Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements: Translation and ideology

HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements: Translation and ideology Estereotipos de género en los anuncios comerciales de Jordania: Traducción e ideología KHETAM SHRAIDEH Department of English Language and Literature. Al-Balqa Applied University. Salt, Jordan 19117. Dirección de correo electrónico: [email protected] ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9087-5895 LUBNA A. ABDUL-HADI Department of Translation. Mutah University. Mutah, Al-Karak, Jordan 61710. Dirección de correo electrónico: [email protected] ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9198-5800 Recibido/Received: 24/1/2024. Aceptado/Accepted: 15/5/2024. Cómo citar / How to cite: Shraideh, Khetam and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi, «Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements: Translation and ideology», Hermēneus. Revista de Traducción e Interpretación, 26 (2024): pp. 455-490. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24197/her.26.2024.455-490 Artículo de acceso abierto distribuido bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 Internacional (CC-BY 4.0). / Open access article under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0). Abstract: In Jordanian society, advertisements play a significant role in shaping the perception of women around the world. This study examines the depiction of women in commercial advertisements to expose embedded misogyny in advertising campaigns circulated in Jordan. Street and social media Arabic advertisements from 2014 to 2022 were collected and shared with twenty-two novice and experienced translators in Jordan via a digital survey. The study assesses how translators’ choices are influenced by the source text’s ideology. Analysis shows translators, regardless of experience, favor gender-neutral translations, ensuring the subversion of stereotypes. It emphasizes that adhering to literal translation risks endorsing offensive stereotypes and sexism. This highlights the importance of adopting a functional approach to translation to counteract stereotypical portrayals of women in advertising. Keywords: Advertising translation; ideology; street advertising; social media advertising; gender stereotypes. 456 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X Resumen: En la sociedad jordana, la publicidad desempeña un papel clave en la formación de la percepción de la mujer en el mundo. Este estudio examina la representación de la mujer en los anuncios comerciales para exponer la misoginia arraigada en las campañas publicitarias que circulan en Jordania. Se recopilaron anuncios árabes en la calle y en las redes sociales de 2014 a 2022 y se compartieron con veintidós traductores noveles y experimentados de Jordania a través de una encuesta digital. El estudio evalúa cómo la ideología del texto de origen influye en las decisiones de los traductores al inglés. El análisis muestra que los traductores, independientemente de su experiencia, favorecen las traducciones neutras desde el punto de vista del género, lo que garantiza la subversión de los estereotipos. Destaca que adherirse a la traducción literal entraña el riesgo de respaldar estereotipos ofensivos y sexismo. Esto pone de relieve la importancia de adoptar un enfoque funcional de la traducción para contrarrestar las representaciones estereotipadas de la mujer en la publicidad. Palabras clave: Traducción publicitaria; ideología; publicidad callejera; publicidad en las redes sociales; estereotipos de género. Summary: Introduction; 1. Significance of the study; 2. Translation of ideology in advertising; 3. Methodology; 4. Survey results; 5. Discussion, 5.1. Exploring sexism in Jordanian street advertising, 5.1.1. Advertisement (1) promoted by Toyota Motor Corporation, 5.1.2. Advertisement (2) promoted by ‘Jeeny’ Transportation Company, 5.1.3. Advertising (3) promoted by Osama Rice; 5.1.4. Advertisement (4) promoted by the Social Security Corporation (SSC), 5.1.5. Advertisement (5) promoted by a recycling center, 5.2. Sexism in Jordanian social media advertising, 5.2.1. Advertisement (6) promoted by Mahmoudia Motors, 5.2.2. Advertisement (7) promoted by Burgerizz restaurant; Conclusion; References. Sumario: Introducción; 1. Objetivos del estudio; 2. Traducción e ideología en publicidad; 3. Metodología, 4. Resultados de la búsqueda; 5. Análisis, 5.1. Exploración del sexismo en la publicidad callejera de Jordania, 5.1.1. Publicidad (1) promovida por Toyota Motor Corporation, 5.1.2. Publicidad (2) promovida por ‘Jeeny’ Transportation Company, 5.1.3. Publicidad (3) promovida por Osama Rice; 5.1.4. Publicidad (4) promovida por Social Security Corporation (SSC), 5.1.5. Publicidad (5) promovida por una planta de reciclaje, 5.2. Sexismo en la publicidad de redes sociales en jordanas, 5.2.1. Publicidad (6) promovida por Mahmoudia Motors, 5.2.2. Publicidad (7) promovida por el restaurante Burgerizz; Conclusión; Referencias bibliográficas. INTRODUCTION Beyond their function of promoting products and services, advertisements serve as mirrors reflecting current cultural trends and societal structures; they embody ideologies. Williamson (2010) claims that advertising discourse plays a pivotal role in shaping identities. She emphasizes that advertising functions as ideological brainwashing