La influencia de la inteligencia emocional en el comportamiento agresivo [ the influence of emotional intelligence on aggressive behavior]

TESIS DOCTORAL Universidad de Málaga ESPERANZA GARCÍA SANCHO 2015 DEPARTAMENTO DE PSICOLOGÍA BÁSICA FACULTAD DE PSICOLOGÍA LA INFLUENCIA DE LA INTELIGENCIA EMOCIONAL EN EL COMPORTAMIENTO AGRESIVO [THE INFLUENCE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR] AUTOR: Esperanza García Sancho http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0106-8643 EDITA: Publicaciones y Divulgación Científica. Universidad de Málaga Esta obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercialSinObraDerivada 4.0 Internacional: Cualquier parte de esta obra se puede reproducir sin autorización pero con el reconocimiento y atribución de los autores. No se puede hacer uso comercial de la obra y no se puede alterar, transformar o hacer obras derivadas. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode Esta Tesis Doctoral está depositada en el Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Málaga (RIUMA): riuma.uma.es García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 1 Dr. Pablo Fernández Berrocal, Catedrático de Psicología Básica de la Universidad de Málaga, y Dr. José Martín Salguero Noguera, Profesor Contratado Doctor de la Universidad de Málaga, HACEN CONSTAR Que el trabajo de investigación realizado por la Doctoranda Da Esperanza García Sancho (D.N.I. 76637588R), bajo nuestra dirección, con el título: “LA INFLUENCIA DE LA INTELIGENCIA EMOCIONAL EN EL COMPORTAMIENTO AGRESIVO” reúne todas las condiciones exigidas por la normativa vigente, para ser aceptado como Tesis de Doctorado, por lo que autorizamos se inicien los trámites para su Defensa Pública. Málaga, 2 de septiembre de 2015 Dr. Pablo Fernández Berrocal Dr. José Martín Salguero Noguera Director de la Tesis de Doctorado Director de la Tesis de Doctorado García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 2 LA INFLUENCIA DE LA INTELIGENCIA EMOCIONAL EN EL COMPORTAMIENTO AGRESIVO [THE INFLUENCE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR] Autor: Esperanza García Sancho Departamento de Psicología Básica Facultad de Psicología Universidad de Málaga PROGRAMA DE DOCTORADO: Investigación y Tratamientos Psicológicos y de la Salud DIRECTORES DE TESIS – Ph.D. Supervisors Málaga, 13 de noviembre de 2015 Dr. José Martín Salguero Noguera, PhD Departamento de Personalidad, Evaluación y Tratamiento Psicológico Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga Dr. Pablo Fernández-Berrocal, PhD Catedrático de Psicología Básica Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 3 AGRADECIMIENTOS Mi primer agradecimiento va dirigido a mis directores de tesis, Pablo Fernández Berrocal y Martín Salguero. Habéis formado un tándem que me ha permitido aprender lo mejor de cada uno. No hubiera podido imaginar una mejor combinación, me siento muy afortunada. Gracias Pablo, por darme la oportunidad de poder trabajar en tu equipo, por confiar en mí, ha sido todo un honor que hayas dirigido mi tesis. He aprendido de ti muchas cosas, entre ellas a saber dar un paso hacia atrás para ver las cosas desde otra perspectiva. También me has enseñado a ser una persona práctica, a evitar conflictos, y a tener en cuenta detalles que a veces pasamos desapercibido. Me has dado tu ánimo y repetido una y mil veces que no hay que dejarse vencer en el camino. Me has enseñado a tener una actitud positiva ante las dificultades y he podido aprender muchas habilidades que me servirán en mi trayectoria profesional. En pocas personas he visto ese don que consigue atraer a todos. Gracias Martín, he aprendido de ti tantas cosas que escribirlas todas ellas bastaría para completar una hoja entera de agradecimientos. Podría destacar todo aquello que me has enseñado para hoy poder investigar, pero sin duda, si tengo que elegir, me quedo con haber encontrado a mi guía para la más importante de las misiones: dedicar todo nuestro esfuerzo a conseguir dilucidar qué variables y su funcionamiento van a permitir a las personas estar mejor. Hemos disfrutado de nuestra pasión compartida por la teoría, reunidos durante horas para reflexionar y debatir sobre aspectos teóricos que nos permitieran avanzar en explicaciones y modelos coherentes. Gracias por todo lo que he aprendido y disfrutado en esos momentos. Cada miércoles acudía a esas sesiones con ilusión, el resto de la semana soñaba con el momento de volver a hacerlo. Gracias. Gracias Ruth, por ser una gran compañera y una amiga. Te he sentido igual de cerca tanto cuando hemos compartido mesa, como cuando hemos estado separadas por kilómetros. Eres una persona excepcional y un gran ejemplo para todos aquellos que estén dispuestos a conocerte. Gracias Princesita, me llevo de ti muchos consejos y momentos, tantos laborales como personales, y más que están aún por llegar, ya sea trabajando juntas en la misma universidad, en un congreso, en un teatro o en la corte de Castilla. Gracias Desirée, por ayudarme a superar los obstáculos del camino, por hacerme entender la importancia de hacerles frente. Gracias por querer lo mejor para mí, por todos esos García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 4 momentos juntas y esas conversaciones en inglés, donde hemos convertido en profundas las frases compuestas por las palabras más simples. Gracias José Luis por ser el profesor de profesores. Por recordarme día a día con tu vocación y comportamiento que ser docente es un placer y una responsabilidad. Siempre te voy a recordar así, como el símbolo de la enseñanza, tan joven y tan viejo, like a Rolling Stone. Gracias a Davinia, Nico, Natalio, Rosario, Marian, Pili, y Puri Checa, por los momentos compartidos y por vuestra colaboración a lo largo de estos años. Junto a todos vosotros he trabajado en un verdadero Laboratorio de Emociones. Gracias Lucía por tu incondicional apoyo y cariño desde el minuto uno. La amistad que me has dado merece el 10 que de forma incansable siempre buscas. Gracias por confiar en mí y por quererme, yo también te quiero y admiro, aprendo mucho de ti. Gracias también a Ana por su impecable gestión y ayuda. Con la misma disposición me has ayudado a resolver algún importante trámite, que me has hecho reír o arreglado un pantalón junto a Margot. Gracias, sois indispensables, las dos. Gracias a todos los ayudantes de investigación, a Ana, Jessie, Yoana, Teresa,…por vuestra actitud y colaboración, y gracias a todas las personas que de forma voluntaria accedieron a participar en nuestros estudios. Vuestro esfuerzo nos permite seguir trabajando y avanzando cada día en el conocimiento de la psicología. I would like to thank Eduardo for allowing me to spend six months working with him. I also want to thank Caoilte, Anita, George, and all staff members of the School of Psychology in Keynes College, University of Kent at Canterbury. All of you have provided me with unforgettable experiences and have contributed so much to my research training. Gracias Alba por hacerme recordar lo maravillosas que pueden ser las personas. Also many thanks to Kristoff, no one is going to admire you more than I do, you are a very good researcher and collaborator and even a better person. Gracias Marina Ríos, por mostrar verdadero interés en cada paso que he dado en la tesis, aportando siempre tu reflexión personal. Viajar es aprender, viajar contigo es cultivar una actitud, una actitud que permite compartir conocimientos, respetar y aprender de otros puntos de vista, as long as you love me siempre nos quedará el Black Griffin para compartir esas ideas. Gracias a Arantxa, sentir tu confianza y cariño en mi trabajo me ha impulsado a cumplir mi sueño, espero que esta tesis te guste. Gracias a mis amigas, a “las niñas”: Carmen, Cristi, Ana, Ruth, Marina, Nuria, Yoli, Laura, Lorena y Nieves, por esperarme siempre y entender mis ausencias, por vuestros ánimos, vuestra confianza en mí, por llenarme de emociones positivas que me García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 5 han impulsado a trabajar de buen humor. Gracias Andrea por ayudarme con tu cariño y tu creatividad en la portada de esta tesis. Me hace muchísima ilusión que hayamos podido trabajar juntas, te quiero. Y por supuesto gracias a las otras componentes de Paraguas Rotos, Ana Rosa, Carolina, Marta “Ruiz” y Annabella. Vuestro amor incondicional y vuestra ayuda han sido esencial para soportar los momentos duros y hacer únicos los buenos. Gracias a vosotras sé que they may say I´m dreamer, but I am not the only one. Gracias Alfonso por apoyarme siempre. Gracias por ser con quién he podido comentar y compartir cada paisaje nuevo que nuestro crecimiento nos ha permitido ir descubriendo. Y por estar siempre ahí. Si he logrado ver más lejos, ha sido porque he subido a hombros de un gigante. Gracias Martín, porque como diría Carlos Salem en su poema, entiendo que todos quieran quererte, pero no tienen ni idea. Nadie puede saber que se siente al pasar horas hablando de todo y de nada, al hacerme creer que no existe cosa que no pueda conseguir, al ver tu sonrisa acompañada de cada palabra de ánimo. Entiendo que quieran quererte, pero yo te quiero, por muchas más razones. Gracias por dejarme verlas. Por supuesto gracias a mi familia, a mis hermanos, Jose, Cristi y Laura. No sé dónde podría encontrar otros 3 hermanos como vosotros, capaces incluso de andar en calcetines solo para no distraerme en mi trabajo. Gracias a mi tía Paqui, gracias Tita, eres la mejor, te lo debemos todo. Os quiero, siempre. Y por último, GRACIAS a mi padre José Luis y a mi madre Ángela, por haberme enseñado los valores más importantes que hoy defiendo a ultranza y que me han ayudado en este proceso: el amor, la paciencia, el perdón, el humor, la tolerancia y el esfuerzo. Y sobre todo, el principal responsable de que hoy pueda firmar una tesis doctoral, el interés por leer, aprender y saber. He intentado contribuir al conocimiento científico con este trabajo, esta tesis es para vosotros, para que podáis disfrutar y aprender leyéndola, como regalo por todo lo que yo he aprendido de vuestra parte todos estos años. Os quiero mucho. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 6 ÍNDICE Lista de publicaciones que avalan la Tesis Doctoral……………………………….. 7 Prólogo……………………………………………………………………………… 8 Capítulo 1: Introducción y objetivos……………………………………………... 9 Inteligencia Emocional……………………………….……………………………... 10 Agresión: definición, tipos y modelos teóricos……………………………………... 18 El estudio de las habilidades emocionales y la agresión……………………………. 26 Objetivos……………………………………………………………………………. 29 Capítulo 2: Estudios que componen la Tesis Doctoral………………………….. 32 Estudio 1: Relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression: a systematic review…………………………………………………………………. 33 Estudio 2: Relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression in adults and adolescents: cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence using an ability measure 54 Estudio 3. Validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the Displaced Aggression Questionnaire…………………………………………………………... 70 Estudio 4. Angry rumination as a mediator of the relationship between ability emotional intelligence and various types of aggression…………………………….. 89 Capítulo 3. Discusión y conclusiones……………………………………………. 104 Discusión…………………………………………………………………………… 105 Conclusiones [Conclusions]………………………………………………………… 124 Resumen de la Tesis Doctotal [English Summary]…………………………………. 125 Referencias bibliográficas [References]…………………………………………….. 144 7 LISTA DE PUBLICACIONES QUE AVALAN LA TESIS DOCTORAL  García-Sancho, E., Salguero, J. M., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2014). Relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19, 584-591. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2014.07.007.  García-Sancho, E., Salguero, J. M., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2015). Deficits in facial affect recognition and aggression: A systematic review. Ansiedad y Estrés, 21, 1-20.  García-Sancho, E., Salguero, J. M., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (2016). Angry rumination as a mediator of the relationship between ability emotional intelligence and various types of aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 89, 143–147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.007.  García-Sancho, E., Salguero, J. M., Vasquez, E. A., & Fernández-Berrocal, P. (en prensa). Validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the Displaced Aggression Questionnaire: a pilot study. Psicothema. 14 La comprensión emocional se describe como la habilidad para reflexionar acerca de la información emocional, comprendiendo las relaciones que se dan entre emociones, la simultaneidad y mezcla de éstas, así como sus progresiones y transiciones a lo largo del tiempo. Y por último, la cuarta rama de la IE, regulación emocional, es la habilidad para regular los estados de ánimo y las emociones propias y las de los demás (Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011). Para la evaluación de la IE como habilidad (IEH) se utilizan medidas de rendimiento máximo o ejecución. Estas medidas están diseñadas para evaluar el rendimiento máximo al que puede llegar una persona, es decir, la capacidad máxima que posee en un área y que puede llegar a desempeñar en un momento determinado, por el contrario, las medidas de rendimiento típico evalúan la estimación de la persona de su rendimiento diario. Partiendo de esta idea de evaluar el rendimiento máximo en IE, cabe señalar como un instrumento ampliamente utilizado y que ha demostrado poseer adecuadas propiedades psicométricas el Mayer-SaloveyCaruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Siratenios, 2003). En este tipo de instrumentos de evaluación las personas deben realizar diferentes tareas emocionales donde las respuestas, correctas o incorrectas, son conocidas de antemano (Brackett et al., 2011; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). El desarrollo del presente estudio se guiará desde la perspectiva del modelo de habilidad de Mayer y Salovey (1997). La Tabla 2 presenta algunas de las principales medidas de IEH. 15 Tabla 2. Principales instrumentos de evaluación de la IE como habilidad Medida Autores Nº de ítems Subescalas Índice global de IE Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test ( MSCEIT) Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso (2002) 141 Percepción emocional Facilitación emocional Comprensión emocional Manejo emocional Sí The Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) MacCann & Roberts (2008) 42 Comprensión emocional No The Situational Test of Emotional Management (STEM ) MacCann & Roberts (2008) 44 Manejo emocional No Test de Inteligencia Emocional de la Fundación Botín para Adolescentes (TIEFBA) Fernández-Berrocal, Extremera, Palomera, Ruiz-Aranda, & Salguero (2015) 144 Percepción emocional Facilitación emocional Comprensión emocional Manejo emocional Sí 16 Desde el modelo de habilidad, se presenta la IE como un concepto que cumple los criterios necesarios para ser considerado un tipo de inteligencia y como un constructo que evalúa algo diferente a otras inteligencias (Brackett et al., 2011). A lo largo de todos estos años de desarrollo del concepto, ha existido cierta controversia acerca de cuál es la relación entre la IE y otras capacidades mentales. Sin embargo, diferentes trabajos han mostrado evidencias que la sitúan como un grupo factorial adicional dentro de la estructura de habilidades mentales de la teoría CattelHorn-Carroll (CHC) (McGrew, 2009; Roberts, & Lipnevich, 2011), estableciéndose como un factor de segundo orden, al mismo nivel que otros constructos, tales como la inteligencia fluida y cristalizada (Côté & Miners, 2006; Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998; MacCann, Joseph, Newman, & Roberts, 2014), y que estaría subordinado a un único factor superior, un componente general de inteligencia, el factor G. Estudios realizados desde una perspectiva neuropsicológica avalan estos resultados, dando evidencia de los sustratos neurales que forman la arquitectura de la inteligencia emocional y de su relación con otras inteligencias (Barbey, Colom, & Grafman, 2012). La importancia de este modelo de IE como habilidad radica en la integración de todas las habilidades emocionales en un mismo constructo, con evidencia empírica que avala la existencia de un factor unitario coherente, con poder explicativo más allá del que aportan sus 4 subcomponentes por separado (MacCann et al., 2014). Inteligencia Emocional y su relación con importantes variables criterio La teoría de la IE propone que aquellas personas con mayores habilidades para percibir, usar, comprender y manejar sus emociones y las de los demás mostrarán un mayor ajuste psicológico y social (Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008). En este sentido, existe evidencia empírica de la relación entre la IE e importantes variables criterio. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 17 Diferentes revisiones y meta-análisis ponen de manifiesto una relación positiva entre IE y algunos indicadores de salud física y mental (Martins, Ramalho, & Morin, 2010; Schutte, Malouff, Thorsteinsson, Bhullar, & Rooke, 2007). Una menor capacidad para gestionar las emociones ha sido asociada a la presencia de trastornos psicológicos como depresión, ansiedad o esquizofrenia (Brackett et al. 2011; Martins et al., 2010; Resurrección, Salguero, & Ruiz-Aranda, 2014). Asimismo, menores niveles de IE han sido relacionados con una mayor implicación en conductas de riesgo como el consumo intensivo de alcohol, tabaco y sustancias ilegales (Kun & Demetrovics, 2010). Dentro de las variables que pueden ser en parte explicadas por el nivel de IE, la literatura ha prestado importante atención a variables relacionadas con la interacción interpersonal. Así, en distintos trabajos realizados, se han encontrado evidencias de su relación con un mejor funcionamiento social de las personas (Mestre & FernándezBerrocal, 2007), una mejor calidad social (Lopes et al., 2011; Lopes, Salovey, Côte, & Beers, 2005; Lopes, Salovey, & Straus, 2003) y un menor número de interacciones negativas y de conflicto en las relaciones sociales (Extremera & Fernández Berrocal, 2004). Desde esta perspectiva, en los últimos años, diferentes autores han comenzado a trabajar en una línea encaminada a explorar si la falta de habilidad para el manejo de las emociones puede predecir no solo conductas de conflicto en las relaciones, sino acciones de una gravedad mayor, ampliando su influencia a la realización de comportamientos agresivos. El propósito de esta Tesis Doctoral es extender el conocimiento en esta línea de trabajo. