A novel methodology to measure the transverse Poisson's ratio in the elastic and plastic regions for composite materials
Abstract
A new methodology to measure the transverse Poisson’s ratios in fibre-reinforced composite materials was developed. Transverse tensile and transverse compressive standardised tests were instrumented using digital image correlation equipment to measure the lateral strain field of the specimens. A thermoplastic-based composite material was used to describe the proposed methodology. The elastic transverse Poisson’s ratio exhibits a different behaviour in tension than in compression, its value being greater in compression than in tension. Assuming no plastic strain in the longitudinal direction, the plastic transverse Poisson’s ratio in compression suggests no volumetric plastic strains for small axial plastic strains, however, plastic dilatancy was observed when the amount of compressive plastic axial strain increases.
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139 1 RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY Theresearchwasconductedwithin6partner countries(Bulgaria,Romania,Spain,Turkey,Ireland, Slovenia)withfourseparatequestions. Complementarydesktopresearchwasconductedto validatethefindingsatnational,Europeanand InternationalLevelwithreferencetointernational standards.Eachpartnercollatedinformationthrough theircountriesadministrationwhichwascross‐ referencedwithinternationalpractices[1]. Figure1.NationalResearchMethodology Review of European Maritime Certification of Competence Practices U.Acar1,G.DeMelo2&N.Curran3 1MaritimeInnovators,Istanbul,Turkey 2TechnicalUniversityofCatalonia,Barcelona,Spain 3NationalMaritimeCollegeofIreland,Cork,Ireland ABSTRACT:Thispaperspecificallyhighlightsthevariouselementsofthenationalpracticesthatareroutinely carriedoutatprojectpartnernationaladministrationlevelwithrespecttoStandardsofTrainingCertification andWatchkeepingofSeafarers(STCW)trainingandendorsementofseafarersintheCertificationand Competency(COC),particularlywithintheEuropeanUnion. Themethodologyusedinthispapercontainstheresearchmainlyconductedwith6partnercountries(Bulgaria, Romania,Spain,Turkey,Ireland,Slovenia)withaseriesofquestionsdesignedtocaptureinformationasmuch aspossibleintheearlystagesfortheproject,informationaroundmaritimetrainingofseafarersandtheir certificationinvariousrolesandcompetencies. Thechaptersrepresentthecurrentpracticesatnationallevelforpartnersoftheprojectandthetargetaudience respondedprovidedtocomparespecificrequirementsandtrainingpracticeswithreferencetointernational standards.Thisinformationisusedtoinvestigateanybarriersthatarecurrentlypresentforseafarerscertificate ofcompetencyinendorsementorrecognitionoftheirprofessionalqualifications. http://www.transnav.eu the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation Volume 18 Number 1 March 2024 DOI:10.12716/1001.18.01.13
140 2 STCWROLEINCERTIFICATEOF COMPETENCY ThenationaladministrationsusetheSTCWstandards forrecognitionofforeigncertificates,however,there aresomespecificrulesregardingrecognitionof certificatesissuedbycountries. TheAdministrationsmaintaina‘Whitelist’of TrainingCentersinothercountriesforspecific CertificatesofProficiency(CoP)recognitionandthese criteriaarespecificallyguidedbyIMOstandardsin termsofcompetenttraininginstitutesandcenters. Thesecriteriaarespecifiedbasedontheinternational requirementsforCoPcertificationinafocusedor specialistrole[2]. Ithasbeennotedthattherehasbeenashiftinthe globalsupplyoftrainedseafarersfromEuropeand theUnitedStatesofAmericatoAsiannationsandthe farEast.Consequently,therearesomedifferencesin trainingpracticeswhenacomparisonismade betweensuchregions.Fromtheperspectiveof internationalSTCWstandardsonmarinertraining,all nationscommittedtotheprovisionofseagoing personnelmustadheretothesespecificCertifications ofCompetency(CoC)andCertificationofProficiency (CoP)standards. However,althoughtherequirementsoftheSTCW aretheglobalstandard,ithasbeennotedalsothat