and mirrors everyday reality. In their annual report (2022), the ‘Economic and Social Council of Jordan and the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women’ emphasizes the impact of the media on perpetuating stereotypical images of women. Participants in the Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 457 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X study assert that media outlets inadequately contribute to promoting gender equality or addressing women’s issues. Some responses in their study go further, suggesting that commercial advertisements exploit and commodify women’s bodies, asserting that the media does not do justice to women. Conversely, other participants advocate for a positive role for the media in empowering women through the promotion of series, lectures, seminars, and comprehensive coverage across various media channels. These practices, they suggest, would contribute to reshaping the status of women in social life and redistributing roles between women and men to achieve social equity. Throughout history, the study of women in the media has been inherently connected to the feminist movement, which promotes genuine representations of gender roles and the female body. Katharina Lindner (2004) conducts a thorough study “Images of Women in General Interest and Fashion Magazine Advertisements from 1955 to 2002” that analyzes 1,374 print magazine advertisements. Lindner’s research reveals that 78% of those advertisements feature stereotypical depictions of women, portraying them as mentally absent and vulnerable. Despite societal progress since the Women’s Movement, these stereotypes persist, indicating a failure in media policies to support women’s advancement. Lindner (2004) argues that this perpetuation of stereotypes reinforces women’s dependence on men rather than promoting empowerment, contributing to violence against women and hindering their progress in society. Concurrently, Kordrostamia and Laczniak (2021) employ cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling to analyze a plethora of current print advertisements. Their findings show the prevalence of stereotypical portrayals, depicting women as incompetent and vulnerable, emphasizing traditional roles as wives, mothers, lovers, and homemakers. Despite some progress in women claiming top positions as CEOs and politicians, there remains a stark disparity in occupational roles between men and women. In sum, the portrayal of women in the media fails to depict their struggle to break through the glass ceiling and assert their rights. Instead, advertisements perpetuate stereotypes, presenting women as vulnerable and reliant on male figures, and undermining their sense of empowerment. These findings underscore the influence of women’s portrayal in advertisements on societal perceptions of gender roles. Previous studies primarily focused on overt forms of advertising where the message is explicit and obvious. However, the study conducted by Reichl et al. (2018) 458 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X explores latent and nonobvious forms of sexism in print advertisements and their impact on gender perception, specifically examining whether the sexist advertisements contribute to increased sexual assault and abuse towards women. Their findings indicate that latent sexual content in advertisements not only fosters acceptance of sexual assault but also leads to a more insidious and harmful form of sexism. In alignment with these perspectives, our study focuses on latent sexism, aiming to uncover its nuanced manifestations in advertising and its potential implications for societal perceptions and behaviors related to gender. While numerous studies have examined women’s portrayal in commercial advertisements, a major gap exists in the exploration of digital advertisements, with most research focusing on print advertisements. In the area of digital advertisements, scholarship often centers on the sexual depiction of women. Farrell (1995) delves into the nuanced relationship between the feminist movement and commercial media. Despite evident progress, she notes that the media still frames women’s issues and the feminist movement in a manner that accommodates antifeminist viewpoints. She further emphasizes the vital role of media in shaping the public’s understanding of feminism, which means that it can serve as a catalyst for renewed activism. Gerbner et al. (2002) explore the profound impact of television on audience conceptions and actions that are related to gender, minority, and age-role stereotypes. Their research reveals that exposure to gender stereotypes in advertising can significantly influence attitudes toward these stereotypes. Notably, individuals exposed to advertisements depicting women in stereotypical roles exhibited notably more negative attitudes, particularly regarding women’s management skills, compared to those exposed to advertisements portraying women in professional roles that required such skills. In the realm of advertising translation, the process is far from surfacelevel simplicity; instead, it proves to be complex and labor-intensive. This complexity is amplified by the necessity to navigate the social norms inherent in advertising. Culture, a paramount factor in persuasive advertisements, exerts a profound influence on societies, shaping them and