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 18 AGRESIÓN: DEFINICIÓN, TIPOS Y MODELOS TEÓRICOS De forma general, la agresión humana es definida como “el comportamiento de un individuo dirigido hacia otro con la intención próxima o inmediata de causar daño. Además, el agresor cree que con su conducta dañará a la otra persona y esta persona está motivada a huir de tal comportamiento” (Anderson & Bushman, 2002, p.28). Según el Informe Mundial sobre la Violencia y la Salud (2002), cada año se registran más de 1,6 millones de personas en el mundo que pierden la vida de forma violenta. Los fallecimientos por causas violentas son registrados como una de las principales causas de defunción en las personas con edades comprendidas entre los 15 y 44 años. Si tenemos en cuenta aquellas manifestaciones agresivas que no desembocan en la muerte de las víctimas, las cifras de comportamientos agresivos que se producen en el día a día entre la población aumentan considerablemente. Dada la alta ocurrencia de actos agresivos entre personas, la agresión ha sido estudiada bajo el foco de diferentes contextos donde se produce, tales como agresión en el ámbito de la pareja, agresión sexual, agresión en el contexto escolar, etc. Asimismo, son diversas las tipologías utilizadas por los autores expertos en el tema para clasificar este fenómeno. A lo largo de la literatura, la clasificación que con mayor frecuencia se ha utilizado distingue, en base a su forma de manifestarse, entre agresión directa y agresión indirecta o relacional (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; 1996). La agresión directa englobaría aquellas conductas en las que se produce la agresión de forma más visible o manifiesta, incluyendo en este tipo la agresividad física y la verbal. La agresividad física comprende acciones tales como golpes, empujones y otras formas de maltrato físico, utilizando su propio cuerpo o un objeto externo para infligir una lesión o daño, mientras que la agresividad verbal se presenta a través de insultos, burlas, amenazas o gritos. Por otra García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 19 parte, la agresión indirecta o relacional es caracterizada por la provocación del daño mediante un mecanismo más encubierto o social, manipulando las relaciones sociales a través de distintas conductas, como hablar mal del compañero, extender rumores, mentiras, exclusión de las actividades, etc. (Card, Stucky, Sawalani, & Little, 2008). Otra clasificación en el ámbito de la agresión es aquella referida a la tipología en relación al agente objeto de la agresión, pudiendo distinguir entre agresión dirigida hacia el provocador, o agresión desplazada. En el primer tipo, la conducta agresiva es dirigida hacia el agente causante de haber originado una situación de provocación, tomando represalias hacia la fuente responsable. Por otra parte, el término agresión desplazada se refiere a aquella conducta agresiva, producto de una provocación inicial, dirigida a hacer daño hacia una persona distinta de la fuente responsable de tal provocación, agrediendo, por tanto, a un objetivo aparentemente inocente (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939; Hovland & Sears, 1940). Aunque en la historia del estudio de la agresión la literatura se ha focalizado principalmente en el estudio de la agresión dirigida hacia la persona responsable de la provocación, en los últimos 15 años ha aumentado el interés por el estudio de este tipo de conductas agresivas desplazadas, dada la relación de este fenómeno con algunos tipos de agresión, como por ejemplo la agresión en la pareja o la actitud agresiva de los conductores en carretera (Denson, Pedersen, & Miller, 2006; Marcus-Newhall, Pedersen, Carlson, & Miller, 2000). El estudio de los comportamientos agresivos y acciones violentas ha recibido una amplia atención dentro de la psicología dadas las consecuencias que conlleva tanto para los propios agresores como para las víctimas de tal agresión (Card et al., 2008). La práctica de conductas agresivas ha sido asociada con un mayor riesgo de padecer distintos problemas de salud mental, consumo de sustancias o implicación en actos delictivos García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 20 durante la adolescencia (Moffitt, 2006; Ostrov & Godleski, 2009; Piquero, Daigle, Gibson, Piquero, & Tibbetts, 2007), así como la presencia de problemas psiquiátricos, comportamiento criminal o desempleo laboral en la vida adulta (Alsaker & Olweus, 2002; Asberg, 1994; Coccaro, Noblett, & McCloskey, 2009; Farrington, 1991). De igual forma, las víctimas que padecen esta agresión muestran una amplia diversidad de consecuencias negativas como, por ejemplo, mayores problemas de depresión, ansiedad, autoestima, etc. (Cava, Buelga, Musitu, & Murgui, 2010; O´Moore & Kirkham, 2001). A tenor de estos resultados negativos, el estudio de la agresión es de gran relevancia en la actualidad, mostrándose un especial interés por conocer aquellas variables que puedan estar fomentándola o inhibiéndola, algo que permitirá no sólo conocer en mayor profundidad este fenómeno, sino también diseñar programas eficaces para prevenirla o reducirla. En este sentido, se han realizado múltiples propuestas para determinar cuáles son los mecanismos que pueden explicar las conductas agresivas (Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Bandura, 1986; Denson, Pedersen, Friese, Hahm, & Roberts, 2011; Pedersen et al., 2011; Van der Graaff, Branje, De Wied, & Meeus, 2012; Vasquez, Osman, & Wood, 2012). Entre los distintos modelos teóricos que existen, y desde una línea centrada en el ámbito emocional, en el siguiente apartado se presentarán aquellas propuestas que principalmente han otorgado relevancia al papel del procesamiento emocional y sus habilidades en la explicación de las conductas agresivas. Modelo integrado del procesamiento cognitivo y emocional de la información social (Crick & Dodge, 1994; Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000) El modelo de Procesamiento de la Información Social (PIS) (Crick & Dodge, 1994), propone 6 pasos para explicar el procesamiento de la información en las interacciones sociales. Estos son: 1) codificación de las señales sociales, incluyendo la García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 21 búsqueda y recogida de la información disponible en el ambiente, además de la focalización de la atención sobre la información relevante; 2) representación e interpretación, dando significado a las señales que se han atendido; 3) selección de metas u objetivos, donde, una vez interpretada la situación, la persona cambia o mantiene su objetivo en el encuentro social; 4) búsqueda de respuesta o generación de soluciones alternativas, que implica la elaboración de varias respuestas posibles ante la situación; 5) selección de respuesta, que implica valorar las distintas opciones y elegir la más adecuada; 6) representación o actuación de la solución escogida, siendo necesario poseer las habilidades necesarias para llevarla a cabo. A lo largo de la literatura, este modelo ha sido utilizado con frecuencia para explicar las diferencias individuales en la conducta agresiva (Bailey & Ostrov, 2008; Dodge, Lochman, Harnish, Bates, & Pettit, 1997; Pettit, Polaha, & Mize, 2001), partiendo de la hipótesis de que algunas personas desarrollan dificultades específicas en el procesamiento de las claves sociales que incrementan el riesgo de comportarse de forma agresiva (ver Dodge, 1980, 1986; Huesmann, 1988; Rubin & Krasnor, 1986). Desde esta perspectiva, se han encontrado evidencias empíricas que señalan que las personas agresivas poseen déficits en distintos procesos cognitivos, por ejemplo, menor atención a señales relevantes, búsqueda de menos información, sesgo de atribución hostil en las intenciones de otras, o una reducida generación de soluciones (Bailey & Ostrov, 2008; Schultz, Izard, & Bear, 2004). Más recientemente, el modelo PIS fue reformulado por Lemerise y Arsenio (2000) para incluir el papel de las emociones y el procesamiento de éstas en las interacciones sociales. El modelo integrador de los procesos cognitivos y emocionales de Lemerise y Arsenio (2000) destaca la emoción como un componente esencial que puede influir en el García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 22 procesamiento de la información social a través de las distintas fases propuestas por Crick y Dodge (1994). En las fases 1 y 2 de codificación e interpretación de señales, las claves afectivas tanto propias como de los interlocutores son una fuente principal de información (Saarni, 1999). En la fase 3 de clarificación de metas, las emociones pueden actuar favoreciendo la elección de una meta particular, acorde con el estado de ánimo (Crick & Dodge, 1994). Una persona que esté experimentando emociones negativas intensas es más probable que se focalice en metas instrumentales o de evitación. Además, el estado emocional de los demás también puede influir en las metas escogidas, favoreciendo metas de afiliación ante emociones positivas, o por el contrario, emociones negativas que pueden desalentar a mantener el contacto. En la fase 4 y 5, estos autores postulan que los procesos emocionales pueden influir en la accesibilidad de respuestas necesarias para conseguir la meta propuesta. Una alta intensidad emocional puede dificultar la generación de respuestas. Los buenos reguladores emocionales consideran la situación desde múltiples perspectivas cognitivas y afectivas, facilitando el seleccionar una respuesta más competente (Saarni, 1999). Por último, en la fase 6, la intensidad de las emociones y la capacidad para regularlas puede influir en la puesta en marcha de la acción seleccionada. En condiciones de baja intensidad emocional, incluso personas que presentan desajuste social pueden llegar a mostrar un comportamiento adaptativo y no agresivo. Sin embargo, cuando la intensidad emocional es alta, algunas personas presentan más dificultades para poner en marcha dicha acción. En líneas generales, este modelo sugiere que la presencia de déficits en el procesamiento emocional dificulta el desarrollo de un comportamiento social competente. Al igual que con el modelo de Crick y Dodge (1994), existe evidencia empírica que apoya la relación entre la existencia de déficits en el procesamiento emocional a través de las fases del PIS y el comportamiento agresivo (Camodeca & Goosens, 2005; de Castro, Merk, Koops, Veerman, & Bosch, 2005), por ejemplo, la García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 23 presencia de déficits en la fase de codificación puede llevar a la detección de expresiones de ira en la otra persona durante una situación ambigua, facilitando una atribución hostil en los demás, e incrementando el riesgo de desarrollar una conducta agresiva (Dodge & Somberg, 1987; Lösel, Bliesener, & Bender, 2007; Schultz et al., 2004). Modelo general de agresión (Anderson & Bushman, 2002) Aunque son numerosos los modelos que se han propuesto en la literatura para explicar los comportamientos agresivos, el Modelo General de Agresión (MGA; Anderson & Bushman, 2002) destaca como uno de los más utilizados en la actualidad. Este modelo está formulado como un marco integrador de diferentes teorías de la conducta agresiva que permite unificar la aportación de todas ellas en un solo modelo, por tanto, abarca el estudio de la agresión desde distintas perspectivas. El MGA explica la agresión conceptualizándola desde una definición amplia, como el intento intencionado de hacer daño a otra persona, sin hacer distinción del tipo de daño o forma o de a quién va dirigido el comportamiento. Este modelo intenta explicar las diferencias individuales en los distintos niveles de procesamiento implicados en el comportamiento agresivo, destacando tres aspectos o fases principales: la interacción persona y situación, el estado interno de la persona, y los procesos de evaluación y toma de decisiones (DeWall, Anderson, & Bushman, 2011). En la primera fase, el MGA postula que las características de la situación y distintos factores de la persona interactúan entre sí. Entre los factores personales residen todas aquellas características de la persona que puedan influir en una determinada situación como, por ejemplo, predisposiciones genéticas, sexo, edad, rasgos de personalidad, actitudes, creencias, o metas a largo plazo. Por otra parte, los factores situacionales incluyen todos aquellos rasgos de la situación que pueda afectar al García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 30 con el fin de que el uso de esta escala posibilite el avance en este campo de estudio. Para ello, el objetivo del tercer estudio fue el desarrollo de la adaptación y validación al español del Cuestionario de Agresión Desplazada (Denson et al., 2006), compuesto por tres subescalas o dimensiones: agresión desplazada, rumiación de la ira y planificación de la venganza ante una situación de provocación.  Estudio 4. El propósito del cuarto estudio fue profundizar en el conocimiento sobre la relación entre IEH y agresión. Los objetivos de este trabajo fueron: en primer lugar, aportar datos preliminares acerca de la asociación entre variables que no han sido estudiadas hasta la fecha, como la relación entre IEH y agresión indirecta, y entre IEH y rumiación de la ira. En segundo lugar, examinar el mecanismo a través del cual las habilidades emocionales ejercen su papel sobre las conductas agresivas, analizando el posible papel mediador de la rumiación de la ira en esta relación. 31 Tabla 3. Estudios que componen la Tesis Doctoral Estudios N = Total (hombres; mujeres) Media edad(M); Desviación típica(DT) Variables estudiadas Diseño Análisis estadístico 1. Relationship between EI and Aggression: A Systematic Review. 19 Estudios IE Agresión Metodología sistemática Revisión teórica 2. Relationship between EI and aggression in adults and adolescents: crosssectional and longitudinal evidence using an ability measure Subestudio 1: N= 474 (156; 318) M = 22.76, DT = 5.13 Subestudio 2: N= 151 (75; 76) M = 14.74, DT = .84 IEH Agresión (Física, Verbal) IEH Agresión (Física, Verbal) Transversal Longitudinal Análisis correlacional de Pearson Análisis de regresión jerárquica Análisis correlacional de Pearson Análisis de regresión jerárquica 3.Validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the Displaced Aggression Questionnaire N = 429 (104; 325) M= 30.13, DT = 10.72) Agresión ( física, verbal, indirecta; desplazada) Rasgo de ira ( rasgo de ira, control ira, expresión de ira) 5 grandes rasgos de personalidad Rumiación de la ira Estrategias de regulación emocional Transversal Fiabilidad test-retest Análisis factorial Análisis correlacional de Pearson 4. Angry rumination as a mediator of the relationship between ability emotional intelligence and various types of aggression N= 243 (52; 191) M = 21.78, DT = 4.38 IEH Agresión (física, verbal, indirecta) Rumiación de la ira Transversal Correlación de Pearson Modelo de ecuaciones estructurales García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 32 CAPÍTULO 2 ________________________________ ESTUDIOS QUE COMPONEN LA TESIS DOCTORAL García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 33 ESTUDIO 1 ________________________________ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND AGGRESSION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 34 Abstract Emotional Intelligence (EI), defined as a set of abilities for perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions, has been associated with a better psychosocial adjustment. Empirical studies have found a positive relationship of EI with social function and a negative one with conflicts in social relationships. The purpose of this study was to systematically review available evidence on the relationship between EI and aggression. PubMed, PsycINFO and Scopus were searched for relevant articles in English and Spanish, and 19 eligible studies were identified. Together, these studies provide strong evidence that emotional abilities and aggressive behavior are negatively related: people with higher EI show less aggression. This relationship appears to be consistent across ages (from childhood to adulthood), cultures, types of aggression, and EI measures. Few studies have assessed EI using ability tests, and none of the eligible studies was longitudinal or experimental. These findings are discussed in relation to future research on aggression and strategies to prevent and manage it based on EI. Keywords: emotional intelligence, systematic review, aggression García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 35 Introduction According to the World Report on Violence and Health (2002), each year more than 1.6 million people around the world die as a result of violent behavior. In fact, violent behavior is one of the major causes of death for people aged 15-44. The prevalence and frequency of violent behavior around the world are far greater if we take into account violence that does not lead to death. Human aggression is defined as any behavior directed toward another individual that is carried out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm. In addition, the perpetrator must believe that the behavior will harm the target, and that the target is motivated to avoid the behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Aggressive behavior produces negative effects not only in the victims, but also in the aggressors. More aggressive adolescents show clear psychosocial maladjustment, low academic performance, absenteeism from school, involvement in delinquent acts, substance abuse, and various mental health problems, including higher levels of depression (Moffitt, 2006; Ostrov & Godleski, 2009; Piquero et al., 2007). More aggressive adults are more likely than less aggressive ones to exhibit psychiatric problems and criminal behavior as well as experience poor marital relations and unemployment (Alsaker & Olweus, 2002; Asberg, 1994; Coccaro et al., 2009; Farrington, 1991). Victims of aggression, for their part, suffer myriad negative consequences, including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and stress effects such as headaches, difficulty sleeping, and a desire to skip school in the case of children and adolescents (Cava et al., 2010; Crick & Bigbee, 1998; O´Moore & Kirkham, 2001). García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 36 The strong influence of aggression on psychosocial adjustment and mental health outcomes highlights the importance of identifying variables that can increase or inhibit aggressive behavior. Knowledge of such variables is critical not only for understanding the mechanisms of aggression in greater detail, but also for designing effective programs for violence prevention and aggression management. Numerous studies have sought to understand processes that can affect aggression, including behavioral inhibition and control, empathy, and anger management (Barnett & Mann, 2013; Denson et al., 2011; Pedersen et al., 2011; Van der Graaff et al., 2012; Vasquez et al., 2012; Wallace, Barry, Zeigler-Hill, & Green, 2012). Among processes thought to influence aggressive behavior, emotional intelligence (EI) has emerged as a potentially relevant variable (Brackett, Mayer, & Warner, 2004). Several studies have generated substantial evidence of an important association. However each study by itself has analyzed only a small part of the overall association, either because of a relatively small sample size or because participants were limited to one age group or culture. In order to examine the field as comprehensively as possible, and provide reliable conclusions based on the largest sample sizes, we have performed a systematic review of studies that analyze the relationship between EI and aggression. Emotional intelligence EI is defined as “the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth” (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p. 10). EI has been conceptualized primarily from two theoretical approaches: as a trait or as a mental ability. Trait EI, considered a personality trait, refers to the tendency or proclivity of a person to García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 37 manage his or her emotions. Trait EI is usually measured using self-report instruments, such as the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue; Petrides, 2009), which asks the respondent to estimate the degree to which he or she possesses certain emotional abilities (Petrides et al., 2007). In the second theoretical approach, EI is defined as a set of abilities that support the adaptive use of emotions as part of our cognitive processes. In other words, EI is genuinely considered a form of intelligence. Ability EI is usually assessed using performance test, such as the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002). This instrument is a performance test because it requires individuals to solve tasks, and it is an objective test because there are better and worse answers on it, as determined by consensus or expert scoring (Brackett et al., 2011; Mayer et al., 2000). EI theory predicts that people who are better at perceiving, understanding, using, and managing their own emotions and others' emotions are more likely to be psychosocially adjusted (Mayer et al., 2008). This prediction is well supported by empirical studies that demonstrate a positive relationship of EI with social function and quality of social relationships, and a negative relationship of EI with number of negative interactions and conflicts in social relationships (Brackett et al., 2011). Emotional intelligence and aggression In light of the relationship between EI and variables related to social function, several authors have begun to investigate whether the inability to manage emotions is associated not only with conflict behaviors in relationships but also with more serious behaviors problems as aggressive conducts (Lomas, Stough, Hansen, & Downey, 2012). Some studies have investigated possible associations between EI and different García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 38 manifestations of aggression (e.g., physical, verbal) in different contexts (e.g., in school, with a partner, during sex) (Moriarty, Stough, Tidmarsh, Eger, & Dennison, 2001; Siu, 2009). The objective of the present work was to systematically review the literature on EI and aggression in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the relationship across different theoretical conceptualizations of EI, different types of aggression, and different ages and cultural contexts. This should allow us to develop a clear picture of the current state of research and propose future lines of investigation to complement existing gaps in the field. Method MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Scopus databases were carefully searched over the period of 5-9, November 2012 for articles published in English or Spanish in scientific journals, without regard for the year of publication. Relevant articles were tagged when they contained “emotional intelligence” as a keyword or as a term in the title or abstract, together with one or more additional search terms. In PsycINFO, these additional terms were “aggressive behavior”, “aggressiveness”, and “behavior problems”; in MEDLINE, they were the MeSH terms “social behavior”, “aggression”, and “social problem”. Articles were also tagged if they contained, as keywords or in the title or abstract, a combination of the phrases “emotional intelligence” and one or more of the following terms: “aggress*”, “antisocial behavior”, “social behavior”, “behavior problem”, or “social problems”. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 39 Inclusion and exclusion criteria The first criterion for inclusion in our systematic review was that it be an empirical study about the relationship between EI and aggression, leading us to exclude theoretical studies, reviews, and meta-analyses. Studies had to evaluate EI based on a model of EI as a set of specific, interrelated emotional abilities. This led us to exclude studies that relied on evaluation measures not grounded in EI theory, such as those that related aggression to emotional perception or regulation using instruments not grounded in an EI framework. We included studies even if they evaluated only one emotional competency, as long as they evaluated it within an EI framework. Given the broad range of subtly different concepts understood under the term "aggression", including aggressivity, violence, and bullying; and given the diversity of empirical approaches to analyze aggression, we decided to restrict ourselves to studies examining aggression as defined by Anderson and Bushman (2002). Thus, we included only studies that examined an association between EI and a variable that presupposed the proximate (immediate) intention to cause harm to another individual, regardless of the specific type of harm involved. We excluded studies based on variables that did not presuppose such an intention, such as Machiavellianism, which measures the tendency of a person to exhibit manipulative behaviors in order to advance his or her own interests (Christie & Geis, 1970), but not necessarily in order to cause harm to another. Literature searches Database searches identified 446 relevant studies: 191 in Scopus, 93 in MEDLINE and 162 in Psycinfo. Elimination of duplicates gave 240 potentially eligible studies, the titles and abstracts of which were screened against the inclusion and exclusion criteria. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 46 Table 5. Studies of EI and aggression in adolescents. Study EI scale Type of aggression Sample (N) Principal results Elipe et al. (2012) TMMS Bullying, telephone bullying, cyberbullying 5754 (2923 young men, 2831 young women) EI was negative related to bullying. Emotional attention and emotional repair were negative related to bullying. Downey et al. (2010) Adolescent SUEIT Type not reported 145 (60 young men, 85 young women) Emotional understanding and emotional management and control were negatively related with aggressive behaviors. The use of non-productive coping strategies mediated the relationship between emotional management and aggression. Liau et al. (2003) EIS Type not reported 203 (106 young men, 97 young women) Adolescents with higher EI showed less aggressive behavior. EI moderated the relationship between parental control and aggression. Lomas et al. (2012) Adolescent SUEIT Bullying 68 (31 young men, 37 young women) Better understanding of others' emotions was negatively associated with tendency to engage in bullying. Moriarty et al. (2001) TMMS ___ 64 (15 male sexual aggressors, 49 male non-aggressor students) The sexual aggressor group showed lower emotional clarity and repair than the non-aggressor group. Sexual aggressors paid higher attention to feelings. Oluyinka (2009) EIS Bullying 215 (106 young men, 109 young women) EI was negatively related to bullying. EI mediated the relationship between misbehavior and bullying. Siu (2009) EIS Physical and verbal 325 (167 young men, 158 young women) Poor use of emotions predicted aggressive behaviors. Abbreviations: TMMS, Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey et al., 1995); Adolescent SUEIT, Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (Luebbers, Downey & Stough, 2007); EIS, Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998). García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 47 Results with adults Our search identified seven studies examining the relationship between EI and aggression in adults. Four of those studies evaluated EI using self-report instruments, while three assessed it using an ability measure (Table 6). Studies based on self-reported EI Gardner and Qualter (2010) examined the validity, both concurrent and incremental, of three EI instruments for various criterion variables, including physical and verbal aggression. The three instruments were EIS (Shutte et al., 1998), the Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment (MEIA; Tett, Fox, & Wang, 2005), and TEIQue (Petrides, 2009). Results with all three instruments indicated a negative relationship of EI with physical and verbal aggression; the relationship was stronger when the TEIQue was used. Similar results were obtained by Mansfield, Addis, Cordova, and Lynn (2009), who examined the relationship of EI, as assessed using the TMMS, with physical and verbal aggression in adults participating in a treatment program for emotional regulation and anger management. Various analyses showed that, in men, EI mediated the relationship between aggression and insecure attachment, as well as the relationship between aggression and presence of symptoms characteristics of post-traumatic stress. In women, by contrast, EI mediated only the relationship between aggression and the presence of trauma symptoms. Vernon et al. (2009) focused on a different type of aggression. They found that EI, as assessed using the TEIQue (Petrides, 2009), was negatively associated with aggressive humor, which involves using sense of humor to harm another person. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 48 Winters, Clift, and Dutton (2004) published one of the few studies on EI and spouse abuse. They evaluated EI using the EQ-i (Bar-On, 1997). In Study 1, adult males with at least one conviction for spouse abuse were found to have lower EI scores compared with the normative scores. Their low EI levels correlated with propensity to abuse their partners. Study 2 replicated Study 1 with male and female university students, demonstrating that the results in Study 1 also applied to the general population. The results of Study 2 also showed a negative relationship between EI and propensity to abuse a partner; this relationship was observed in both the women and men in the sample. Together these studies indicate a relationship between deficits in emotional competencies and the tendency to commit aggressive acts against a romantic partner. Studies based on ability measures of EI All the three studies based on ability measures of EI used the MSCEIT. Plugia et al. (2005) compared EI among three groups of adult men: sexual aggressors, non-sexual aggressors, and matched control individuals with no criminal record. EI levels in the sexual aggressor group were similar to those in the control group, but both these groups differed significantly from the non-sexual aggressor group. Non-sexual aggressors showed significantly lower emotional perception than the other two groups. The negative relationship between EI and use of aggressive sense of humor, which Vernon et al. (2009) reported based on a self-report EI assessment, was also observed in a study (Yip & Martin, 2006) whose results shown that people who used aggressive humor to a greater extent had lower emotional perception, suggesting that the use of this negative humor may reflect a deficit in the perception of one's own emotions and those of others.Côte, DeCelles, McCarthy, Van Kleed, and Hideg (2011) examined the relationship of emotional management, as assessed using the MSCEIT, with a self- García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 49 reported measure of deviant behavior ( e.g., embarrass someone at work) and related variables (Machiavellianism). The results did not demonstrate a direct association between emotional management and deviant conduct. They did, however, show that the level of emotional regulation moderated the association between Machiavellianism and deviant conduct: among individuals with a strong Machiavellian trait, those showing high emotional management exhibited more deviant behaviors than did those showing low emotional management. Discussion Conclusions The present systematic review analyzed the literature on EI and aggression, identifying 19 relevant studies, of which 18 reported a negative relationship between the two constructs. In other words, people with high EI exhibited fewer aggressive behaviors than those with low EI. These results were consistent across different ages, from childhood to adulthood, and across cultural contexts, including the US, Spain, China, Malaysia, Canada, Australia, and the UK. These results also appear to be independent of the type of aggression (e.g., physical, sexual or humor-based) as well as independent of whether EI was assessed by self-report or ability measure. Studies in children, adolescents, and adults point to a negative association between emotional abilities and aggression. In studies in children, this finding was robust to whether the assessment of aggressive behavior came from the parents, classmates or the study participant himself. The included studies suggest that the negative relationship between EI and aggression does not depend on the type of aggression or on its severity. People with higher EI were less involved in aggressive actions of all types, including aggressive humor, pushes, punches, shouting, threats, partner abuse, and sexual violence. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 50 Indeed, the negative relationship between EI and aggression was observed both in the normal population and in people convicted of criminal aggression. Table 6. Studies of EI and aggression in adults. Study EI scale Type of aggression Sample (N) Principal results Garder & Qualter (2010) EIS, TEIQue, MEIA Physical and verbal 310 (74 men, 236 women) EI was related to physical and verbal aggression, anger and hostility. Mansfield et al. (2009) TMMS Physical and verbal 92 members of an emotional regulation therapy group (49 men, 43 women) EI was negatively related to aggression in women and men. Vernon et al. (2009) Study 1: TEIQue Study 2: TEIQue SF Study 1: Aggressive humor Study 2: Aggressive humor Study 1: 862 (261 men, 601 women) Study 2: 3936 (332 men, 3604 women) Study 1: Individuals using aggressive humor showed lower EI. Study 2: Individuals with higher EI showed lower use of aggressive humor. Winters et al. (2004) Study 1: EQ-i Study 2: EQ-i Study 1: Propensity to abuse Study 2: Propensity to abuse Study 1: 44 adults convicted of spouse abuse Study 2: 76 university students (33 men, 43 women) Study 1: Abusers showed low EI scores. Study 2: EI was negatively related with the propensity to abuse, in women and men. Yip & Martin (2006) MSCEIT Aggressive humor 111 (45 men, 66 women) Emotional perception was negatively related to use of aggressive humor. Puglia et al. (2005) MSCEIT ___ 56 (19 sexual delinquents, 18 non-sexual delinquents, 19 non-delinquent controls) Sexual aggressors and nondelinquent controls perceived others' emotions better than did the non-sexual aggressors. There were no significant differences between the sexual aggressors and the controls. Côté et al. (2011) MSCEIT Deviant interpersonal behavior 252 (69 men, 183 women) Emotional regulation was not directly associated with deviant conduct. The interaction between Machiavellianism and emotional management positively predicted deviant conduct. Abbreviations: EIS, Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998); TEIQue, Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (Petrides, 2009); MEIA, Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment (Tett et al., 2005); TMMS, Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salove et al., 1995); MSCEIT, Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (Mayer et al, 2002); TEIQue, Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form (Petrides, 2009); EQ-I, Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On, 1997). García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 51 All but three studies in our review assessed EI using self-report instruments. Their results were consistent with the remaining three studies based on ability measures of EI. The fact that studies based on ability measures reported a negative relationship between EI and aggression highlights the importance of emotional perception in aggression. This is consistent with previous research suggesting that difficulties in the ability to perceive others' emotions can lead to hostile attribution bias, engendering a reactive and aggressive attitude (Crick & Dodge, 1994). At the same time, one study of our review that assessed EI by ability measures highlight how sometimes emotional abilities facilitate rather than inhibit aggressive behavior. Côte et al. (2011) showed that individuals with high Machiavellianism and emotionally skilled can initiate aggressive or deviant behaviors to obtain his or her objectives. These findings provide an important counterbalance to the many studies describing how emotional ability management can protect against aggressive conduct and highlight the role of personality traits to use emotional skills. Research has sought to examine more deeply the relationship between EI and aggression by analyzing the ability of EI to mediate or moderate the association between aggression and related variables. For example, EI mediates the relationship between adolescent misconduct and aggressive actions (Oluyinka, 2009), the relationship between post-traumatic symptoms and aggression in adult men and women, and the relationship between insecure attachment and aggression in adult men (Mansfield et al., 2009). In addition, among adolescents under strong control of their parents, those with high EI exhibit less aggressive conduct than those with low EI (Liau et al., 2003). Moreover, Downey et al. (2012) explored whether other variables may influence the relationship between EI and aggression. They found that, when faced with a problem, people with lower EI are more likely to use non-productive coping strategies, focus on reducing one´s García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 52 own distress instead of solving the problem. These is according to previous research showing that aggression is positively associated with regulation strategies focusing on only emotion, such as anger rumination, after a conflict (Denson, 2013). Limitations of the included studies While the studies in this review have allowed us to identify a relationship between EI and aggression, they suffer from certain limitations. First, none of the studies involved a longitudinal design. Second, none examined the relationship between EI and aggression experimentally, limiting our ability to draw causal inferences from the results. Third, most studies assessed EI using self-report instruments, with only three assessing it using ability tests. In addition, these three tests involved only adults and particularly severe types of aggression less prevalent in the general population. Fourth, the participants in most investigations presented only low to medium levels of aggression, raising the question of whether the findings also apply to more serious aggressive behavior. Future research The insights from the included studies, as well as their limitations, immediately suggest several lines of research to fill gaps in the literature and extend current knowledge. Longitudinal, experimental studies are urgently needed to verify and extend these findings about the relationship between EI and aggression. Studies in children and adolescents that assess EI using ability measures are also needed. Indeed, studies should seek to confirm the observed relationship between EI and aggression in adults using ability measures and exploring additional types of aggression, such as physical, verbal and relational. Some authors have shown in others studies gender differences in the relationship between EI and variables such as depression, substance abuse, and social conduct García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 53 (Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman, Lerner, & Salovey, 2006; Lishner, Swin, Hong, & Vitacco, 2011; Salguero, Extremera, & Fernández-Berrocal, 2012). Possible gender effects were not systematically addressed in the studies in our review, highlighting the need for future work on this question. Other variables, such as coping styles, have already been shown to mediate the relationship between EI and aggression. Future work should explore what non-productive coping strategies, such as anger rumination, specifically mediate this relationship. Increased knowledge of the variables that affect aggression will allow better understanding of this phenomenon and will facilitate the design of more effective prevention and treatment programs. For example, better knowledge of the role of emotional abilities in aggressive behaviors will help create programs focused on precisely those aspects of EI most strongly related to aggression. The goal would be to increase those abilities in individuals, enabling them to manage their emotions better and inhibit aggressive conduct (Castillo, Salguero, Fernández-Berrocal, & Balluerka, 2013). García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 54 ESTUDIO 2 ________________________________ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND AGGRESSION IN ADULTS AND ADOLESCENTS: CROSS-SECTIONAL AND LONGITUDINAL EVIDENCE USING AN ABILITY MEASURE García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 55 Abstract Emotional intelligence (EI) has been associated with several indicators of psychosocial adjustment, including aggressive behavior, but the relevant research has been mostly cross-sectional, focused on adults, and limited to trait EI measures. The present work examined in the Study 1 the incremental validity of EI beyond personality traits in adults, showing incremental validity in the case of physical aggression, but not in the case of verbal aggression. Study 2 was a longitudinal analysis of the relationship between EI and aggression in adolescents. EI predicted physical aggression over time, but it did not predict verbal aggression. Results from both studies suggest a negative relationship between ability EI and physical aggression, highlighting the