certaintrainingpracticesareexperiencingalagperiod withrespecttostate‐of‐the‐arttechnologies.An examplecanbegivenwhenconsideringenergy transitionandtheInternationalCodeofSafetyIGF coderequirementswhichhavebeenimplementedin STCWsince2017.Thetrainingofpersonnelhasbeen slowtomeetthesenewrequirementsforseafarers, howeverthistypeoftrainingandcertificationfor instanceinBulgariaisnowbeingobservedtobe catchingup. FromaEuropeanmemberstateperspective,all trainingalignedwithSTCWstandardsaretaught acrosstrainingprovidersandcertifiedbynational administrations.Theredoesnotappeartobeany significantbarrierstoseafarershavingbeentrained uponthenewestshippingtechnology,ascrewing management,andshippingcompaniesthemselves providethespecificdemandfortrainingand certificationoffuturemarinersworkingtowards professioninsuchfields[3]. 3 CROSSRECOGNITION AccordingtoallENDORSEMEproject‘‘Enabling SeafarerstoMutualEndorsement’’partnercountries responses,STCWtrainingisprovidedtoall individualsacrosstheEuropeanUnion,includinga ‘whitelist’ofsocalledthirdcountriesliketheUSA, Australia,andothers.However,ithasbeenfoundthat trainingpracticesinthirdcountriesinmanycases differfromtheSTCWstandardsandthesearewhat givesrisetochallengesincrossrecognition.Even withinEUmemberstates,specifically,Italian legislationimposesstricterstandards,andthusdoes notadherecloselytoDirective2008/106/EC,as amendedbyDirective2012/35/EU,andfailstofollow totheletterthespecificprovisionsontherevalidation ofcertificatessetoutinsectionA‐I/11oftheSTCW Code.Asaresult,updatingandrenewingcertificates hasbecomeparticularlycomplicated,aswhatare essentiallybureaucraticproblemsarepreventing workersfromcontinuingintheirprofessionas normal,despiteabundanceofexperienceand qualificationinmanycases. Thisalsolimitsthosetrainedseafarersfromother EUnationsandthirdcountriesfromapplyingand workingonboardanItalianflaggedvessel.Thereare severalexampleswithintheEUoftheselimitations andbarrierstorecognition.InIrelandforexample,the UnitedKingdomwhichisnowathirdcountrysince leavingtheEuropeanUnion,hasvariousagreements withtheUKduetogeographicandgeopolitical considerations.Itremainstobeseenhowthese barrierscouldbestrengthenedinthenearfutureas STCWregulationisupdatedandreassessed.Froma Bulgarianperspective,agreementsoncross‐ recognitionorendorsementwiththirdcountrieshas notbeenapproved,butasamemberoftheEU,is obligedtorecognizetheCoCs(Certificationof Competencies)andCoPs(Certificationof Proficiencies)issuedbyanothermemberstateafter confirmingtheirauthenticity.Forthethirdcountries, thisisvalidonlyforthosewhichareincludedinthe EMSAlist.Butthisrecognitiondoesnotleadto endorsement.ThisismorecomplicatedforTurkeyas beingEUmembercandidate.EndorsementofCOCs andCOPsaremuchmorechallengingforTurkish seafarerswithinEU. ThereisaprocessinRomaniaregardingthird countryvalidationofCoCandCoPcertification.Ifthe thirdstateinquestionisnotonthelistpublishedin theOfficialJournaloftheEuropeanUnion,the Romanianmaritimeadministrationcanissuea requesttothecommission,statingthereasonfora specificcaseforrecognition.Thereisaclausethat statesifthecommissiondoesnotreturnadecision within18monthsofapplication,theRomanian administrationmaythendecideunilaterallyonthe recognitionofthecertificatesissuedbythecompetent authorityoftherespectivestate.Thisisclearlya barrierthatcouldbereformedwithreferencetothe timeframethatthecommissionmustdecide. Reducingthetimethataprospectiveseafarermust waitinthisparticularcasewouldspeedupthe processtoendorsementoftrainingcertification.Ithas beennotedalsothatSlovenianmarinersholding CoC’sareworkingsolelyonEUflaggedvessels.The reasonforthisappearstobetheresultofnumbersof qualifiedindividuals,whichisapproximately40who obtaintheirCoCeachyear.Becauseofthisfact,they donotfaceanyrecognitionproblems. IftheseafarershaveaCoCfromanapproved countrybuthasCoPsfromnon‐approvedTraining Centers,theywouldnotberecognizedinsofarasthe relevantCoPhasnotbeenvalidated.Certification fromapprovedtrainingcentersisonlyrecognizedin ordertoendorseanindividual’scertifications.
