we cons ained loadings o he same i em on each majo a iable o he same alue ac oss he h ee wa es. Finally, o analyze he media ional ole o ela edness, we compu ed he indi ec e ec and i s s anda d e o using he del a me hod [ 63 ]. The Full In o ma ion Maximum Likelihood (FIML) was used o ake accoun o missing da a. To minimize possible biases, his me hod uses model co a ia es o p edic missing da a. FIML has been shown o be compu a ionally e icien and supe io o adi ional s a egies (i.e., lis wise o pai wise) [ 64 ]. FIML p oduces less biased esul s han adi ional s a egies because i includes all a ailable da a in he es ima ion p ocedu e [65]. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 8 o 19 Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics, ICC alues, and Pea son’s co ela ions. Va iables M SD ICC % Non Missing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1. Rela edness T0 5.58 0.87 0.00 0.98 2. Rela edness T1 5.42 0.94 0.01 0.94 0.503 ** 3. Rela edness T2 5.39 1.02 0.00 0.63 0.469 ** 0.508 ** 4. Teache suppo T0 3.55 1.23 0.04 0.96 0.201 ** 0.134 ** 0.188 ** 5. Teache suppo T1 3.39 1.15 0.06 0.94 0.094 * 0.150 ** 0.103 * 0.583 ** 6. Teache suppo T2 3.42 1.17 0.07 0.63 0.043 0.071 0.123 * 0.428 ** 0.566 ** 7. O e agg ession T0 1.76 0.86 0.03 0.91 − 0.120 ** − 0.170 ** − 0.314 ** −0.048 −0.009 −0.084 8. O e agg ession T1 1.93 0.99 0.01 0.92 − 0.109 ** − 0.212 ** − 0.208 ** −0.036 −0.043 −0.021 0.470 ** 9. O e agg ession T2 2.03 1.06 0.01 0.63 −0.094 −0.074 − 0.230 ** −0.033 0.067 0.034 0.426 ** 0.434 ** 10. Rela ional agg ession T0 1.77 0.85 0.02 0.91 − 0.120 ** − 0.138 ** − 0.280 ** −0.032 0.036 0.011 0.696 ** 0.373 ** 0.333 ** 11. Rela ional agg ession T1 1.90 0.94 0.00 0.92 − 0.143 ** − 0.207 ** − 0.182 ** −0.028 0.083 * 0.076 0.346 ** 0.700 ** 0.362 ** 0.396 ** 12. Rela ional agg ession T2 2.01 1.07 0.02 0.63 −0.084 −0.058 − 0.242 ** 0.011 0.134 ** 0.087 0.339 ** 0.371 ** 0.836 ** 0.387 ** 0.413 ** No e: M = Mean; SD = S anda d de ia ion; ICC = In aclass co ela ion; % no missing = pe cen age o non-missing da a; * p< 0.05. ** p< 0.01. In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 9 o 19 3. Resul s 3.1. Desc ip i e S a is ics and Mean Di e ences ac oss Gende Mean alues and s anda d de ia ions a e shown in Table 1. Means a ied be ween 1.76 (o e agg ession a T0) and 5.58 ( ela edness a T0), and s anda d de ia ions a - ied be ween 0.85 ( ela ional agg ession a T0) and 1.23 ( eache suppo a T0). Co ela- ions anged om 0.083 ( eache suppo a T1 and ela ional agg ession a T1) o 0.700 ( ela ional agg ession a T1 and o e agg ession a T1). Table 2 ep esen s means and s anda d de ia ions o he s udy a iables a he h ee measu emen wa es o gi ls (N= 342) and boys (N= 312). We ound signi ican gende di e ences as ollows: Gi ls showed, on a e age, a highe ela edness need sa is ac ion han boys a T1, (653) = 2.390, p< 0.01, and a T2, (653) = 2.597, p< 0.01, whe eas boys pe cei ed mo e eache suppo a T1, (653) = 1.645, p< 0.05, and a T2, (653) = 2.045, p< 0.05 . In addi ion, compa ed o gi ls, boys had signi ican ly highe mean le els o bo h ypes o agg ession, o e and ela ional, a each measu emen wa e: (653) = 6.053, p< 0.001 o o e agg ession and (653) = 4.692, p< 0.001 o ela ional agg ession a T0; (653) = 5.600, p< 0.001 o o e agg ession and (653) = 4.485, p< 0.001 o ela ional agg ession a T1; (653) = 4.777, p< 0.001 o o e agg ession and (653) = 4.670, p< 0.001 o ela ional agg ession a T2. Table 2. Means and s anda d de ia ions a he h ee measu emen wa es o gi ls (N= 342) and boys (N= 312). Wa e 1 Wa e 2 Wa e 3 Gi ls Boys Gi ls Boys Gi ls Boys M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD Teache suppo 3.53 1.38 3.58 1.67 3.31 1.24 3.46 1.4 3.32 1.16 3.51 1.6 Rela edness 5.59 0.77 5.58 0.73 5.50 0.90 5.33 0.87 5.49 0.85 5.28 1.24 O e agg ession 1.57 0.47 1.97 0.95 1.72 0.74 2.14 1.12 1.84 0.99 2.22 1.15 Rela ional agg ession 1.63 0.54 1.94 