influencing their “shared values” (Abokhoza et al., 2019). Given its persuasive power, advertising molds cultural values and influences lifestyles by employing captivating visuals and persuasive language aimed at boosting sales. In addition, advertising assumes a Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 459 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X significant role in shaping our perceptions of gender roles. For advertisements to authentically mirror our communities and effectively promote services and products, it becomes imperative that they advocate for a non-stereotyped portrayal of women in the media. In her paper “The Translation of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising,” Nardi (2011) explores how gendered body representations and gender metaphors are translated as persuasive tools. She highlights the role of translators as “social agents” in discussing gender-related themes in advertising (p. 117). Translation entails a profound responsibility toward the community, it transcends the mere transference of words from one language to another. When translating influential texts such as media and commercial materials, which have a remarkable impact on a wide range of audiences, it becomes imperative for translators to assume active roles. As Katan (1999) highlights, the translator serves as a ‘cultural mediator,’ playing an active role within the community. Through this involvement, the translator’s agency extends to contributing to social change. If translation is a form of interpretation, then the translator’s agency in opting for functional approaches in translation would reflect their rationale for a communicative action that subverts stereotypes. While all the advertisements under study have been criticized on social media for perpetuating stereotypes, the study aims to delve into the survey participants’ translations to ascertain whether they uphold the ideology of the source text (ST) or diverge from it. When translation is understood as a form of interpretation, the translation purpose determines the translator’s choices (Nord, 2006). Nord believes that “almost any decision in translation is consciously or unconsciously guided by ideological criteria” (2003, p. 111). Therefore, it may be wise to take a prospective view of translation as being an activity geared toward a communicative aim or purpose. Every translation is intended to achieve a particular communicative purpose vis-à-vis the target audience, and if we analyze who the target audience will be and what they may need and expect, we might be better able to deliver a product that suits their needs and expectations. The problem with a literal translation is that it would reinforce existing misogynist images. Our research endeavors to make a significant contribution to gender portrayal in the media sphere. We aim to bring attention to the misogynistic and sexist commercial (street and social media) advertisements prevalent in Jordan and advocate for change through translation. 460 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X 1. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY While the examination of female stereotypes in advertising has received a lot of attention in academia, our current research is designed to make a substantial contribution to the existing body of knowledge. Broadly surveying earlier studies (Courtney and Whipple, 1983; Lysonski, 1985; Kilbourne, 1999; Cortese, 1999; and Lazar, 2006), it becomes apparent that advertising often promotes sexist and distorted body image ideals. The literature extensively discusses the sexual depiction of women in the marketing industry. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has ever utilized Skopos Theory (Vermeer, 1989) and Ideology to analyze street and social media Arabic advertisements and their English translations. This represents a remarkable gap in the existing research and highlights a compelling need for exploration in this area. Our research aims to provide a thorough analysis of the current state of the misuse of women’s images for marketing purposes and the role of translation in challenging such distorted images. The insights gained from this study will not only benefit researchers in academia but also assist company owners in shaping their future marketing strategies. Previous studies have thoroughly analyzed women’s depiction in print advertisements, delving into the roles they play in the community, their behaviors, activities, and how they are portrayed over time. Existing literature (Pollay, 1986; and Plakoyiannaki and Zotos, 2009) indicates a tendency in advertising to present women in clichéd, traditional, and decorative roles that diminish their abilities and potential. Courtney and Lockeretz (1971) further assert that advertising emphasizes the woman’s place in the kitchen, her dependence on a man, and her perceived inability to make significant decisions. A longitudinal study by Belkaoui and Belkaoui (1976) spanning from 1958 to 1970 and 1972 reveals a predominant portrayal of women in passive and submissive roles. Our current research contributes to the existing body of work on women’s portrayal in the marketing industry. However, it diverges by focusing on the ideological perception of covert sexism in street and social media advertising through the lens of translation. The research, specifically, addresses the following: Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 461 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X 1. How have gender-biased advertisements been received on social media? 