141 4 NATIONALANDINTERNATIONALCASES Therearenumerouscasestudyexamplesthathave beenlookedatbyorganisationslikeEMSA(European MaritimeSafetyAgency)andtheIMO(International MaritimeOrganisation)inrelationtoshippingand maritimesafetychallenges.Manyofthesestudies tendtofocusonaspectsofsafetyatseafromthe perspectiveoftheworkingenvironment.Manymore AsiannationslikeVietnam,Indonesiaandthe Philippinesarenowconsideredtobeinthetopfive largestsupplycountriesofseafarers(officersand ratings)accordingtotheInternationalChamberof Shipping.[4] Thisshiftissaidtobetheconsequenceofseafarers seekinghigherstandardsofemploymentinEuropean flaggedandAmericanvessels.Thishasshowntobea majorchallengefortheshippingindustrytorespond to,asdemandforofficershasincreasedyearonyear since2000.Consequently,socalledthirdcountry qualifiedseafarersfromtheperspectiveoftheEUare showntoholdcertificationsthatarenotfullyaligned withstandardSTCWqualification.Thiscreatesan issuegloballyinthecross‐recognitionofcertifications fromAsiannationsasmentionedabove.Inaspecific casestudyfocusedonVietnam,potentialreasonsmay beattributedtothecombinedeffectsofchanging internationalregulationssuchasworkingtime legislation,thehigherbackupratiowhichincreases thedemandforseafarers,andthelowermanning scalesonmodernvesselsthatreducesdemand.The challengethiscreatesisdemandforseafarerscannot readilybemetduetothelongleadtimeinvolvedin trainingseafarerscomparedtotheshortertimeframe requiredforbuildingandlaunchinganewvessel[5]. Asmentionedpreviously,IGFcodetraining requirementshavebecomeabarriertocertification. TherewasacaseafewyearsagoinBulgariatowhich someseafarerswereunabletooperateoncertainEU flaggedvesselsbecauseoftheabsenceofsuch training.OnceBulgariannationallegislationadopting theIGFcodetrainingrequirementswasestablished,it remainedalimitingfactorintheprovisionofthis trainingfortheBulgarianseafarersforsomeyearsdue tolackoftrainingproviderscoveringthe requirements.Currently,thereisanoptionto Bulgarianseafarerstocompletetheirtrainingwith IGFcoderequirements,andthisisbecominglessofa barrier[6]. CertainEUmemberstatesusingSloveniaasan example,havingquiteasmallshippingsectorand consequentlyasufficientmaritimetraining infrastructure,thesupplyoftrainedseafarersfrom activetrainingcollegesandfacilitieshavebeen capableofservicingthecurrentdemandformaritime personnel. Figure2.ExampleonRomaniaPracticesinCOCs 5 BETTERCERTIFICATIONPRACTICES Thereisnosupportorguidanceforthe administrationswhichtheycanapplyinthecasesof seafarersholdinganon‐recognizedcertification,for themtobeabletoworkonshipsunderthestate’s flag. Alltheinformationaboutrecognitionof certificatesispubliconAdministrations’websites. InIreland,Romania,andBulgariainthecontextof thisquestion,therehavebeenonlineITplatforms identifiedthatarebeingadoptedwithinothersectors butalsointraininginstitutesthathavethecapability toprovideinformationonqualifications,coursesand STCWstandardstocertificationrequirementsoutto sea.InthecaseofIreland,thereisaplatformoronline toolthatiscurrentlyunderdevelopmentbytheIrish MaritimeAdministration.Thisonlinetoolislikethat inexistencewithintheoilandgassector,OPITO approvedcoursesandcertification.NMCI(National MaritimeCollegeofIreland)inIrelandhavefor severalyearssince2010beendeliveringfully accreditedOPITOapprovedoffshorecourses.Itis throughcollaborationslikethisthatprogrammesto developsuchtoolsforthemaritimesectorhas emergedinIreland.InRomania,thereareseveralIT platformsinexistenceforonlinetraining.Constanta MaritimeUniversityisimplementingsuchproducts, onebeingaplatformfortrainingandexaminationfor allcurriculadevelopedbytheUniversity,basedon STCWConventionrequirements. TheBulgarianNavalAcademyisintheprocessof adoptingsimilaronlinetoolsasabove.Inasimilar tooltowhatisbeingdevelopedinRomania,thereis anITplatformfortrainingandexaminationof COLREG(CollisionRegulations)traineeshipswhich areinuseregularly.