important explanatory role of emotional abilities in aggressive behavior. Keywords: emotional intelligence, aggression, longitudinal, personality García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 62 it showed incremental validity beyond gender and personality (β = - .12, p = .004; ∆R2 = .01, p ≤ .004). In the test of the incremental validity of AEI in verbal aggression (Table 8), gender was not included because it did not correlate significantly with that outcome. In the first step, agreeableness and neuroticism were entered and found to account for 16% of variance. In the second step, the AEI score was entered. Contrary to our expectations, AEI did not contribute significantly to explaining verbal aggression levels (β = - .07, p = .08; ∆R2 = .001, p = .09). Table 8. Hierarchical regression of gender, personality and AEI on physical and verbal aggression Note: * p<.05; ** p<.01 Physical aggression Verbal aggression R2 ∆R2 F β R2 ∆R2 F β Step 1 Gender .04 .04** 23.88 -.22** Step 1 Agreeableness Neuroticism .16 .16** 45.59 -.35** .11* Step 2 Gender Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism .24 .20** 38.02 -.23** -.34** -.06 .18** Step 2 Agreeableness Neuroticism EI .16 .00 31.50 -.34** .10* -.07 Step 3 Gender Agreeableness Conscientiousness Neuroticism EI .25 .01** 32.53 -.21** -.33** -.05 .17** -.12** García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 63 Study 2 Method Participants and procedure A total of 151 adolescents (75 males, 76 females) aged 13-17 years (M = 14.74, SD = .84) were recruited from secondary schools. Participants completed the measures in two sessions spaced 9 months apart: in one session at the start of the academic year (Time 1), they completed the measures of AEI and of physical and verbal aggression; at another session 9 months later (Time 2), they completed the measure of physical and verbal aggression. Measures were completed during the normal school day. The consent of participants and their parents or legal guardians was obtained prior to participation in the study. All were assured that participant responses would remain anonymous. Measures Physical and verbal aggression. We administered the Spanish version of the AQ (Buss & Perry, 1992); the internal consistency of each factor and of the total score is satisfactory in Spanish adolescents (Santisteban, Alvarado, Recio, & 2007). Emotional Intelligence. We used the Test de Inteligencia Emocional de la Fundación Botín para Adolescentes (TIEFBA; Fernández-Berrocal, Extremera, Palomera, Ruiz-Aranda, & Salguero, 2015). This is a maximum performance test that assesses emotional intelligence based on the Mayer and Salovey theoretical model (1997). The TIEFBA comprises 8 emotion-eliciting scenes in which four tasks proposed in each scene evaluate the four branches of the Mayer and Salovey model (1997): perceiving emotions, facilitating thought, understanding emotions and managing emotions. The instrument gives four scores referring to the four branches as well as a global score that García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 64 comprises the four branches. In the present study, only the total score was used, after correcting based on expert consensus. The TIEFBA was developed originally for a Spanish adolescent sample, and its factorial structure is consistent with the Mayer and Salovey model. It showed good internal consistency: perceiving emotions, α = .86; facilitating thought, α = .76; understanding emotions, α = .76; managing emotions, α = .74; and overall AEI score, α = .91. The instrument showed low correlations with personality traits, ranging from r = .01 with neuroticism to r = .08 with extraversion; overall AEI score showed moderate association with verbal intelligence (r = .39). Results Table 9 reports means, standard deviations, reliabilities and correlations between the variables at Time 1 and Time 2. Similar to the results in Study 1, AEI scores in Study 2 showed a significant negative correlation with physical aggression, both at Time 1 (r = -.30, p = .001) and at Time 2 (r = -.35, p = .001). AEI scores did not correlate significantly with verbal aggression at Time 1 (r = -.10, p = .21), but they did show a correlation at Time 2 (r = -.17, p = .03). Table 9. Means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and correlations of the variables of interest 1 2 3 4 5 1. AEI - 2. Physical aggression at Time 1 -.30** - 3. Verbal aggression at Time 1 -.10 .51** - 4. Physical aggression at Time 2 -.35** .67** .23** - 5. Verbal aggression at Time 2 -.17* .37** .51** .46** - M (SD) .36 (.09) 2.43 (.84) 2.60 (.82) 2.50 (.83) 2.66(.72) α .93 .83 .74 .83 .66 Note: * p<.05; ** p<.01 In order to examine the predictive validity of AEI for physical and verbal aggression in adolescents, two hierarchical regression analyses were conducted for each García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 65 type of aggression. As in Study 1, we introduced gender as a covariate in the first step of the regression when it correlated significantly with the type of aggression in question. To determine the unique contribution of AEI scores to physical aggression, we controlled for baseline levels of physical aggression at Time 1, and then we entered the AEI score. High AEI levels at Time 1 predicted lower physically aggressive behavior at Time 2 in adolescents over and above the significant contribution of baseline levels of physical aggression at Time 1 (β = - .15, p = .019, ∆R2 = .02). On the other hand, contrary to our expectations, the longitudinal model for predicting verbal aggression from AEI was not significant (β = - .10, ∆R2 = .01, p = .15; Table 10). Table 10. Hierarchical regression analyses showing the variance in physical and verbal aggression at Time 2 that was accounted for by baseline levels of physical and verbal aggression and AEI at Time 1 Physical aggression at Time 2 Verbal agression at Time 2 R2 ∆R2 F β R2 ∆R2 F β Step 1 Gender .13 .13** 23.9 -.37** Step 1 Gender .03 .03 4.95 -.18* Step 2 Gender Physical aggression at Time 1 .46 .33** 66.43 -.17** .61** Step 2 Gender Verbal aggression at Time 1 .26 .24 27.17 -.11 .50** Step 3 Gender Physical aggression at Time 1 AEI .48 .02* 47.52 -.15* .57** -.15* Step 3 Gender Physical aggression at Time 1 EI .26 .01 18.90 -.10 .49** -.10 Note: * p<.05; ** p<.01 Discussion The present study aimed to address important gaps in the research literature on the relationship between EI and aggression by focusing on AEI, assessing the incremental validity of AEI beyond personality factors and including adolescents in the study García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 66 population in a longitudinal study. The results of both Study 1 in adults and Study 2 in adolescents indicate a negative association between AEI and physical aggression. The results in Study 1 further suggest incremental validity of AEI even after adjusting for personality factors already known to influence aggressive behavior. Our observation of a negative association between AEI and physical aggression in adults and adolescents alike is consistent with previous studies showing higher incidence of aggressive behavior in individuals with lower AIE (Plugia et al., 2005; Yip & Martin, 2006). Our findings are also consistent with studies based on EI self-report measures showing a negative relationship between TEI and aggressive behavior in different age groups (García-Sancho et al., 2014). The fact that our both studies have given consistent results despite relying on different AEI measures suggests the robustness of the findings. Our results nuance this association by suggesting that while it is strong in the case of physical aggression, it is weak in the case of verbal aggression. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the incremental validity of AEI for predicting aggression over and above the influence of personality, which has long been known to influence aggressive behavior (Barlett & Anderson, 2012; Grumm & von Collani, 2009). Our results in Study 1 suggest that AEI does indeed explain some variance in physical aggression beyond what personality factors explain. These findings extend the list of outcomes for which AEI has shown incremental validity beyond personality traits; this list already includes alcohol use, the existence of positive adult relationships, and various mental and social health indicators, such as disruptive behavior (Davis & Humphrey, 2012; Rossen & Kranzler, 2009). Taken together, these studies point to AEI as an important construct capable of significantly predicting variables related to social functioning independently of personality traits. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 67 In fact, our results with adolescents in Study 2 showed that AEI measured at one time predicted some variance in physical aggression 9 months later, even after controlling for the criterion variable at baseline and for gender, which has been associated with aggressive behavior in numerous studies (Card et al., 2008). The present findings, which to our knowledge are the first longitudinal results linking AEI and aggression, suggest that emotional abilities can prevent individuals from engaging in physically aggressive conduct, such as striking or pushing another. The association between AEI and physical aggression appears to be much stronger than that between AEI and verbal aggression. In addition, AEI did not show incremental validity beyond personality in adults, nor did it predict verbal aggression levels at Time 2 in adolescents. It is difficult to compare these findings with the literature or to propose explanations for the observed difference between physical and verbal aggression, since most previous studies used a general index of direct aggression that aggregates physical and verbal aggression. Nevertheless, one study analyzing the two types of aggression separately showed that TEI was significantly and negatively associated with physical aggression, but not with verbal aggression (Gardner & Qualter, 2010). Another study reported that TEI did not show incremental validity in the case of verbal aggression (Petrides, 2009). Some authors has showed that use of AEI may facilitate both prosocial and interpersonally deviant behavior, depending on individual´s personality traits, the type of goals and the motivation to achieve a specific aim (e.g. inhibit or not aggression behavior) (Côte et al., 2011). Thus, in case the person have the aim to inhibit aggressive behavior, high level of AEI may help to achieve it. Given that verbal aggression is considered more socially acceptable than physical aggression in most cultures (Fujihara, Kohyama, Andreu, & Ramirez, 1999; Ramirez, 2007), we speculate that individuals who García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 68 believe that verbal aggression is justified may not feel the need to activate their AEI in order to inhibit such behavior, whereas they do rely on AEI to inhibit less socially acceptable physical aggression. This may help explain why we observed such a weak association between verbal aggression and AEI. Our findings implicating emotional processing in aggressive behaviors can be integrated into the GAM, which continues to guide most of the literature on aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). AEI may operate in the GAM on multiple levels. First, it may influence the interaction between situational and person factors. In this sense, AEI may form part of the repertory of competencies, different from personality traits that interact with the situation to give rise to an internal state. This may help explain the observation by many authors that a deficit in the ability to perceive one’s own and others’ emotions can lead individuals to make a hostile attribution in a socially ambiguous situation. In this case, the individual interprets the situation erroneously, generating an internal state of hostile cognition, negative affect and elevated arousal, facilitating an aggressive response (Crick & Dodge, 1994; de Castro et al., 2005). AEI may also operate on other processing levels within the GAM. AEI may participate in processes of appraisal and decision-making, bringing to bear abilities to understand one’s own and others’ emotions as well as regulation strategies that together can reduce negative affect, facilitating a choice to behave non-aggressively. Indeed, various studies have demonstrated how the use of effective emotion regulation strategies can reduce the probability of acting aggressively (Roberton et al., 2012). While the present work fills several important gaps in the literature, it has several limitations of its own. First, aggresion was assessed using self-report measures, increasing risk of bias. Second, we did not address others types of aggression, such as relational García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 69 aggression, which numerous studies have suggested is the most frequent type of adult aggression and is associated with women in particular (Björkqvist, Osterman, & Kaukiainen, 1992). It would be interesting, for example, to examine whether the same differential relationship we observed between AEI and physical or verbal aggression is also true for relational and other types of aggression. Third, our longitudinal study involved only adolescents, so it would be important to verify the findings in adults. Despite these limitations, the present findings open the door to future studies of EI and aggressive behavior to elucidate how the two interact. For example, using emotion regulation strategies that are normally ineffective, such as anger rumination, is strongly associated with aggression (Vasquez et al., 2012). Future work should explore the relationship among EI, anger rumination and aggression. Finally, we highlight that EI comprises several emotional abilities, each of which may play different roles in explaining aggressive behavior, and future studies should aim to tease apart their different contributions. Ultimately one of the most important goals of understanding the role of emotional abilities is to develop better interventions, and preliminary evidence suggests that training in such abilities can reduce the incidence of aggressive behavior (Castillo et al., 2013; Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger; 2011). A better understanding of emotional abilities in aggression may help in designing more effective prevention and intervention programs that promote the ability to inhibit such behavior. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 70 ESTUDIO 3 ________________________________ VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE SPANISH VERSION OF THE DISPLACED AGGRESSION QUESTIONNAIRE García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 71 Abstract Displaced aggression occurs when a person is provoked, is unwilling or unable to retaliate against the original provocateur, and subsequently aggresses against a seemingly innocent target. Personality differences exist in the tendency to engage in displaced aggression. The Displaced Aggression Questionnaire (DAQ) is a scale used to assess them. This scale is composed for three factors: an affective dimension (angry rumination), a cognitive dimension (revenge planning) and a behavioral dimension (a general tendency to behave aggressively toward those other than the source of the initial provocation). This study examined the validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the DAQ in a nonclinical sample of 429 adults. The results from confirmatory factor analyses showed a clear three-factors structure, identical with the English version. The results showed a good internal consistency and appropriate test-retest reliability. The correlations between scores on the Spanish version of the DAQ and associated variables such as trait anger and expression, affectivity, personality traits, angry rumination and physical and verbal aggression were in the expected direction. Further, preliminary data about associations between DAQ scores and indirect aggression and emotion regulation strategies are shown. In summary, our results showed evidence of the validity and reliability of the DAQ in a Spanish population. We discuss the utility of this scale for research on different types of aggression (e.g., domestic abuse). Finally, practical recommendations and futures lines of research are suggested. Keywords: aggression, displaced aggression, angry rumination, revenge, Spanish validation García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 78 The Indirect Aggression Scale (IAS; Forrest, Eatough, & Shevlin, 2005) assesses indirect aggression in adults. IAS is a 25-item self-report that use a five-point Likert scale (1 = never experience this behavior to 5 = regularly). The scale has two versions: the indirect aggression scale aggressor version (measuring usage of indirect aggression towards someone else), target version (IAS measuring the experience of being the victim of indirect aggression). We used the aggressor version (e.g., “Talked about them behind their back”). The original version proposed a three-factor structure with Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .81 to .84, but the Spanish version showed a clear one-dimensional structure for indirect aggression from aggressor perspective containing good psychometric properties and high reliabilities as well (α = .87; Anguiano-Carrasco & Vigil-Colet, 2011). The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ; Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2001) is a 36-items self-report questionnaire assessing the cognitive emotional regulation strategies a person tends to use after experiencing negative life events. The questionnaire uses a 5-point Likert response format (from 1 almost never to 5 almost always) and has nine subscales grouped into adaptive (acceptance, positive refocusing, refocus on planning, positive reappraisal, and putting into perspective) and maladaptive regulation strategies (self-blame, rumination, catastrophizing and blaming others). Both the original version, with alphas ranged from .68 to .83, and the Spanish version, with alphas ranged from .61 to .89, showed adequate psychometric properties (Domínguez-Sanchez, Lasa-Aristu, Amor, & Holgado-Tello, 2013). Angry Rumination scale (ARS; Sukhodolsky et al., 2001). The ARS is a selfreport scale consisting of 19 items rated on a 4-point Likert type scale from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always) that assess the tendency to think about anger-provoking situations and to recall anger episodes from the past. The scale has four subscales: angry García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 79 afterthoughts, thoughts of revenge, angry memories, and understanding of causes. The English version has a good internal consistency (  = .93) and adequate test-retest reliability (r = .77). A Spanish version was used that has shown similar psychometrics properties (alphas ranged from .69 to .83) and that confirmed the original four-factor structure (Kannis-Dymand, Salguero, & Ramos-Cejudo, 2014). Procedure Participation was voluntary and anonymous. Student respondents received curse credit for their participation. Non-student respondents were recruited using a snowballsampling technique. They were offered the opportunity to go into a draw to win one shopping voucher (€50.00). The questionnaires were administered electronically, completed individually, and with instructions given in writing. Data analysis The SPSS statistical package was used to compute descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, and internal consistency. EQS 6.1 (Bentler, 1995) was used to perform confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using the maximum likelihood (ML) method. Since departures from multivariate normality can have a significant impact on maximumlikelihood estimation, we calculated descriptive analytical measures prior to conducting CFA analysis. Univariate and multivariate kurtosis statistics were found to indicate nonnormality, so the Satorra-Bentler scaled ML correction was used to adjust the model chisquare (Hu, Bentler, & Kano, 1992). Given the sensitivity of the chi-square statistic to sample size, additional measures of model fit were used (Schweizer, 2010): the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the Bentler comparative fit index (CFI), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). RMSEA values below 0.08 are considered a reasonable fit, whereas values below 0.05 indicate good fit. CFI values García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 80 above 0.90 indicate good fit and SRMR values are expected to be below 0.10 (Schweizer, 2010). Results Factor structure and reliability The hypothesized three factor model showed the following fit indices: S-Bχ2 (df = 431) = 1089.05, p < .001; normed χ2 = 2.53; RMSEA = .06 (90% CI = .055–.064); CFI = .91; SRMR = .06. These indices indicate a good fit to the data, showing that the threefactor solution is acceptable. All factor loadings were statistically significant (p < .05) and higher than .45 (see Table 11), with the exception of the item 31, that showed a loading of small magnitude (.26). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the subscales were .91 for angry rumination, .92 for revenge planning and .94 for displaced aggression. Correlations between DAQ subscales were positive and statistically significant, r = .48 between angry rumination and revenge planning, r = .48 between angry rumination and displaced aggression, and r = .31 between revenge planning and displaced aggression. We also assessed reliability using test-retest correlation. Test-retest reliability over 1 month was rtt = .78 for angry rumination, rtt = .87 for revenge planning, and rtt =.83 for displaced aggression. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 81 Table 11. DAQ items and their confirmatory factor loadings Item # English item original and Spanish translation (in italics) Standardized factor loadings Angry Rumination 1. I keep thinking about events that angered me for a long time Cuando algo me enfada, sigo pensando en ello durante mucho tiempo .72 2. I get “worked up” just thinking about things that have upset me in the past Me enfurezco solo de pensar en cosas que me han molestado en el pasado .79 3. I often find myself thinking over and over about things that have made me angry A menudo pienso una y otra vez en cosas que me han indignado .76 4. Sometimes I can't help thinking about times when someone made me mad A veces no puedo evitar pensar en situaciones en las que alguien me ha enfurecido .79 5. Whenever I experience anger, I keep thinking about it for a while Cada vez que experimento ira no dejo de pensar en ello durante un tiempo .78 6. After an argument is over, I keep fighting with this person in my imagination Después de que una discusión con alguien haya terminado sigo peleando con esa persona en mi imaginación .60 7. I re-enact the anger episode in my mind after it has happened Recreo en mi mente un episodio de ira después de que haya ocurrido .69 8. I feel angry about certain things in my life Me siento enfadado/a por ciertas cosas de mi vida .59 9. I think about certain events from a long time ago and they still make me angry Pienso en determinados acontecimientos ocurridos hace tiempo y que todavía consiguen enfadarme .73 10. When angry, I tend to focus on my thoughts and feelings for a long period of time Cuando estoy enfadado/a, suelo centrarme en mis pensamientos y sentimientos durante mucho tiempo .74 Displaced Aggression 11. When someone or something makes me angry I am likely to take it out on another person Cuando alguien o algo me enfada, suelo tomarla con otra persona .87 12. When feeling bad, I take it out on others Cuando me siento mal, la tomo con otros .91 13. When angry, I have taken it out on people close to me Cuando estoy enfadado/a, la tomo con personas cercanas a mí .90 14. Sometimes I get upset with a friend or family member even though that person is not the cause of my anger or frustration A veces me altero con un amigo o familiar incluso cuando esa persona no es la causa de mi ira o frustración .87 15. I take my anger out on innocent others Pago mi enfado con personas inocentes .92 16. When things don't go the way I plan, I take my frustration out at the first person I see Cuando las cosas no salen como las he planeado, descargo mi frustración en la primera persona que veo .73 17. If someone made me angry I would likely vent my anger on another person Si alguien me enfada, probablemente descargue mi ira con otra persona .80 18. Sometimes I get so upset by work or school that I become hostile toward family or friends A veces me altero por algo en el trabajo o en clase y me pongo hostil con familiares o amigos .79 19. When I am angry, I don't care who I lash out at Si estoy enfadado/a, no importa contra quien arremeta .66 20. If I have had a hard day at work or school, I’m likely to make sure everyone knows about it Si he tenido un día duro en el trabajo o en clase, tiendo a hacer que todos lo sepan .46 Revenge Planning 21. When someone makes me angry I can’t stop thinking about how to get back at this person Cuando alguien me enfada, no puedo parar de pensar como devolvérsela a esa persona .77 22. If somebody harms me, I am not at peace until I can retaliate Si alguien me hace daño, no me siento tranquilizo hasta que consigo vengarme .82 23. I often daydream about situations where I’m getting my own back at people A menudo sueño con situaciones donde consigo vengarme de personas .69 24. I would get frustrated if I could not think of a way to get even with someone who deserves it Podría llegar a frustrarme si no pienso en el modo de ajustar cuentas con alguien que se lo merece .80 25. I think about ways of getting back at people who have made me angry long after the event has happened Pienso en la forma de tomar represalias con alguien que me ha hecho enfadar pasado un tiempo de que haya ocurrido .85 26. If another person hurts you, it's alright to get back at him or her Si alguien te hace daño es justo devolvérsela .77 27. The more time that passes, the more satisfaction I get from revenge Cuanto más tiempo pasa, más satisfacción obtengo de vengarme .77 28. I have long living fantasies of revenge after the conflict is over Cuando un conflicto ha terminado, tengo durante mucho tiempo fantasías de venganza .79 29. When somebody offends me, sooner or later I retaliate Si alguien me ofende, tarde o temprano tomaré represalias .82 30. If a person hurts you on purpose, you deserve to get whatever revenge you can Si una persona te hace daño a propósito, tienes derecho a poder vengarte de ella .70 31. I never help those who do me wrong Nunca ayudo a quien se porta mal conmigo .26 García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 82 Associations between DAQ and related variables We assessed the validity of the DAQ by analysing relationships between their three subscales and measures of related constructs (trait anger, anger expression and control, aggressive behavior, affective style, personality traits, anger rumination and other cognitive and emotional regulation strategies) (Table 12). DAQ subscales correlated in the expected direction with both trait anger and anger expression and anger control variables, with positive associations between the three subscales of the DAQ and trait anger and anger expression (in and out) and negative ones with control anger (in and out). The highest correlations were found between angry rumination and trait anger (r = .56), revenge planning and trait anger (r = .55), and between revenge planning and anger control-out (r = -.51). With respect to affect style, whereas a pattern of positive correlations was found between the three subscales of the DAQ and negative affect (where the highest correlation was observed with angry rumination, r = .58), the contrary pattern was observed in the relationship with positive affect, with angry rumination and revenge planning subscales being significant and negatively associated (although with a lower magnitude as compared with negative affect) with positive affect. Associations in the expected direction were also found between DAQ subscales and different forms of aggressive behavior, with the three DAQ subscales being positively correlated with physical aggression, verbal aggression and indirect aggression. In this case, the highest correlations were found for displaced aggression (r = .58, with physical aggression, and r = .41, with indirect aggression). With respect to personality traits, analyses showed that the highest magnitude correlations were observed in the associations between angry rumination and revenge planning with García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 83 neuroticism (r = .56 and r = .48 respectively). The others traits showed correlations between r = .16 and r = .39 with the Three DAQ subscales. We also analysed the associations between DAQ and another measure of angry rumination, the ARS. As expected, positive and significant correlations were found between the three subscales of the DAQ and all of the subscales of the ARS. Angry rumination was strong linked to angry afterthoughts (r = .77) and angry memories (r = .72), and displaced aggression was strong linked to thoughts of revenge (r = .80). Table 12. Means, standard deviations, alpha reliabilities and correlations between the DAQ subscales and other related variables. Note = *p < .05; **p < .01 Related variable N M(SD) α Angry rumination (N=429; =3.65, SD=1.24; α=.91) Revenge Planning (N=429; M=2.04, SD=1.03; α=.92) Displaced Aggression (N=429; M=2.77, SD=1.27; α=.94) Trait Anger 249 2.17(.52) .84 .56** .55** .36** Anger Expression-Out 249 1.98(.54) .73 .37** .44** .34** Anger Expression-In 249 2.13(.64) .76 .36** .12 .18** Anger Control-Out 249 2.82(.70) .90 -.37** -.51** -.21** Anger Control-In 249 2.46(.77) .87 -.31** -.39** -.20** Positive Affect 249 3.43(.57) .79 -.27** -.17** -.08 Negative Affect 249 1.93(.66) .85 .58** .39** .25** Physical Aggression 249 1.77(.55) .76 .35** .10 .55** Verbal Aggression 249 2.87(.62) .67 .28** .31** .32** Indirect Aggression 249 1.54(.33) .84 .27** .22** .41** Extroversion 249 .42(.10) .86 -.22** -.10 -.06 Neuroticism 249 .38(.10) .85 .56** .48** .23** Openness 249 .37(.06) .81 -.18** -.34** -.06 Agreeableness 249 .42(.06) .66 -.35** -.31** -.39** Conscientiousness 249 .40(.07) .81 -.16** -.07 -.17** Angry Afterthoughts 165 1.68(.64) .87 .77** .40** .54** Thoughts of Revenge 165 1.38(.56) .84 .51** .33** .80** Angry Memories 165 1.75(.46) .72 .72** .43** .56** Understanding of causes 165 2.28(.62) .70 .53** .24** .35** Self-Blame 165 2.47(.77) .65 .20* -.01 .05 Acceptance 165 3.10(.82) .66 .01 -.07 -.01 Rumination 165 3.07(.84) .68 .28** .01 .06 Positive Refocusing 165 2.95(.95) .85 -.20* -.22** -.14 Refocus on Planning 165 3.91(.87) .84 -.21** -.22** -.18* Positive Reappraisal 165 3.94(.90) .82 -.35** -.35** -.28** Putting into Perspective 165 3.57(.96) .84 -.19* -.26** -.15 Catastrophizing 165 1.60(.70) .83 .51** .40** .45** Blaming Others 165 1.77(.63) .81 .54** .35** .53** García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 84 Finally, relationships between DAQ and other cognitive and emotional regulation strategies (as measured by CERQ) were examined. In general, a pattern of negative correlations (of low magnitude) was found between DAQ subscales and different adaptive strategies, with the highest magnitude correlations found for positive reappraisal (r = -.35 with angry rumination, r = -.35 with revenge planning, and r = -.28 with displaced aggression); non-significant correlations were found between any subscale of the DAQ and acceptance. With respect to maladaptive strategies, low or non-significant correlations were found between DAQ subscales and self-blame or rumination (the correlation between angry rumination and rumination was of .28), whereas stronger (and positive) correlations appeared in the associations between DAQ subscales and catastrophizing and blaming others (see Table 12). Discussion The present study assessed the validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the DAQ. Towards this goal, it had three aims: to confirm the factor structure and to examine the psychometric properties of the Spanish DAQ; to confirm discriminant and convergent validity of DAQ proposed by Denson et al. (2006) in Spanish speaking groups; to provide preliminary associations among the three dimensions of Spanish DAQ and theoretical relevant variables not previously investigated, namely indirect aggression and cognitive and emotional regulation strategies. First, our data confirmed the hypothesized three-factor structure for the Spanish version of the DAQ. The three factors correspond to the dimensions of angry rumination (affective dimension), revenge planning (cognitive dimension), and behavioral displaced aggression (behavioral dimension) according to the original structure of the scale. All factor loadings were statistically significant and higher than .45 with the exception of the García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 85 item 31 that showed a factor loading of small magnitude (.26). In the original version, this item also obtained the slowest factor loading. It is possible that the content of this item (“I never help those who do me wrong”) measures the tendency to not commit prosocial and positive behaviors toward someone who misbehaved, rather than revenge planning. Further research about the factor structure of the DAQ in other populations is needed to assess the utility of this item. Results also showed that the DAQ subscales have good reliability, with both adequate internal consistencies, displaying Cronbach’s alpha coefficients similar to those reported for the original version, and evidences of test-retest stability over a 1 month period. With respect to our second goal, DAQ subscales correlated in the expected direction with several theoretically related variables. Most relevant results are discussed below. With respect to trait anger and anger expression, the results showed a pattern of positive correlations between DAQ subscales and trait and expression of anger Also, a negative pattern between DAQ and control anger was found. These findings indicate individuals with high levels of trait anger and with difficulties to manage this emotional state show a high tendency to displace aggression. Besides, the results highlight the associations between anger trait and the tendency to engage in angry rumination and plan a potential vengeance. In relation to the affective style, negative correlations with positive affect and positive associations with negative affect were found, being the correlations of strongest magnitude with negative affect. This association between negative affect and aggression is consistent with the results found with other types of aggression (Burt, Mikolajewski, & Larson, 2009). Regarding the associations between the DAQ and the personality traits, we found evidence of discriminant validity of the DAQ, with low to moderate correlations between its three subscales and the Big Five factors. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 86 The present study provides new data about the associations between DAQ subscales and angry rumination, as assessed by the ARS (Sukhodolsky et al., 2001). Angry rumination showed a general pattern of positive relationships with all the three subscales of DAQ. However, contrary our expectations, low associations were found between thoughts of revenge subscale (ARS; Sukhodolsky et al., 2001) and Revenge Planning (DAQ; Denson et al. 2006). These unexpected low associations may be explained by revenge planning being composed of items that focus on retaliation and attitudes about retaliation (“If somebody harms me, I am not at peace until I can retaliate”) as opposed to thoughts of revenge subscale, which include items from several natures referring to revenge, thoughts about violent nature (“I have day dreams and fantasies of violent nature”) and difficulties to forgive o tendency to feel resentment (“I have difficulty forgiving people who have hurt me”). Finally, the results showed a positive pattern of correlations with others types of aggression (physical and verbal), suggesting that individuals who tend to attack physically or to use verbal aggression also possess a tendency to displace the aggressive behavior against an innocent target. Our third aim was to provide preliminary evidence of hitherto unexamined relationships between DAQ and indirect aggression, and several cognitive and emotional regulation strategies. Regarding indirect aggression, DAQ subscales displayed similar associations to the correlations with verbal and physical aggression. Besides, indirect aggression showed the strongest relationship with the displaced aggression subscale. Indirect aggression requires the ability to inhibit a direct confrontation, postponing the impulse to attack at the moment, and aggressing later through the purposeful manipulation and damage of peer relationships (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). This aspect of postponing the aggressive response is shared with displaced aggression. Further research is needed to explore potential common mechanism between both types of aggression. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 87 Finally, we examined the correlations between the subscales of DAQ and cognitive and emotion regulation strategies. With respect to adaptive strategies, negative associations with several types of strategies were found. The highest magnitude correlation was with positive reappraisal. It is possible that individuals who obtain an alternative and positive interpretation of the situation consider it unnecessary to engage in rumination, planning about a potential revenge, or using displaced aggression against others. For the other hand, positive correlations with maladaptive strategies were found. Mainly, catastrophizing and blaming others were negatively related to angry rumination, displaced aggression and revenge planning. Given a provocation situation, some individuals may hold innocent others responsible because it may be safer and more feasible to avoid the negative consequences of blaming the real source of a provocation. The angry rumination subscale of the DAQ was weakly related to rumination subscale of CERQ as well. These results are in line with previous research suggesting the presence of a higher-order factor of rumination. This general rumination factor refers to a general tendency to engage in repetitive, pervasive thinking in a variety of contexts and is associated with different emotions. In addition to general rumination factor, specific different factors exist as distinct constructs, which each type of rumination (e.g. sadness rumination or angry rumination) have unique associations with specific variables. People who engage in anger rumination may not tend to use rumination associated to different emotions (Gilbert, Cheung, Irons, & McEwan, 2005; Peled & Moretti, 2010). This may be because anger rumination focuses on negative aspects of others (Vansteelandt & Van Mechelen, 2006) and action-oriented active responses, such as retaliation. Other types of rumination, such as sadness rumination, are more likely to focus on negative aspect on the self and are oriented to passive conduct and inhibited response (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998). García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 94 that angry rumination following a provocation increases aggression towards the provocateur (Bushman, 2002), and even towards other targets (Bushman et al., 2005). According to the GAM, rumination after an anger-inducing provocation maintains or increases the activation of all three aspects of internal state leading to aggression: angry affect, aggressive cognitions and physiological arousal (Pedersen et al., 2011). Internal state influences appraisal and decision-making processes by increasing the likelihood that they will result in aggressive behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Denson’s (2013) multiple system model of angry rumination posits that when one experiences angry feelings, aggressive thoughts and high arousal it takes more effort to self-regulate one’s internal state and this effort consume cognitive resources. Given that executive functioning is a limited yet renewable resource, it is possible that angry rumination temporarily depletes executive functioning resources (Slotter & Finkel, 2011) thus impairing appraisal and decision-making processes and increasing the risk of impulsive behavior such as retaliatory aggression (Denson et al., 2011). Additionally, other associated type of rumination, hostile rumination, defined as tendency to have repetitive thoughts related to desire for retaliation and vengeance (Caprara, 1968), mediated the relationship between traits of personality associated to negative affect (emotional stability) and violent behavior (Caprara et al., 2013). Little is known about the relationship between EI and angry rumination. To the best of our knowledge, there has been only one study investigating the association between TEI and angry rumination, and it reported a negative association (Sukhodolsky et al., 2001). EI has been associated with emotional regulation (see Peña-Sarrionandia, Mikolajczak, & Gross, 2015, for a review). Several studies have shown that people with lower AEI tend to use depressive rumination, as an emotional regulation strategy (Curci, Lanciano, Soleti, Zammuner, & Salovey, 2013; Lanciano, Curci, Kafetsios, Elia, & García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 95 Zammuner, 2012). Some authors have suggested that people with low EI may be overwhelmed by their emotions when they experience an event with high negative emotional impact; their difficulties perceiving, understanding and regulating sadness and related negative emotions may mean that they experience these emotions as threatening and use rumination as an avoidant coping strategy (Salguero, Extremera, & FernándezBerrocal, 2013; Smith & Alloy, 2009). It seems plausible that EI should also be associated with other forms of rumination, such as angry rumination, but to date no study has investigated this. Given that angry rumination is an explanatory factor in models of aggression, and that AEI has been associated with other forms of rumination and aggressive behavior, angry rumination may mediate the relationship between AEI and aggression. This research In summary, there is evidence of an association between AEI and aggression; however, the magnitude of this association depends on the type of aggression involved (physical or verbal) and there is no evidence on the relationship between AEI and other forms of aggression such as indirect aggression. There is evidence that people who engage in angry ruminative thinking are more likely to act aggressively, but although AEI has been linked with ruminative thinking there has been no research investigating its relationship with angry rumination. Finally, given what is known about the relationships among AEI, aggression and angry rumination it seems plausible that angry rumination mediates the association between AEI and aggression. The objectives of this study were therefore 1) to analyze the association between AEI and different types of aggression, namely physical, verbal and indirect aggression; 2) to examine the relationship between García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 96 AEI and angry rumination; 3) to determine whether angry rumination mediates the relationship between AEI and aggression. Method Participants and Procedure The participants were 243 undergraduate students (52 men and 191 women) at public university in South of Spain aged between 19 and 54 years old (M = 21.78, S.D. = 4.38). Participation was in exchange for extra course credit and was entirely voluntary and anonymous. The participants completed the AEI measure individually in a group format during a normal lesson day and the rest of the scales were completed individually as part of an electronic survey. Measures Physical and verbal aggression (Aggression Questionnaire, AQ; Buss & Perry, 1992). The AQ is a self-report questionnaire containing of two subscales assessing physical aggression (nine items) and verbal aggression (five items). All items are rated on a five-point Likert scale (1= extremely uncharacteristic to 5=extremely characteristic). The original scale has adequate internal consistency for both subscales (Buss & Perry, 1992); we used a Spanish version which has also shown good internal consistency and reliability (Rodríguez et al., 2002). Indirect Aggression Scale (IAS; Forrest et al., 2005). The IAS is a self-report scale for adults. It evaluates indirect aggression using 25 items which are rated using a fivepoint Likert scale (1 = never do this to 5 = do this regularly). There are two versions (aggressor and target) which provide an indication of an individual’s tendency to practice or suffer indirect aggression. We used the aggressor version. All items of the original aggressor version of the scale demonstrated internal consistency (Forrest et al., 2005). García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 97 The Spanish aggressor version showed good psychometric properties, high reliabilities and a fairly clear one-dimensional structure (Anguiano-Carrasco & Vigil-Colet, 2011). Angry rumination (Displaced Aggression Questionnaire, DAQ; Denson et al., 2006). Angry rumination was measured with the angry rumination subscale of The Displaced Aggression Questionnaire. It is 10-item self-report measure with responses given on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = extremely unlike me to 7 = extremely like me). It assesses tendency to think about anger-inducing events and their causes and the experience of anger. The original version has high levels of internal consistency and testretest reliability (Denson et al., 2006). Its factorial structure is equivalent to the original English version and has good psychometric properties (García-Sancho, Salguero, Vasquez, & Fernández-Berrocal, in press). Emotional intelligence was assessed using the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Version 2.0 (MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2003). The MSCEIT assesses AEI through the performance on eight tasks and emotional problems. The test comprises 114 items and evaluates the four branch or aspects of EI specified in Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) theoretical model: perception of emotions, emotional facilitation, understanding of emotion and management of emotion. Previous work has supported the validity of construct of EI factor and has demonstrated that the EI construct is broader that any one of its subcomponents (MacCann et al., 2013). Therefore in this study we used the global EI score, which is a global score on the sum of the four aspect of EI. The MSCEIT has shown satisfactory psychometric properties and has convergent and discriminant validity (Mayer et al., 2003). The Spanish version has shown similar psychometric properties (Extremera et al., 2006). García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 98 Results Descriptive statistics and correlations Descriptive statistics, reliability and zero-order correlation coefficients for the study variables are shown in Table 13. Overall, total AEI was negatively correlated with angry rumination (r = -.20) and with all three types of aggression (physical aggression r = -.23; verbal aggression r = -.15; indirect aggression r = -.20). Angry rumination was positively correlated with physical aggression (r = .35), verbal aggression (r = .30) and indirect aggression (r = .27). Finally there were positive correlations between all pairs of types of aggression (r ranged from .39 to .40). Because previous research have identified gender differences in aggressive behavior we assessed gender differences in the strength of the correlations between AEI, angry rumination and all three types of aggression using Fisher r-to-z transformation. However, no significant gender differences were shown between AEI and angry rumination (z = -.79, p =.42) , AEI and physical (z = .38 , p =.69) verbal (z = -1.78, p =.07) and indirect aggression (z = -1.02 , p =.30) and between the correlations coefficients between angry rumination and physical (z = -.07 , p =.94), verbal (z = -.47, p =.63) and indirect aggression (z = .001, p = 1.00). Table 13. Means, standard deviations, reliabilities and intercorrelations among measures. 1 2 3 4 M (SD)  1.EI 100 (14.28) .85 2.Angry rumination -.20** 36.49 (12.06) .91 3.Physical aggression -.23** .35** 16.44(5.35) .78 4.Verbal aggression -.15* .30** .40** 14.24(3.28) .70 5.Indirect aggression -.20** .27** .39** .40** 39.99(10.03) .88 Note: **p <.01, * p< .05 García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 99 Mediation analyses We test the mediation hypothesis using structural equation modelling (SEM) with latent variables in EQS 6.1 (Bentler, 1995), using the maximum likelihood estimation procedure (ML), to control for measurement error. Scores of each of the four branches of the MSCEIT were used as indicators of the EI latent factor. We averaged items subset into three parcels for the latent factors of angry rumination, physical aggression and indirect aggression, and into two parcels for the latent factor of verbal aggression. Since univariate and multivariate kurtosis statistics were found to indicate non-normality, the Satorra-Bentler scaled ML correction was used to adjust the model chi-square (Hu, Bentler, & Kano, 1992). The following measures of model fit were used (Schweizer, 2010): the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the Bentler comparative fit index (CFI), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). CFI values above .90 indicate good fit. RMSEA values below .08 are considered a reasonable fit, whereas values below .05 indicate good fit. SRMR values are expected to be below .10. We tested the proposed model in which EI is related to different types of aggression via the mediation effect of angry rumination. A fully-saturated model was tested, including all possible paths of the mediation model. The model showed the following fit indices: S-B χ2 = 109.56, df = 80, p = .016; normed χ2 (χ2/df) = 1.4; RMSEA = 0.04 (90% CI = 0.02– 0.06); CFI = 0.97; SRMR = 0.06. Globally, theses indices indicate a good fit to the data. As presented in Figure 2, angry rumination was positively related with the all types of aggression and EI was negatively related with angry rumination. A significant direct effect of EI on physical and indirect aggression was found, whereas the direct effect of EI on verbal aggression was non-significant. In the mediation model, EI was significantly indirectly related with the all types of aggression toward angry García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 100 rumination (-.08 for verbal aggression, -.09 for physical aggression, and -.05 for indirect aggression; all coefficients were significant at p < .05). The absent of direct effect of EI on verbal aggression indicates that angry rumination fully mediated this relationship. Figure 2. Mediation model of relationships between emotional intelligence and types of aggression through angry rumination. Note: Standardized beta coefficients are shown. Dashed paths represent non-significant relationships. **p < .01 Discussion This research examined the relationship between AEI, angry rumination and aggression. First, we analyzed the associations between AEI and three different types of aggression: physical, verbal and indirect aggression. Second, we analyzed the relationship between AEI and the tendency to ruminate on angry feelings. Third, we investigated angry rumination as a mediator of the relationship between AEI and the three different types of aggression. Indirect aggression Angry rumination Physical aggression Verbal aggression Emotional intelligence -.23** .24** .23** .36** -.11 -.23** .48** .36** .47** -.24** García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 101 We found that people with higher AEI reported using all the types of aggressive behavior we studied less frequently. This result is consistent with previous research (García-Sancho et al., 2014) and suggests that people who manage their emotions effectively are less likely to harm or injure others. Our results provide evidence for a negative relationship between AEI and indirect aggression; people with low AEI showed a tendency to use social relationships to harm others through gossiping, spreading rumors or social exclusion. Similar results have been found in studies with TEI; children with low self-efficacy for emotional abilities received more nominations from their classmates for being a bully (Mavroveli, Petrides, Sangareau, & Furnham, 2009) and were more likely to be involved in indirect bullying as aggressors than people with high TEI (Kokkinos & Kipritsi, 2012). In adulthood aggression between women often takes an indirect form (Anguiano-Carrasco & VigilColet, 2011), and indirect aggression is frequent in everyday conflicts and may affect the quality of social interactions. Although preliminary, our results suggest that EI should be considered as a factor in explanatory models of indirect aggression. The second aim of this research was to provide the first empirical data on the relationship between AEI and angry rumination. We found that individuals with lower AEI were more likely to ruminate about anger-inducing events. This corroborates previous results using self-report measures of EI (Sukhodolsky et al., 2001) and is consistent with studies showing an association between AEI and depressive rumination (Curci et al., 2013; Lanciano et al., 2012). This pattern of results provides support for the idea that people with low EI have an emotional regulation style characterized by a perseverative focus on thoughts and feelings associated with negative emotion-eliciting situations (Peña-Sarrionandia et al., 2015). It is possible, as some authors have proposed in the case of depressive rumination (Salguero et al., 2013; Smith & Alloy, 2009), that García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 102 when faced with an event with high emotional impact, people who have difficulty perceiving, using, understanding and regulations are overwhelmed by negative emotions and use rumination as a regulation strategy in an attempt to avoid this. Finally, we investigated the mediation of the relationship between AEI and aggression by angry rumination. As hypothesized, angry rumination mediated this relationship in the case of all the types of aggression studied. Our findings indicate that people with low AEI engage in aggressive behavior more frequently partly due to their tendency to use angry rumination to regulate their emotions. We have offered an account of low AEI people could use angry rumination to avoid negative affect following an anger-inducing provocation above. However, angry rumination does not regulate or attenuate negative emotional states; in fact the opposite, it sustains or enhances anger, aggressive cognitions and physiological arousal and thus increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior (Bushman, 2002; Pedersen et al., 2011). Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, all three types of aggression were assessed using self-report indicators, so data on tendency to act aggressively is based entirely on respondents’ perceptions and may over or underestimate aggression. Second, the cross-sectional design means that we cannot establish causal relationships. Third, only undergraduate students participated in this study and the results may not generalize to the general population. Finally, the majority of the sample was female; previous research indicates that men are more physical aggressive than women (Card et al., 2008) and it is possible that the relationship between EI and aggression varies according to gender. Despite these limitations the study provides preliminary evidence of associations among AEI, angry rumination and aggression and suggests future lines of research. Previous studies have also found that ruminating about anger increases aggression in an García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 103 experimental context (Pedersen et al., 2011). Future research should be replicate our results in a behavioral experiment which measures EI as this would provide more reliable evidence to support our findings. It would also be useful to replicate these results in a longitudinal design in order to clarify the causal relationships between AEI, angry rumination and aggression. In summary, this research has several theoretical and practical implications. From a theoretical perspective, it provides preliminary evidence about the relationship between AEI and indirect aggression. Our results also extend knowledge in this area as they have uncovered a potential psychological mechanism – angry rumination - through which low EI might lead to aggression. Our findings about the associations between AEI, angry rumination and aggressive behavior have some practical implications for development of programs to reduce or prevent aggression. Given the associations between aggression and AEI and angry rumination, intervention programs could include EI training or techniques for reducing angry rumination. An emotional learning program for children and adolescents was found to reduce aggressive behavior (Castillo et al., 2013); it would interesting to investigate whether this was because they learned to restrain a tendency to ruminate. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 110 Por último, este trabajo presenta nuevos datos acerca de la relación entre IE y un tipo de estrategia de regulación, la rumiación de la ira. Un meta-análisis publicado recientemente (Peña-Sarrionandia et al., 2015), muestra las relaciones positivas y negativas entre la tendencia al uso de ciertas estrategias de regulación emocional y los niveles de IE. Respecto a la rumiación, son diferentes los estudios que muestran cómo las personas con una baja capacidad para percibir, comprender y regular sus emociones ante situaciones con un cierto impacto emocional negativo, tienden a presentar una reiterada producción de pensamientos rumiativos. Hasta nuestro conocimiento, todos los estudios realizados con IEH y rumiación han estado focalizados en la rumiación de pensamientos de carácter depresivos, no existiendo datos sobre la rumiación de la ira y siendo este trabajo el que añade los primeros datos en este sentido. Los resultados de la asociación de ambas variables van en línea con los encontrados por otros autores con rumiación depresiva. Aunque en los últimos años ha comenzado a surgir una línea de trabajo focalizada en no identificar las estrategias de regulación como adaptativas o desadaptativas en sí mismas (Ford & Tamir, 2012; Tamir, Ford, & Gilliam, 2013), sino en relación al carácter útil o no de hacer uso de ellas de cara a conseguir un determinado objetivo, parece consolidada la idea de que un uso habitual e indistinto de ciertas estrategias, como es el caso de la rumiación, está asociada a un menor nivel de las habilidades emocionales intra e inter personales y a una mayor presencia de consecuencias negativas. En definitiva, los resultados de este trabajo contribuyen al estudio de la IEH presentándola como un importante constructo unitario, compuesto por diferentes habilidades emocionales, que ha mostrado consistencia a través de diferentes medidas de García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 111 habilidad y que se muestra como una variable coherente y con poder explicativo sobre comportamientos relacionados con la adaptación social del individuo. Agresión En relación al campo de la agresión, este trabajo también ofrece importantes contribuciones a su estudio. El compendio de trabajos realizados en esta Tesis Doctoral incluye la adaptación y validación del Cuestionario de Agresión Desplazada en población española. Esto permite su uso en población hispano-hablante y la inclusión de estas variables en futuros estudios que permitirá el avance en esta línea de investigación. En este sentido, este trabajo aporta los primeros datos sobre rumiación de la ira en población española. Hasta la fecha, solo escalas de rumiación general o depresiva habían sido adaptadas al español, imposibilitando obtener evidencias empíricas acerca de la rumiación de este tipo de afecto negativo, tan asociado en la literatura con la agresión. Los datos presentados en esta Tesis Doctoral son los primeros publicados en población española sobre la tendencia a tener pensamientos rumiativos asociados a la ira y al evento que ha originado esa emoción. Por otro lado, hasta la fecha, en la literatura no había sido analizada la relación entre la rumiación de la ira y la agresión indirecta. Nuestros datos señalan una relación positiva entre ambas similar a la encontrada entre rumiación de la ira y otros tipos de agresión, como la física o la verbal. La agresión indirecta es un tipo de agresión en la cuál la persona es capaz de inhibir de forma inicial su impulso a agredir para cometer el daño de forma intencionada más adelante en el tiempo, a través del uso de las interacciones sociales con los demás. Es posible que las personas que son capaces de postergar su deseo de agresión utilicen la rumiación de la ira como estrategia de regulación ante la situación de provocación, y que este tipo de pensamientos rumiativos impida el desvanecimiento García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 112 de la intensidad de ira sentida y fomente que la persona continúe con el deseo de agredir. Además, los resultados de este trabajo incluyen datos preliminares acerca de la relación entre rumiación de la ira, planificación de la venganza y agresión desplazada, con una amplia gama de estrategias cognitivas de regulación emocional (como por ejemplo la catastrofización, la reevaluación positiva o la tendencia a culpar a otros) que tampoco habían sido analizadas hasta ahora. El estudio de estas variables nos permite profundizar en el posible mecanismo que explica cómo las personas, ante una situación que origina un impacto emocional intenso de carácter negativo, ponen en marcha el uso de diferentes estrategias de regulación emocional, adaptativas en unos casos, como la reevaluación positiva, que se ha asociado a menores niveles de agresión desplazada, o el uso de estrategias usualmente desadaptativas, como la catastrofización o la tendencia a culpar a otros, que se muestran fuertemente asociadas a la rumiación de la ira y al desempeño de conductas agresivas desplazadas, es decir, hacia personas que no son responsables de la provocación inicial. Por último, desde una perspectiva teórica, los datos obtenidos dan soporte empírico al modelo del procesamiento de información social (PIS), y de forma más específica, a la revisión del modelo propuesta por Lemerise y Arsenio (2000), con la inclusión de las variables emocionales como un componente esencial en el procesamiento de la información en las interacciones sociales. Este modelo integrado de factores cognitivos y emocionales defiende, a través de las distintas fases propuestas por el PIS, la influencia que el procesamiento emocional tiene en un comportamiento socialmente competente. Este trabajo ha mostrado la asociación de la IE, evaluada como un constructo compuesto por diferentes habilidades emocionales: percepción, facilitación, comprensión y manejo emocional, con la realización de un comportamiento agresivo. Por tanto, los García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 113 resultados obtenidos avalan la idea propuesta por el PIS, sugiriendo la importancia del procesamiento emocional, desde fases tempranas del modelo, con un importante papel de la percepción emocional en el reconocimiento de las emociones de los demás, para evitar por ejemplo errores de atribución de ira en otras personas, hasta fases más avanzadas, como el proceso de gestión emocional, cuyo déficit podría saturar emocionalmente a la persona e interferir en su proceso de generar respuestas alternativas y tomar decisiones sobre si responder de forma agresiva o no. Desde los modelos teóricos de la agresión no solo el PIS ha otorgado importancia a las variables emocionales. También el Modelo General de Agresión (MGA) destaca el papel del estado interno afectivo. Para el MGA, la interacción entre la persona y la situación produce un estado interno específico, compuesto por unas determinadas cogniciones, un estado afectivo y un nivel de arousal concreto. Dado este estado interno, la persona realiza una valoración y un proceso de toma decisiones acerca de la conducta que va a ejecutar. Tomando en cuenta esto, el estado interno de la persona determinará en gran medida la valoración y elección de respuesta, por lo que se deduce de ello la importancia que reside en el estado emocional que experimente la persona y en el modo en que éste se gestione. En el siguiente apartado se expondrá una posible explicación del papel de la IEH dentro del marco integrador del MGA. En definitiva, nuestros resultados son coherentes y van en consonancia con los principales modelos teóricos de agresión que se utilizan en la actualidad, resaltando el papel del procesamiento emocional y de las habilidades emocionales a la hora de explicar por qué unas personas tienden a actuar de forma más agresiva que otras. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 114 Inteligencia emocional y agresión En lo que respecta al estudio de la relación entre inteligencia emocional y agresión, nuestro trabajo presenta también importantes aportaciones. En primer lugar, los resultados obtenidos se encuentran en la línea de la literatura revisada, es decir, las personas con una menor percepción, uso, comprensión y manejo de las emociones propias y de los demás, presentan una mayor tasa de conductas agresivas. Hasta donde alcanza nuestro conocimiento, este trabajo ofrece los primeros resultados relacionando la IEH y la agresión en población adolescente. El estudio de la agresión y de las variables que la fomentan o inhiban durante el periodo de la adolescencia es especialmente relevante. Son diversos los autores que destacan esta etapa, principalmente entre los 14 y 16 años, como una de las más conflictivas (Cerezo, 1999; Cohen et al., 1993), y donde puede encontrarse además una mayor tasa de comportamientos agresivos, produciéndose tras este periodo un descenso en los niveles de comportamientos agresivos, o evolucionando desde formas más simples, como la agresión directa, a un tipo de agresión más elaborada, como la agresión indirecta (Pakaslathi & Keltikangas-Järvinen, 2000; Woods & White, 2005). Nuestros resultados muestran el mismo tipo de relación tanto en adultos como en adolescentes sugiriendo una robusta asociación entre ambos constructos, y la importancia de las competencias emocionales en la agresión desde edades tempranas. Esta consistencia en los resultados se ha mantenido en los dos tipos de población estudiados, adultos y adolescentes. Sin embargo, de forma contraria a la idea surgida de la revisión sistemática de una relación consistente, de forma independiente al tipo de comportamiento agresivo evaluado, los resultados de nuestro estudio muestran diferencias en la magnitud de las relaciones entre agresión física y agresión verbal, tanto García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 115 en población adulta como en adolescente. Esta diferencia entre ambos tipos de agresión quizá puede deberse a otros factores que influyan en la toma de decisiones final. En los últimos años, ha comenzado a surgir una línea de trabajo en este sentido, considerando la IEH como un recurso que facilita la consecución de objetivos, y siendo otras variables las que determinan la calidad y dirección de éstos. Por ejemplo, el trabajo de Côte et al. (2011) pone de manifiesto la importancia de considerar los rasgos de personalidad a la hora de analizar las habilidades emocionales, desechando la idea de considerarlas buenas y beneficiosas para el propio individuo y para los demás por sí mismas, sino en función de los objetivos marcados. En este trabajo, Côte et al. (2011) muestran cómo aquellas personas con puntuaciones altas en maquiavelismo y con un buen manejo emocional presentan mayores conductas desviadas, incluyendo entre ellas conductas agresivas. Por lo tanto, no solo poseer un alto nivel de IEH es necesario para inhibir la agresión, sino que debemos tener en cuenta otras variables que determinen la intención del individuo de querer inhibir esa conducta. Por ejemplo, la presencia de ciertos factores cognitivos como algunas creencias sobre agresión o la justificación de comportamientos agresivos puede hacer que la persona no estime necesario poner en marcha sus habilidades emocionales para un inhibir un comportamiento que pueden considerar justificado. Estudios transculturales muestran cómo las personas consideran en mayor grado aceptable la emisión de conductas agresivas de tipo verbal, que comportamientos que implican agresión física (Fujihara et al., 1999; Ramirez, 2007). Esto podría explicar que las personas consideren hacer uso de estas habilidades emocionales para prevenir ejecutar una agresión de tipo físico, pero no lo estimen necesario en el caso de la agresión verbal. Por otra parte, nuestros resultados aportan resultados sobre una variable mediadora en la relación entre IEH y agresión. Estos resultados van en línea con el trabajo García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 116 de Downey et al. (2010) que proponen el papel mediador del uso de un afrontamiento no productivo, centrado exclusivamente en la emoción, en la relación entre IE rasgo y problemas de comportamiento. La rumiación de la ira puede ser considerada un tipo de afrontamiento no productivo, por las consecuencias negativas que comporta este tipo de estrategia, como el mantenimiento e incluso incremento del nivel de ira experimentada, y por su alta relación con la agresión. Ambos estudios ponen de manifiesto la importancia de un adecuado afrontamiento para la inhibición de conductas agresivas. En este sentido, la relación entre IEH, rumiación de la ira y agresión nos lleva a plantearnos en qué fases del modelo del MGA tiene una mayor influencia la IEH. Siguiendo este modelo, la IEH podría estar influyendo en diferentes niveles. En primer lugar, en la interacción entre factores situacionales y personales. La IEH forma parte del repertorio de competencias de la persona (diferente a los rasgos de personalidad), que al interaccionar con la situación, facilita la aparición de un estado interno u otro. Diferentes autores han mostrado cómo un déficit en la habilidad para percibir emociones, dada una situación social ambigua, puede favorecer la aparición de una atribución hostil en el otro, interpretando de forma errónea la situación y provocando un estado interno de cogniciones hostiles, afecto negativo y elevación del arousal que facilitan y energizan una posible respuesta agresiva (Crick & Dodge, 1994; de Castro et al., 2005; García-Sancho et al., 2015a). En segundo lugar, la IEH puede actuar en otros niveles del procesamiento. Dado un estado interno compuesto por un tipo de cognición, emoción y arousal determinado, la IEH también puede mostrar su papel en los procesos de evaluación y valoración en los cuáles pueden aplicarse las habilidades de comprensión emocional intra e interpersonal y estrategias de regulación dirigidas a reducir el afecto negativo, lo que facilita la elección de una respuesta no agresiva. Diferentes trabajos han mostrado cómo García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 117 el uso de estrategias de regulación eficaces, dirigidas a regular la emoción, pueden reducir la probabilidad de actuar de forma agresiva (Roberton et al., 2012). Una baja IEH está asociada al uso de rumiación de la ira, por lo que la IEH desempeñaría un factor relevante en el proceso de toma de decisiones al elegir este tipo de estrategia y no regular de forma efectiva la emoción negativa. En lo que respecta a la rumiación de la ira, Denson (2012) postula en su modelo que el uso de este tipo de estrategias produce un consumo adicional de recursos cognitivos, lo que limita la disponibilidad de éstos. Este agotamiento de recursos cognitivos repercute en el funcionamiento del control ejecutivo central, y como consecuencia de ello, afecta al proceso de valoración y toma de decisiones. El MGA enfatiza el proceso de evaluación y toma de decisiones como una fase esencial para explicar por qué las personas actúan de forma agresiva o pacífica (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Una persona con suficientes recursos cognitivos puede, en esta fase, reevaluar la situación de una forma no hostil, lo cual contribuye a disminuir la tendencia agresiva. La rumiación de la ira puede temporalmente agotar esos recursos, alterando estos procesos y disminuyendo la capacidad de autocontrol e inhibición (Denson et al., 2011). Desde esta perspectiva, la IEH podría estar implicada en esta fase no solo en su papel de elegir una estrategia de regulación efectiva, sino también en relación a la disponibilidad de recursos cognitivos. Cuando una persona domina una habilidad, el esfuerzo por llevarla a cabo es mucho menor que cuando comienza a adquirirla. Una persona con un alto nivel de IEH procesa de forma efectiva la información emocional, y puede necesitar menos esfuerzo y menos recursos para llevar a cabo este proceso que aquellas personas que no cuentan con esa destreza. Por tanto, las personas con alta IEH pueden necesitar un menor consumo de recursos cognitivos ante una situación de impacto García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 118 emocional alto. Este consumo menor de recursos permite dejar disponibles una mayor cantidad de recursos cognitivos para otras tareas del funcionamiento ejecutivo, como por ejemplo los procesos de evaluación y toma de decisiones. De esta manera, las personas con más IEH podrían requerir el uso de menos recursos cognitivos que aquellas personas con menor nivel en esta habilidad, permitiendo una mayor disponibilidad de recursos para otros procesos, como la valoración, toma de decisiones, autocontrol e inhibición de la agresión. En resumen, este trabajo proporciona nuevos datos como el poder predictivo de la IEH en la agresión, y esta relación se ve apoyada en la consistencia de resultados obtenida tanto en adultos como adolescentes. Además, presenta la rumiación de la ira como un posible mecanismo explicativo a través del cuál las habilidades emocionales ejercen su influencia en el comportamiento agresivo. Limitaciones A pesar de la relevancia de los resultados encontrados, este trabajo adolece de algunas limitaciones que merecen ser consideradas. En primer lugar, los estudios se han llevado a cabo con una muestra compuesta de forma mayoritaria por estudiantes universitarios y participantes del sexo femenino. Los resultados con población universitaria ofrecen una aproximación al análisis del papel de la IEH en la agresión, pero la homogeneidad de la muestra obstaculiza la generalización de resultados a otros tipos de población. Además, los participantes adultos de nuestros estudios fueron principalmente personas del sexo femenino. A lo largo de la literatura se han encontrado diferencias de género en algunos tipos de agresión, como por ejemplo la agresión física (Card et al., 2008), mostrándose una prevalencia mayor en hombres que en mujeres. Aunque en nuestros estudios hemos incluido el sexo como una variable a controlar, es García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 119 necesario ampliar la muestra de hombres para comprobar si la relación entre IEH y agresión varía en función del sexo como ocurre en otras variables como por ejemplo la depresión, donde la IEH se relaciona con síntomas depresivos en hombres pero no en mujeres (Salguero et al., 2012). Por otro lado, la evaluación de las conductas agresivas se ha llevado a cabo con pruebas de autoinforme, con las desventajas que ello supone. Este tipo de medidas pueden resultar imprecisas y su uso conlleva el riesgo de sesgo por deseabilidad social de los participantes o una imprecisa estimación de la persona acerca de la frecuencia con la que comete ciertos comportamientos. La mayor parte de los datos obtenidos en este trabajo son de carácter transversal, contando solo con datos a nivel longitudinal en una muestra de adolescentes. Esto impide obtener conclusiones contundentes acerca de la relación temporal entre ambas variables en población adulta, siendo necesario corroborar estos resultados a nivel prospectivo. Además, en este trabajo no se han controlado algunas variables que han mostrado asociadas con la IEH, como por ejemplo los niveles de inteligencia verbal (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). Es recomendable que futuras investigaciones incluyan la inteligencia como una variable a controlar. Por último, solo se ha utilizado una medida de IEH en adultos, el MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002). Quizás también sería interesante corroborar estos resultados con otras medidas de ejecución, como el STEM o STEU (MacCann & Roberts, 2008), o utilizar medidas de evaluación más modernas que incorporan los avances en tecnología para evaluar la IEH a través de plataformas multimedia, como el Multimedia Emotion Management Assessment (MEMA; MacCann, Lievens, Libbrecht, & Roberts, 2015). García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 126 answers on it, as determined by consensus or expert scoring (Brackett et al., 2011; Mayer et al., 2000). EI theory predicts that people who are better at perceiving, understanding, using and managing their own emotions and others' emotions are more likely to be psychosocially adjusted (Mayer et al., 2008). This prediction is well supported by empirical studies that demonstrate a direct relationship between EI and mental health (Martins et al., 2010), as well as a positive relationship of EI with social function and quality of social relationships, and a negative relationship of EI with number of negative interactions and conflicts in social relationships (Brackett et al., 2011). In light of the relationship between EI and variables related to social function, several authors have begun to investigate whether the inability to manage emotions is associated not only with conflict behaviors in relationships but also with more serious behaviors problems as aggressive conducts (Lomas et al., 2012). This study extends focused on the association between AEI and aggression. Aggression Human aggression is defined as any behavior directed toward another individual that is carried out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm. In addition, the perpetrator must believe that the behavior will harm the target, and that the target is motivated to avoid the behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Aggression can be classified as overt or indirect. Overt aggression is behavior which is intended to have a direct negative effect on the victim’s well-being; overt aggression can be physical or verbal (Coie & Dodge, 1998). Physical aggression encompasses behaviors such as hitting or pushing, whilst verbal aggression encompasses verbal attacks in the form of name calling, taunting or threats. Indirect aggression is García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 127 behavior which causes harm indirectly, by damaging social relationships and it encompasses behaviors such as gossiping, excluding the victim from social groups or spreading rumors (Björkqvist, 2001; Card et al., 2008). In recent years there has been an increased interest in indirect aggression as it is the most common form of aggressive behavior in adulthood (Anguiano-Carrasco & Vigil-Colet, 2011). Also, aggression can be classified as direct or displaced aggression. Most research in this area has focused on direct aggression, which involves situations when a person is provoked, and in retaliation, he or she inflicts harm against the source of this provocation. Sometimes, however, this retaliation is constrained or inhibited for several reasons: the person who did the provocation is unavailable, the source of provocation is intangible (e.g., bad weather ruined a vacation), or because a possible retaliation or punishment induced by the direct aggression from a provoking agent (Miller, 1941). Given these situations, a person can displace