2. How does translation reinforce or challenge women’s stereotypical representation in advertisements in Jordan? 3. Have there been any adaptations to manage the ideology of the ST? 2. TRANSLATION OF IDEOLOGY IN ADVERTISING The exploration of ideology in translation has become a predominant focus in research. Scholars such as Bassnett and Lefevere (1990) explore the concept of translation as a type of rewriting, examining ideology in literature and its correlation with the choices made by a translator. Tymoczko (2003) claims that “[s]ome of the most searching and revealing discussions of translation in the last decade have focused on questions of ideology…there has been a productive, ongoing academic dialogue about various facets of the issue, extending for years now, with contributions from people on all parts of the globe” (p. 181). Indeed, large-scale research has been conducted on the interplay between ideology and translation; however, little attention has been given to the nuanced manner in which ideologies are embedded in the ST. Hatim and Mason (1997) draw a crucial distinction between the translation of ideology and the ideology of translation. The former involves the translator managing the existing ideology within the ST while the latter analyzes the impact of the translator’s ideology on translation. They highlight the concept of ideology and explore strategies for navigating the author’s ideological framework. The ideology in advertising language may stem from collective consciousness and assumptions about various societal values related to religion, politics, race, or gender. Therefore, translating advertisements demands a delicate balance, preserving both the intent and the functional aspects of the ST. Advertisements play a persuasive role, and their translation must align with the function or “Skopos” of the text (Vermeer, 1989). The translator’s approach hinges on the Skopos. As the goal is to persuade consumers to purchase a product, the translator must recreate the advertisement to influence and persuade the target customer within a 462 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X culturally specific context. In this area, the translator is not merely a faithful mediator between two texts; instead, navigating the ideology embedded in the text becomes a formidable challenge. In this context, the significance of the ST diminishes drastically when compared to other genres of text. In practical terms, achieving functional equivalence in advertising translation often involves adapting the text by omitting, adding, explaining, or replacing linguistic terms and visual elements. Similarly, Bouziane (2016) explores the application of Skopos theory in translating English online advertisements into Arabic. She asserts that Skopos theory serves in “localizing adverts and adjusting them according to local norms” (p. 145) to maintain communication between advertisers and customers. Along the same lines, Zhu (2016) focuses on the indispensability of advertising in the market economy for conveying information to the public. He argues against a strict adherence to fidelity, stating that traditional methods alone no longer serve advertising well. Given that advertising language should be readable, catchy, clear, and convincing, translating advertisements requires content to maintain the marketing function of the ST in diverse markets. This prompts a discussion on the utilization of transcreation or foreign-language copywriting in marketing. In her examination of ideology of the text and its impact on transcreating English advertisements into Arabic, Al-Omar (2020) deliberately adopts the term ‘transcreation’ over ‘translation.’ She highlights that this choice is not merely semantic; rather, it highlights the nuanced nature of advertising translation, which demands both adaptation and creativity to align with the expectations of the target consumers. Using ‘transcreation’ goes beyond a mere linguistic shift; it embodies the translator’s visibility and agency. The translator, in the realm of transcreation, makes essential adjustments to both linguistic and visual elements, addressing aspects that could challenge the prevailing ideology of the ST or, conversely, reinforce it. 3. METHODOLOGY To comprehensively understand the state of gender equality in Jordanian media, a qualitative research method is used. This involves a detailed analysis of women’s misrepresentation in various commercial Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 463 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X street and social media advertisements. An online survey was circulated to gauge how translators perceive and handle such sexist content. After analyzing participants’ feedback on sexist language in Arabic advertising, we proceed to analyze the translation approaches employed in the English version. The analysis aims to determine whether translators contribute to perpetuating stereotypical gender roles or adopt a creative, gender-neutral rendering of Arabic advertisements. The broader discussion encompasses gender perspectives in social, economic, political, and cultural dimensions, addressing