[7]. ENDORSEMEprojectdevelopsatoolforCOC endorsementanditisencouragingthatthereare workingexamplesofanonlineplatformavailablethat iscarryingoutthetasksandgatheringsuchrelevant endorsementinformationforemployersand employeesoftheoilandgassectorandnowalso maritimetrainingfacilities.Indesigningand developingatoolthatwillstoreseafarercertifications, providedetailsofthemostuptodateinformationon requirementsbycountry,andpotentiallyactasa platforminwhichnationaladministrationsand traininginstitutescanpromoterefreshercourses,each
142 nationthathasglobalSTCWagreementscouldlink upwithoneanotherprovidinganinternational databaseofrelevantinformationonendorsementsto allprospectiveseafarers.[8]. Figure3.NationalPracticespartnercountries 6 CONCLUSION Theinformationprovidedabove,althoughonlythe beginningofdatagatheringinthisproject,provides themostuptodateinformationfromprojectpartners inthecontextofthenationalpracticescurrently undertakenbymaritimetrainingprovidersinpartner countries.Thisisclearlylimitedtothequestions designedandincludedinthisdocument.Also,aspart ofthisphaseofresearch,supplementaryinformation willbeprovidedbyaseriesofsurveyquestionnaires thathavebeencirculatedtomaritimestakeholders andnationaladministrationsinpartnercountries.In additiontotrainingprovisionateachinstitute participatingontheproject,weareseekingrelevant experiencesfromseafarersregardingtheirpersonal challengesorbarrierstoendorsementoverseasfrom wheretheyachievedtheirqualifications.Onceitis discovered,thepracticesandprocessesthatshow pathwaystosolutionsforvariousobstaclestocross recognitionwillbeincludedasrecommendationsto relevantauthoritiesandadministrationsresponsible forupdatingandimplementingmaritimetraining standardsforEuropeanseafarers. Allthisinformationisincludedalsointhe developmentofanonlinetool/platformwhereby seafarers,trainingprovidersandnationalmaritime administrationswillhaveaccesstosuchdata.This couldhelptostreamlineandimproveknowledge sharinginthemaritimeandshippingsector,and possiblyleadtomorecollaborativeendorsementor recognitionofsuchtraininginEurope. REFERENCES ENDORSEMEProject,2021‐2023,EnablingSeafarersMutual Endorsement.www.endorseme4seas.com InternationalMaritimeOrganization.(1978).International ConventiononStandardsofTraining,Certificationand WatchkeepingforSeafarers(STCW).RetrievedJune7, 2023,fromhttps://www.imo.org Chen,B.(2000).Aninvestigationintothecurrentstateof ChinesehigherMET[MaritimeEducationandTraining] inthelightofnewinternationallegislationwith referencetoSTCWʹ95.WorldMaritimeUniversity Dissertations. InternationalChamberofShipping.AccessedJune7,2023. [Website:https://www.ics‐shipping.org/] Demirel,E.,&Bayer,D.(2015).Improvementofsafety educationandtrainingforseafaringofficers.Electronic JournalofSocialSciences. Theshortageofqualifiedpersonnelinmaritimeandinland waterwaytransport. Trainingrequirementsforpersonnelonshipssubjecttothe IGFcode. (2012).StudyontheuseofAlternativeDisputeResolution forBusiness‐to‐BusinessdisputesintheEuropean Union,FinalReport