an aggressive response (Miller et al., 2003). The term displaced aggression refers to situations when a person is provoked, is prevented from retaliating against the original provocateur, and subsequently aggresses against a seemingly innocent target (Dollard et al., 1939; Hovland & Sears, 1940). Aggressive behavior produces negative effects not only in the victims but also in the aggressors. More aggressive adolescents show clear psychosocial maladjustment, low academic performance, absenteeism from school, involvement in delinquent acts, substance abuse and various mental health problems, including higher levels of depression (Moffitt, 2006; Ostrov & Godleski, 2009; Piquero et al., 2007). Aggressive adults are more likely than non-aggressive ones to exhibit psychiatric problems and criminal behavior as well as experience poor marital relations and unemployment (Alsaker & Olweus, 2002; Asberg, 1994; Coccaro et al., 2009; Farrington, 1991). Victims García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 128 of aggression, for their part, suffer myriad negative consequences, including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and stress effects like headaches, difficulty sleeping, and a desire to skip school in the case of children and adolescents (Cava et al., 2010; Crick & Bigbee, 1998; O´Moore & Kirkham, 2001). The strong influence of aggression on psychosocial adjustment and mental health outcomes highlights the importance of identifying variables that can increase or inhibit aggressive behavior. Knowledge of such variables is critical not only for understanding the mechanisms of aggression in greater detail, but also for designing effective programs for violence prevention and aggression management. Numerous authors have sought to understand processes that can affect aggression, including behavioral inhibition and control, empathy and anger management (Barnett & Mann, 2013; Denson et al., 2011; Pedersen et al., 2011; Van der Graaff et al., 2012; Vasquez et al., 2012; Wallace et al., 2012). Recently, numerous studies have pointed out the possible influence of emotions and emotional processing on aggression (Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000), raising the question of whether EI may also play a role. There has been a lot of interest in the role of emotional variables in aggressive behavior and several models highlight emotional processes as a key to explain aggressive behavior. Three of these theoretical models are explained below. An integrated model of emotion processes and cognition in social information processing (Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000) proposed that emotion processes may have a relevant role during information processing in a social situation. For instance, deficits in on the other hand recognition of facial emotions may result in a tendency to attribute anger to others and react aggressively (see García-Sancho et al., 2015a). Similarly, García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 129 individuals who are unable to manage strong emotions may be overwhelmed by them during appraisal and decision-making processes, and therefore generate a smaller range of responses, most of which are related to their affective state (e.g. aggressive responses when they feel angry) (Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000). From this perspective, EI may have a role in reducing and managing aggressive behavior. On the other hand, mostly current literature on aggression has focused on the General Aggression Model (GAM; Anderson & Bushman, 2002) for explaining individual differences in processing that may give rise to aggressive behavior (DeWall et al., 2011). The GAM provides a parsimonious, account of why people act aggressively in terms of three levels: personal and situational factors, internal states and outcomes of appraisal and decision-making processes. In this model personal factors (e.g. personality traits, gender, attitudes) interact with situational factors (e.g. insults, presence of guns, alcohol) to create an internal state which influences behavior. Internal state, which is a composite of cognitions (hostile thoughts, aggressive scripts), affect (anger, general negative affect) and arousal (physiological and psychological arousal) influences appraisals and decision-making processes which may or may not result in an aggressive response (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Finally, the Model of Angry Rumination (Denson 2012; 2013), proposed angry rumination as a risk factor for aggression. Angry rumination is the term used for repetitive, negative cognitions about an anger-inducing event, such as anger-inducing memories, angry thoughts and feelings, and plans for revenge (Denson et al., 2006; Sukhodolsky et al., 2001). A substantial body of empirical evidence suggests that angry rumination following a provocation increases aggression towards the provocateur (Bushman, 2002), and even towards other targets (Bushman et al., 2005). According to García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 130 the GAM, rumination after an anger-inducing provocation maintains or increases the activation of all three aspects of internal state leading to aggression: angry affect, aggressive cognitions and physiological arousal (Pedersen et al., 2011). Internal state influences appraisal and decision-making processes by increasing the likelihood that they will result in aggressive behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Denson’s (2013) multiple system model of angry rumination posits that when one experiences angry feelings, aggressive thoughts and high arousal it takes more effort to self-regulate one’s internal state and this effort consume cognitive resources. Given that executive functioning is a limited yet renewable resource, it is possible that angry rumination temporarily depletes executive functioning resources (Slotter & Finkel, 2011) thus impairing appraisal and decision-making processes and increasing the risk of impulsive behavior such as retaliatory aggression (Denson et al., 2011). In summary, if deficits in emotional processing play a role in aggression, then the emotional abilities that form part of EI may help explain individual differences in aggressive behaviors. Aims: The general purpose of the present work was to examine the relationship between AEI and aggression. In order to achieve this aim, this PhD Thesis is based on data assessment obtained from the four scientific studies that comprises this work, with four specific aims: 1. The objective of the first work was to systematically review the literature on EI and aggression in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the relationship across different theoretical conceptualizations of EI, different types of aggression, and different ages and cultural contexts. This should allow us to develop a clear picture García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 131 of the current state of research and propose future lines of investigation to complement existing gaps in the field. 2. The aim of the second work was fill these gaps in the literature of AEI and aggression. In sub-study 1, we explored the relationship between AEI and aggression in adults, and analyzed the incremental validity of AEI over personality factors for explaining physical and verbal aggressive behavior. In sub-study 2, we aimed to verify the results of sub-study 1 in an adolescent population, and we did so using a longitudinal design to assess the influence of AEI on aggression over a 9-month period. 3. The objective of the third work was to develop and examine the validity and reliability of the Spanish version of DAQ. Also, we aimed to provide preliminary analyses about the relationship between the three dimensions of DAQ and others variables have not been yet analysed as indirect aggression and a wide range of cognitive and emotional regulation strategies (e.g. other-blame, catastrophizing, positive reappraisal). 4. Given what is known about the relationships among AEI and aggression in the all three previous studies, the objectives of fourth study were therefore to analyze the association between AEI and different types of aggression (physical, verbal and indirect aggression); to examine the relationship between AEI and angry rumination; and to determine whether angry rumination mediates the relationship between AEI and aggression. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 132 Study 1. Relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression: a systematic review The purpose of this study was to systematically review available evidence on the relationship between EI and aggression. MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Scopus databases were carefully searched over the period of 5-9 November 2012 for articles published in English or Spanish in scientific journals, without regard for the year of publication. 19 eligible studies were identified, of which 18 reported a negative relationship between the two constructs, people with high EI exhibited fewer aggressive behaviors than those with low EI. This relationship appears to be consistent across ages (from childhood to adulthood), cultures, types of aggression, and EI measures. All but three studies in our review assessed EI using self-report instruments, and their results were consistent with the remaining three studies based on ability measures of EI. The fact that studies based on ability measures reported a negative relationship between EI and aggression highlights the importance of emotional perception in aggression. At the same time, one study of our review that assessed EI by ability measures highlight how sometimes emotional abilities facilitate rather than inhibit aggressive behavior. Côte et al. (2011) showed that individuals with high Machiavellianism and emotionally skilled can initiate aggressive or deviant behaviors to obtain his or her objectives. These findings provide an important counterbalance to the many studies describing how emotional ability management can protect against aggressive conduct and highlight the role of personality traits to use emotional skills. None of the studies involved a longitudinal design and none examined the relationship between EI and aggression experimentally. García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 133 Study 2. Relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression in adults and adolescents: cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence using an ability measure This study aimed to address important gaps in the research literature on the relationship between EI and aggression by focusing on AEI, assessing the incremental validity of AEI beyond personality factors in adults and including adolescents in the study population in a longitudinal study. In sub-study 1, participants were 474 undergraduate students (156 men, 318 women) aged 19-60 years (M = 22.76, SD = 5.13). They completed the follow measures: Emotional Intelligence (Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Version 2.0, MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2003); physical and verbal aggression (The Aggression Questionnaire, AQ; Buss & Perry, 1992); personality traits (The Big-Five Inventory, BFI44; Benet-Martinez & John, 1998). Results of the regression analyses showed after controlling gender and personality, overall EI explained a statistically significant increment of variance in physical aggression. However, contrary to our expectations, AEI did not contribute significantly to explaining verbal aggression levels. In sub-study 2, a total of 151 adolescents (75 males, 76 females) aged 13-17 years (M = 14.74, SD = .84) were recruited from secondary schools. Participants completed the measures in two sessions spaced 9 months apart: in one session at the start of the academic year (Time 1), they completed the measures of AEI and of physical and verbal aggression; at another session 9 months later (Time 2), they completed the measure of physical and verbal aggression. They completed the follow measures: physical and verbal aggression (AQ; Buss & Perry, 1992), emotional intelligence (Test de Inteligencia Emocional de la Fundación Botín para Adolescentes, TIEFBA; Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2015). High AEI levels at Time 1 predicted lower physically aggressive behavior at Time 2 in García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 134 adolescents over and above the significant contribution of baseline levels of physical aggression at Time 1. On the other hand, contrary to our expectations, the longitudinal model for predicting verbal aggression from AEI was not significant. The results of both sub-study 1 in adults and sub-study 2 in adolescents indicate a negative association between AEI and physical aggression. The results in Study 1 further suggest incremental validity of AEI even after adjusting for personality factors already known to influence aggressive behavior. Our results with adolescents in sub-study 2 showed that AEI measured at one time predicted some variance in physical aggression 9 months later, even after controlling for the criterion variable at baseline and for gender. Results from both studies suggest the association between AEI and physical aggression appears to be much stronger than that between AEI and verbal aggression. In addition, AEI did not show incremental validity beyond personality in adults, nor did it predict verbal aggression levels at Time 2 in adolescents. Study 3. Validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the Displaced Aggression Questionnaire This study examined the validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the The Displaced Aggression Questionnaire (DAQ). The Displaced Aggression Questionnaire (DAQ) is a scale used to assess personality differences exist in the tendency to engage in displaced aggression. Displaced aggression occurs when a person is provoked, is unwilling or unable to retaliate against the original provocateur, and subsequently aggresses against a seemingly innocent target. DAQ is composed for three factors: an affective dimension (angry rumination), a cognitive dimension (revenge planning) and a behavioral dimension (a general tendency to behave aggressively toward those other than the source of the initial provocation). The scale consists of 31 items and participants García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 135 respond using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = extremely unlike me, 7 = extremely uncharacteristic/characteristic of me). A total of 429 participants (24.2% males, 75.8% females), ranging in age from 18 to 69 (mean = 25.31, SD = 08.74), completed the Spanish version of the DAQ. Participants consisted of undergraduate students (N = 249), ranging in age from 19 to 54 (mean = 21.83, SD = 4.49), and non-students (N = 165), (27.2% males, 72.8% females), ranging in age from 18 to 69 (mean = 30.13, SD = 10.72). The subset of students completed additional tests to evaluate trait anger and anger expression and control, different forms of aggressive behaviour, affective style and personality traits. The subset of non-students participants completed additional tests to evaluate anger rumination and other cognitive and emotional regulation strategies. Finally, to evaluate test-retest reliability, 131 students participants of the initial sample (15.3% males, 84.7% females), ranging in age from 20 to 54 (mean = 24, SD = 7.03), completed the measure a second time, approximately 1 month after the first administration. The participants completed the follow measures: trait displaced aggression (The Displaced Aggression Questionnaire, DAQ; Denson et al., 2006); trait anger, anger expression (in/out) anger control (in/out) (The State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2, STAXI-2; Spielberger, 1999); the Big Five personality factors (The Big-Five Inventory, BFI-44; John, 1991); physical aggression and verbal aggression (The Aggression Questionnaire, AQ; Buss & Perry, 1992); positive and negative affective style. (The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, PANAS; Watson et al., 1988); indirect aggression (The Indirect Aggression Scale, IAS; Forrest et al., 2005); emotion regulation strategies (self-blame, blaming others, acceptance, refocusing on planning, positive refocusing, rumination, positive García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 142 & Dodge, 1994, de Castro et al., 2005). AEI may also operate on other processing levels within the GAM. AEI may participate in processes of appraisal and decision-making, bringing to bear abilities to understand one’s own and others’ emotions as well as regulation strategies that together can reduce negative affect, facilitating a choice to behave non-aggressively. Indeed, various studies have demonstrated how the use of effective emotion regulation strategies can reduce the probability of acting aggressively (Roberton et al., 2012). Also, the role of emotional intelligence may reside in the explanation of cognitive resources depleted as well. When people dominate a skill, the effort to implement it is lower than who start to acquire it. A high emotional intelligence level allow a successful emotional processing and that might let to reduce the cognitive resources consumption needed in an intense emotional situation. Thus executive functioning resources are available to engage in activities that rely on executive functioning abilities such as appraisal and decision-making processes and requires some form of inhibition or self-control to inhibit aggressive response. This study provides preliminary evidence of associations among AEI, and aggression and suggests future lines of research. Previous studies have also found that ruminating about anger increases aggression in an experimental context (Pedersen et al., 2011). Future research should be replicate our results in a behavioral experiment which measures AEI as this would provide more reliable evidence to support our findings. It would also be useful to replicate these results in a longitudinal design in order to clarify the causal relationships between EI, angry rumination and aggression including adults. The Spanish DAQ will allow further research of the construct of trait displaced aggression, and the examination of its predictive role in important contexts, such as domestic abuse and road rage (Denson et al., 2006). Individuals who reported a tendency García-Sancho, E., 2015 International PhD 143 to aggress against undeserving others, tend to take it out on individuals close to them or to display an aggressive attitude to small disturbances on the road. These processes and behaviors have important implications for the quality of interpersonal and intra-familial relationships. Further research is necessary on these fields, and the use of DAQ may help to deep in it. In summary, this research has several theoretical and practical implications. From a theoretical perspective, it provides preliminary evidence about the relationship between AEI and different types of aggression. Our results also extend knowledge in this area as they have uncovered a potential psychological mechanism – angry rumination - through which low AEI might lead to aggression. Our findings about the associations between AEI, angry rumination and aggressive behavior have some practical implications for development of programs to reduce or prevent aggression. Ultimately one of the most important goals of understanding the role of emotional abilities is to develop better interventions, and preliminary evidence suggests that training in such abilities can reduce the incidence of aggressive behavior (Castillo et al., 2013; Durlak et al., 2011). A better understanding of emotional abilities in aggression may help in designing more effective prevention and intervention programs that promote the ability to inhibit such behavior. Given the associations between aggression and AEI and angry rumination, intervention programs could include EI training or techniques for reducing angry rumination. 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