issues like gender-based violence, stereotypical role portrayals, women’s limited political participation, and the impact of customs, traditions, and social norms. This study quantifies gender-based discrimination embedded in social norms, particularly evident in sexist advertisements across various social media platforms. This study carries out a longitudinal analysis to navigate the evolving depiction of women in street and social media advertisements. Focusing on Jordanian women’s portrayal in commercial advertisements posted on social media, the study utilizes iconographic material to delve into both visual and linguistic components. This paper stands as a cornerstone for the development community and media policymakers, providing profound insights to rectify the pervasive misrepresentation of women on online platforms. 4. SURVEY RESULTS The survey comprises three primary segments: a demographic section, inquiries pertaining to the ST (the advertisements), and questions addressing the target text (the translations). The initial segment of the survey findings is elucidated through graphical representations, facilitating a seamless comprehension of the data while emphasizing comparisons between the two streams within each graph. Figure 1 presents the age distribution of the participants, revealing a noteworthy concentration in the 22-30 age group, signifying the predominant demographic. Conversely, individuals aged 46 years or older constitute the least represented category within the surveyed population. 470 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X analysis was undertaken to unveil the nuanced dimensions of these advertisements and assess their reception within society. Furthermore, these advertisements were examined through the lens of translation, highlighting the complexity of conveying their underlying ideologies. This holistic approach provides a profound understanding of the multifaceted consequences of these advertisements, elucidating how they shape and reflect societal norms and values. Moving to reception, the translators’ reception aligns with the general public’s perspective circulating on social media platforms, except for the first advertisement, where most translators did not see it as sexist. This disparity may be attributed to the difference in how individuals receive advertisements on street billboards and on social media compared to those in a survey. On billboards and social media, the audience’s focus is primarily on the visual elements, and it is evident that the visual aspect of the first advertisement conveys stereotypes. However, in the survey, the design may influence readers to pay more attention to the linguistic components rather than to the visuals. In this specific advertisement, bias in the linguistic content is not as prominent as in the visuals due to the disparity in gender pronouns between Arabic and English. Visuals are processed more quickly by the general audience, contributing to their perception of bias. A noteworthy issue emerges regarding the gender of the translator. Most female participants tend to opt for functional translation, whereas a significant number of male participants lean towards literal translation. This indicates that female translators demonstrate a heightened awareness of biases in advertisements and frequently exercise their agency to confront stereotypes through making some modifications to the text. 5.1. Exploring sexism in Jordanian street advertising The first set of advertisements is from the domain of street advertising, an approach that harnesses outdoor promotional strategies in public spaces. Street advertising takes on diverse forms, including billboards, posters, street art installations, and transit advertising. Each of these mediums serves as a canvas for various companies to disseminate their messages and promote their products or services. Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 471 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X 5.1.1. Advertisement (1) promoted by Toyota Motor Corporation The first advertisement is made of three billboards created by Toyota Motor Corporation which appeared on the streets of the capital Amman during Valentine’s Day in February 2020. The visual content remained consistent across the three billboards, featuring a red rose in the background. However, the distinction was in the linguistic content presented in Arabic: Figure 6 (a) “Do you not like her? #changeher;” Figure 6 (b) “Do you feel there is one more beautiful than her? #changeher;” and Figure 6 (c) “Is she costing you a lot of money? #changeher.” (a) (b) (c) Figure 6. Three billboards promoted by Toyota Motor Corporation in 2020 The billboards caused an uproar within the Jordanian public which led the company to issue a statement clarifying that the advertisement was about Toyota cars and not women. The three advertisements in Figure (6) were replaced with a new billboard as illustrated in Figure (7), stating “It’s a car! No need to argue over it. #changeit.” Despite the company’s clarification, the advertisement with its ‘double meaning’ still objectifies and commodifies women. Khader, president of the “Global Institute Executive”, states: “We reject the private sector’s attempts to depict women as a commodity that should be exchanged or traded in return for profit.”1 1 The Jordan Times article ‘‘Sexist” car