0.88 1.74 0.66 2.07 1.08 1.82 0.96 2.20 1.23 3.2. C oss-Lagged Models 3.2.1. O e Agg ession The wo i s calcula ed models included he a iables o pe cei ed eache suppo , ela edness, and o e agg ession owa d pee s in gi ls and boys sepa a ely. Model i s we e adequa e: o gi ls, he chi-squa e alues and he i indexes we e χ2 (342, 814) = 978.35, p= 0.00, RMSEA (Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion) = 0.02 [0.02, 0.03], CFI (Com- pa a i e Fi Index) = 0.95, and TLI (Tucke Lewis Index) = 0.95; and o boys, hey we e χ2 (312, 814) = 956.5, p= 0.00, RMSEA = 0.02 [0.02, 0.03], CFI = 0.97, and TLI = 0.97. As can be seen in Figu es 1and 2, eache suppo , ela edness, and o e agg ession we e s able o e ime wi hin he same academic cou se (T0 and T1) and ac oss he beginning o he nex academic cou se (T2). Wi hin T0, in boys and gi ls, eache suppo and ela edness we e posi i ely associa ed, and o e agg ession was nega i ely ela ed o eache suppo and ela edness. In addi ion, ela edness was posi i ely ela ed o eache suppo and nega i ely o o e agg ession a T1 only in boys and a T2 only in gi ls. Abo e and beyond he s abili y pa hs and wi hin he ime associa ions, c oss- ime associa ions we e ound. Rega ding associa ions be ween ela edness and eache suppo , ela edness nega i ely p edic ed eache suppo om T1 o T2 in gi ls. In boys, ela edness nega i ely p edic ed eache suppo om T0 o T1 in boys, which, in u n, posi i ely p edic ed ela edness a T2. Wi h ega d o he associa ions wi h o e agg ession in gi ls, eache suppo nega i ely p edic ed o e agg ession om T0 o T1, bu his associa ion was posi i e om T1 o T2. Mo eo e , om T0 o T1, ela edness nega i ely p edic ed o e agg ession, which, in u n, In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 16 o 19 agg ession in e ms o low social p e e ence o pee ejec ion [ 36 ]. Mo eo e , conside ing some s udies ha ha e epo ed social bene i s (popula i y) o physical agg ession [ 14 ] and ela ional agg ession [ 49 ], ou esul s go a s ep u he by sugges ing ha hese alleged bene i s could be mo e appa en han eal because, subjec i ely, agg essi e adolescen s show a low le el o ela edness wi h classma es. O e all, ou esul s show wo se social consequences o o e and ela ional agg ession o gi ls han o boys (all obse ed indi ec e ec s we e highe in gi ls han in boys). In sum, hese esul s p o ide a deepe analysis o he social consequences o school agg ession om he adolescen ’s poin o iew. 4.4. Limi a ions and Fu u e Di ec ions Some limi a ions o he s udy should be men ioned. Fi s ly, we only ga he ed in o ma- ion ia anonymous ques ionnai es; hus, complemen ing he s udy wi h o he in o man s ( eache and pee epo s) and o he ins umen s (na u alis obse a ion) could lead o a b oade and mo e comp ehensi e app oach o he opic, especially o he analysis o he po en ial ein o cemen o agg essi e beha io h ough main ained eache suppo . Secondly, as explained abo e, in Spanish seconda y schools, passing om one cou se o he nex in ol es changing eache s, whe eas class oom composi ion mos ly emains in ac . We belie e ha his ac could in la e he in luence o ela edness wi h classma es, as compa ed o eache suppo , and limi he gene abili y o he esul s o schools wi h less changing o home oom eache s o less s able class oom composi ion om cou se o cou se. Thi d, p e ious s udies ha e ound a dec ease in agg essi e beha io owa d pee s as adolescence p og esses, especially in o e agg ession [ 69 , 70 ]. Fu u e esea ch should con as hese ansac ional links aking in o accoun age g oups and including la e adolescence (17–20 yea s old). 