advertisement draws ire’: retrieved on 8/7/2023 from https://jordantimes.com /news/local/sexist-car-advertisement-draws-ire 472 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X Nims, the Secretary General of the Jordanian National Commission for Women (JNCW), also criticizes the advertisement and notes that it is “not only humiliating women but also men and the marriage relationship between them by showing that men can change their wives whenever they are bored with them.” Numerous English and Arabic posts on X (formerly known as Twitter) criticized the advertisement, decrying its overtly sexist and inappropriate portrayal of women. Zabalawi, a UN Woman, expressed her disapproval on February 18, 2020, in both English and Arabic, denouncing the campaign and its norms.2 The translators in our study perceive billboards differently than the general public on social media. While most of the translators view them as innovative and acceptable, as illustrated in Table 2, they raise questions about whether the billboards contain covert sexism, masked by the commercial nature designed to evoke emotional responses through humor. It is worth noting that even though the billboards were not perceived as gender-biased, a significant portion of the translators went for the gender-neutral (functional) translation strategy for their translations of the three billboards: 1. ‘Eyes drawn elsewhere? #ChangeIt’ (billboard 1(a)); 2. ‘Your wallet feeling the pinch? #ChangeIt’ (billboard 1(b)); 3. and ‘Spotlights elsewhere? Time for a switch-up! #ChangeIt’ (billboard 1(c)). In contrast, only a minority opted for a gender-biased (literal) translation; ‘She no longer catches your eyes? #TimeForAChange’ (billboard 1(a)), ‘Is she high-maintenance? #TimeForAChange’ (billboard 1(b)), ‘Not finding her the prettiest? #TimeForAChange’ (billboard 1(c)). 2 Zabalawi posted on February 18, “A disrespectful campaign deserves a disrespectful comeback! #ﺎھﺮﯿﻏ #ToyotaMotorCorp #shame” with three new linguistic contents in Arabic for each billboard using the masculine form. She also expressed her disapproval in a follow-up post on X, “I think you need to learn business ethics before #marketing! Especially for a well-known, international brand like #Toyota #ToyotaMotorCorp such a disrespectful, ugly campaign. Bad marketing is NOT ALWAYS good marketing, especially when it’s unethical #shame #ﺎھﺮﯿﻏ.” Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 473 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X Alternative translations that favored the functional approach for the billboards also came into play. Figure 7. A fourth billboard created by Toyota Motor Corporation in response to the negative attitude of the Jordanian public toward the three billboards in Figure 6 The ideology of the text in advertisement (1) embodies the ‘ideology of substitution’ or the ‘ideology’ of replacement’. Within this framework, women are objectified by drawing comparisons to inanimate objects, suggesting that they can be easily replaced by another entity. The majority of the participants did not maintain the ideology of the ST and conveyed the Arabic linguistic content of the billboards in a gender-neutral translation. The rationale of their approach to the translation might be that the pronoun ‘her’ in the three advertisements was unclear as at first instance, it was understood to refer to ‘women’, creating a challenge in translation. Unlike English, Arabic is a gendered language, and a ‘car’ in Arabic takes the feminine form. In Arabic, the attached pronoun “ﺎھ” functions as both an object and a feminine pronoun. In English, we use distinct pronouns for these functions. Consequently, the ideology and the sexist language in the ST may not be overt, unlike the explicit nature of the suggested English translation. This distinction could explain why translators lean towards an alternative translation and opt for a genderneutral approach. This analogy between women and cars has also arisen on numerous occasions, as exemplified by a sticker found on the rear window of a taxi in Amman shown in Figure 8. It stated, “ ﻻو . . . ﻂﺴﺒﻧاو ﻦﯾﺰﻨﺑ ﺎﮭﯿﻠﻋ فﺮﺻا ﻂﻠﺠﻧاو جﺎﯿﻜﻣ ﺎﮭﯿﻠﻋ فﺮﺻا” [literal translation: Spend money for fuel and have 474 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X fun... instead of spending on her makeup and then having a stroke]. This comparison, which draws parallels between women and automobiles, has been recurrent, and the idea of substitution or replacement has been embraced, as evident in the Toyota billboards featuring the hashtag #ChangeIt. Figure 8. Sticker on the rear window of a taxi spotted in Amman in 2022 5.1.2. Advertisement (2) promoted by ‘Jeeny’ Transportation Company Figure 9. Billboard promoted by ‘Jeeny’ Transportation Company Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 475 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X Another billboard advertisement was created by ‘Jeeny,’ formerly known as Easy Taxi, a Middle Eastern transportation company headquartered in Riyadh, KSA, which was launched in 2014. This advertisement faced criticism for misusing gender stereotypes to promote their service in Amman in 2017 and featured a two-part message on how to hail a ride. In the first message, they suggested “Charm them with your beauty” with an ‘X’ sign underneath, a playful way to depict how one can hail a yellow