5. Conclusions Despi e hese and o he possible limi a ions, we highligh he con ibu ion o hese esul s o he ield o school agg ession. Ou esul s p o ide a be e unde s anding o p o iles o s uden s who may be a isk o ela ional and o e agg ession a school ( hose adolescen s who s a he cou se wi h low le els o ela edness and pe cei ed eache suppo ) bu also a be e unde s anding o he consequences o school agg ession a a social le el (poo ela ionships wi h classma es and eache s), wi h speci ic di e en ial conside a ions o gi ls and boys. 6. Implica ions o P ac ice We obse e ha in he absence o an in e en ion, agg ession does no dec ease spon aneously. Indeed, in ou esul s, boys’ and gi ls’ means in o e and ela ional agg ession end o inc ease o e he ime. The e o e, ou esul s highligh he ele ance o ea ly in e en ions (a he beginning o a cou se) in class ooms wi h he p esence o agg essi e beha io s owa d pee s a a minimum o wo le els. Fi s , by inc easing eache suppo pe cei ed by s uden s a he beginning o he cou se, we could dec ease o e (especially in gi ls) and ela ional agg ession (especially in boys) in he medium and long e m. I would be necessa y o ollow up adolescen s who do no educe hei agg essi e beha io despi e his ea ly in e en ion. In hose cases, i would be necessa y o change in e en ion objec i es because, in line wi h ou esul s, i could be possible ha he main enance o high le els o eache a en ion and suppo o e he cou se could be ein o cing agg ession. In e en ions ocused on eache s would ha e o include a gende pe spec i e because we obse ed ha p o ec i e and isk e ec s o eache suppo occu only in gende -a ypical o ms o agg ession ha may be mo e unexpec ed o adul s. Howe e , bo h o ms o agg ession a e exhibi ed bo h by boys and gi ls (wi h highe le els in boys) and need o be de ec ed by eache s o e icien beha io al managemen . Second, a a class oom g oup le el, in e en ions inc easing he sa is ac ion o he ela edness wi h classma es a he beginning o he cou se could dec ease ela ional agg es- In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2021,18, 436 17 o 19 sion o e he medium and long e m wi h bene i s o u u e ela edness, especially in gi ls. I is impo an o no e ha a his poin , pa allel in e en ions ocused on eache s will be necessa y o p e en he possible lack o in ol emen o eache s wi h gi ls who exhibi a good ela edness du ing a cou se o wi h boys who show ela ional agg ession and poo ela edness du ing he p e ious cou se. In sho , his s udy p o ides e idence a guing ha an ea ly in e en ion ocused on de eloping ha mony and good ela ionships be ween s uden s and eache s a he beginning o he cou se will be a bene i in he ace o he de elopmen o agg ession owa d pee s and, he e o e, o he psychological well-being and academic adjus men o adolescen s. Au ho Con ibu ions: T.I.J. and J.L. concei ed and designed he esea ch. All au ho s pe o med he esea ch. S.V.-S., A.S.L., E.E. and T.I.J. collec ed da a, and J.L. and J.M.-A. analysed he da a. T.I.J. p epa ed he d a manusc ip and all au ho s ead and app o ed he inal manusc ip . All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This esea ch was suppo ed by g an s om he Vice-Chancello o Scien i ic Policy o he Uni e si y o Za agoza and “Ob a Social Ibe caja” (g an numbe JIUZ-2017-SOC-04). Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : The s udy was conduc ed acco ding o he guidelines o he Decla a ion o Helsinki, and he Vice-Chancello o Scien i ic Policy o he Uni e si y o Za agoza ( i le o he s udy: Sa is ac ion o basic psychological needs, emo ional egula ion and agg ession owa ds pee s in adolescence, wi h p o ocol numbe JIUZ-2017-SOC-04). In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy. Con lic s o In e es : This a icle is based on o iginal esea ch and has no , and will no , be submi ed o any o he jou nal o publica ion. All he au ho s con i m ha he con en s o he manusc ip ollow all equi ed e hical no ms applying o scien i ic publica ions, and do no ha e any con lic s o in e es ha migh in luence he esea ch. In addi ion, all he au ho s con ibu ed signi ican ly o he manusc ip and ga e hei consen o appea in i . Re e ences 1. Roese , R.W.; Eccles, J.S.; Same o , A.J. 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