taxi in Jordan. In the second image, the company encouraged viewers to use the application with the message “Take ‘Easy’” and a checkmark. The advertisement depicted a man showing his hairy legs to hail a ride, but the man’s face is not visible. This portrayal resembled scenes from movies where women entice taxi drivers to stop by showing some leg. One incident is in ‘Sex in the City 2’ where Carrie Bradshaw hails a taxi in Abu Dhabi by revealing part of her leg while wearing an abaya (a long dark-colored loose cloak worn by Muslim women). The Jordan Times, a Jordanian magazine, published an article on July 12, 2017, discussing the controversy among taxi drivers who found the advertisement “insulting’ and “inappropriate.”3 Following the backlash, the ridesharing company issued an apology and removed the ad. In contrast to the first Toyota advertisement that we discussed earlier, most of the participants in the survey were able to detect the underlying sexism and considered the 3rd advertisement to be gender biased. When it came to translating the message, half of the participants favored a genderneutral (functional) approach, as exemplified by the translation “Need a Lift? Yell ‘Taxi!’ or ‘Easy’ it!” Some opt for a gender-biased (literal) translation strategy, characterized by translations such as “Flagging a Ride, ‘Flaunt Your Hairy Legs’ or ‘Go Easy’.” Notably, some participants suggested alternative functional translations. It is important to note that the individual featured in the billboard for this specific advertisement appeared to be male, which suggests that visual irony was employed to make the advertisement look innovative and successful, as perceived by most participants (as shown in the survey results). However, this does not make it acceptable or inoffensive. Most participants agreed that it remains gender-biased and inappropriate. In both the visual and linguistic dimensions of our analysis, most survey participants propose a change, 3 The Jordan Times article ‘Taxi drivers protest ‘insulting’ Easy Taxi advertisement’ (2017) retrieved on 8/7/2023 from https://www.jordantimes.com/news/local/taxi-drivers- protest-insulting%E2%80%99-easy-taxi-advertisement 476 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X deeming the current visual representation inappropriate and similarly opting for a gender-neutral translation (linguistic dimension). 5.1.3. Advertisement (3) promoted by Osama Rice Figure 10. Poster on the back of a public bus promoted by Osama Rice The third advertisement is transit advertising (advertisements on buses, taxis, or trams) promoted by Ankara Resources Trading Company in Jordan which sells a basmati rice brand called ‘Osama Rice’. The advertisement was released in March 2022 as a poster on public buses in the capital Amman and was immediately criticized by the Jordanian public on social media. The message of the advertisement “We promise you won’t get divorced with Osama Rice” targets wives, arguing that they will guarantee safety in marriage if they use Osama basmati rice. Such a message is sexist as safety in marriage should not be determined by the quality or type of rice, nor by cooking. Jordanians reacted negatively and protests rose against the misogyny in the displayed advertisement. Organizations such as the Feminist Movement in Jordan condemned the advertisement and encouraged boycotting the company on X.4 After 4 On X, it posted “The Jordanian creativity in marketing!! Every time, they come up with an advertisement on juice, shawarma, a car, etc., always in the same way. We hope you reach out to them and teach them appropriate marketing methods. Do so without insults Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 477 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X the backlash and many posts condemning the advertisement on social media platforms and calling out the double meaning of masculine promotion in the advertisement as offensive to women and the foundations of family, the company decided to remove it from billboards and public buses. Throughout history, we have witnessed a multitude of advertisements that have confined women to the kitchen and culinary duties. This deeply ingrained ideology continues to contribute to the perpetuation of stereotypical gender roles, thereby fortifying a patriarchal society. Remarkably, most of the study’s participants are able to recognize such sexism and comment that the advertisement is inappropriate and unsuitable for the target language (TL) audience.5 Even though the participants are able to recognize the embedded ideology of the advertisement, the majority has chosen a gender-biased (literal) translation, “Osama Rice: Your Recipe for a Divorce-Free Life, Dear Wife!” and less than half opt for the gender-neutral (functional) approach “Osama Rice: One Grain, Endless Love!” Why do translators choose a gender-biased translation? Is it an intentional decision to perpetuate the ideology of the ST? Or is the ideology of the ST overlooked as the sexist language is implicit? The sexist approach in advertising where a connection to women is seen as enhancing sales should be discontinued. Figure 11 presents a similar advertisement captured recently in October 2023 in Al-Karak City, Jordan. This billboard, promoted by Tiger Rice, mirrors a similar theme to the advertisement promoted by Osama Rice. It portrays half of a woman’s face and says: my smile is incomplete without Tiger Rice. This billboard also perpetuates gender stereotypes that confine women to traditional cooking roles. It remains imperative to challenge and confront the harmful narratives that persist in Jordanian marketing. so that they don’t complain about you. We have aged talking about the effect of gender jokes in normalizing violence against women. #Boycott_Osama_Rice.” 5 One comment said, “the fact that they associate something as simple as cooking with something as important as a successful marriage is extremely embarrassing.” Another participant added, “this advertisement promotes a culture of hostility and disrespect towards women.” 478 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X Figure 11. Billboard promoted by Tiger Rice spotted in Al-Karak City, Jordan 5.1.4. Advertisement (4) promoted by the Social Security Corporation (SSC) Figure 12. Billboard promoted by the SSC Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 479 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X The fourth advertisement, sponsored by the SSC in 2006, conveys a message that gravely undermines the status of women. It does so by likening a woman to a mere commodity, one that can be guaranteed and, rather shockingly, increases her prospects of marriage through signing up for Social Security retirement benefits. The advertisement says, “He took me guaranteed.” The Corporation’s goal is to boost the enrollment of participants; however, their marketing strategy backfired. The advertisement faced swift and widespread condemnation shortly after its release. Musa Al-Subaihi, the former spokesperson for the SSC, issued a statement in 2014 to address this controversy. He informed the media that the advertisement had been taken down from billboards in 2006, presumably in response to the initial backlash.6 Nevertheless, in 2014, new images of the advertisement resurfaced on social media platforms, reigniting the public’s condemnation of the message it conveyed. This unexpected revival of the controversy served as a stark reminder of the advertisement’s offensive and sexist nature. Most of the participants in the survey demonstrated the ability to detect the underlying sexism in the advertisement and categorize it as gender biased. The survey participants’ perspective aligns with the public’s reception, with none finding it acceptable. The majority push for changing the visual, deeming it inappropriate and offensive. Shifting from the visual to the linguistic content, a notable majority of participants lean towards a gender-neutral (functional) approach, exemplified by the suggested translation: “Your Path to Financial Security: Join the Benefits Club! - Social Security Corporation.” Meanwhile, a few favored a gender-biased (literal) translation strategy, as illustrated by the translation: “He Played his Cards Well. Social, Secured, and Enrolled, All in One Wife!” The question arises: Why do companies consistently portray women in advertisements that are not specifically targeting them? This advertisement was crafted by the SSC for Jordanian audiences, so it addressed both men and women. The rationale behind using a picture of a bride could be to manipulate the audience and catch attention by using a woman’s image. 6 Al Ra’i Newspaper article (Arabic) published in September 2014, retrieved on 6/8/2023 from https://rb.gy/b2y7sh. 486 Khetam Shraideh and Lubna A. Abdul-Hadi HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X (a) (b) (c) Figure 17. Three Facebook posts illustrating examples of the woman-food analogy Many of these analogies are circulated on social media platforms. Whether comparing covered women to wrapped pieces of candy, wrapped frozen chicken, or even concealed letters, screen protectors, or mobile phone cases, these analogies do more harm in our societies. They are intended to encourage women to cover their heads with the Islamic headcovering, however, the analogies are inappropriate. They objectify women and perpetuate the notion of male superiority while degrading both covered and uncovered women. The choice of wearing a hijab should not be linked to marketing. CONCLUSION This study delves into the portrayal of women in Jordanian advertisements, elucidating how these depictions perpetuate and reinforce gender stereotypes. An examination of various gender-biased advertisements reveals a prevalent over-representation of women as vulnerable, accommodating, and subordinate figures, thereby reinforcing traditional gender roles. The persuasive role of advertisements necessitates catering to all consumers, including women, with ample alternatives available to promote products in today’s market. The advertisements under study consistently depict women in traditional roles as housewives rather than professionals, contributing to a narrative that suppresses women. This research delves into more than just examining how women are depicted in Arabic advertisements. It further investigates the translator’s role in either Gender stereotypes in Jordanian commercial advertisements 487 HERMĒNEUS, 26 (2024): págs. 455-490 ISSN: 2530-609X upholding the source text’s ideology or exercising their agency to manage the advertisements by employing a functional approach to maintain neutral unsexist language. 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