Environmental assessment of viticulture waste valorisation through composting as a biofertilisation strategy for cereal and fruit crops

Environmental assessment of viticulture waste valorisation through composting as a biofertilisation strategy for cereal and fruit crops Antonio Cortés, Luis F.S. Oliveira, Valdecir Ferrari, Silvio R. Taffarel, Gumersindo Feijoo, Maria Teresa Moreira Accepted Manuscript How to cite: Environmental Pollution, Volume 264, September 2020, 114794. Doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114794 Copyright information: © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. This manuscript version is made available under the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0) Environmental assessment of viticulture waste valorisation through composting as 1 a biofertilisation strategy for cereal and fruit crops 2 A. Cortésa*, L. F. O. Silvab, V. Ferraric, S. R. Taffareld, G. Feijooa and M. T. 3 Moreiraa 4 a CRETUS Institute. Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidade de Santiago de 5 Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela (Spain) 6 b Department of Civil and Environmental, Universidad De La Costa, Calle 58 #55-56, 080002 7 Barranquilla, Atlántico (Colombia) 8 c Beigrupo, Br 470 Km 223.3, Integração, Garibaldi – RS, 95720-000 (Brazil) 9 d Laboratory of Environmental Researches and Nanotechnology Development, Centro 10 Universitário La Salle, Victor Barreto, 2288 Centro 92010-000, Canoas, RS (Brazil) 11 * Corresponding author; [email protected]; +34 8818 16769 12 Abstract 13 Composting is a solid waste management alternative that avoids the emission of methane 14 associated with its disposal in landfill and reduces or eliminates the need for chemical fertilisers 15 if compost is applied. The main objective of this study was to analyse the environmental burdens 16 of composting as a way to achieve a more circular valorisation of wine waste. To do so, with the 17 purpose of identifying optimal operational conditions and determining the “hotspots” of the 18 process, the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was used. The consumption of diesel fuel 19 in machinery was determined to be the main critical point in the environmental effects of the 20 system, followed by the transport and distribution of the compost. After the application of 21 compost instead of mineral fertilisers, corn, tomato and strawberry crops would have a better 22 environmental performance in most impact categories. In this sense, a maximum improvement of 23 65% in terrestrial ecotoxicity is achieved in strawberry cultivation. In light of the results obtained, 24 it is demonstrated that composting is a suitable way of organic waste valorisation according to 25 Circular Economy principles. 26 Keywords 27 Life Cycle Assessment; Viticulture waste; Composting; Valorisation; Mineral fertilisers28 1 1. Introduction 29 The concept of the Circular Economy is based on the valorisation of waste flows, while ensuring 30 efficient consumption of energy and resources. This approach is considered the new growth 31 paradigm and must reconcile the preservation of resources and the environment, foster the 32 dynamics of economic prosperity and ensure social welfare (Murray et al., 2017). The food 33 industry, which is responsible for high consumption of natural resources and emissions to soil, air 34 and water (Garcia-Herrero et al., 2018), has emerged as an important sector in the application of 35 the principles of the circular economy. Moreover, when almost one third of the world food 36 production is wasted along the supply chain (Principato et al., 2019). Food waste management 37 ranks high in social agendas, as evidenced by the strategies defined in Agenda 2030 and the 38 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular SDG 12. SDG 12 is entitled “Ensure 39 sustainable consumption and production patterns” and aims to take urgent action to improve 40 resource efficiency, reduce waste and mainstream sustainability practice in all sectors of the 41 economy (United Nations, 2015). Beyond food waste, by-products of food processing represent 42 a large amount of wasted resources that could be valued for the recovery of value-added products 43 (Manara et al., 2015). Examples of waste valorisation for chestnut leaves, burs and shells (Vella 44 et al., 2019), raspberry pomace (Saad et al., 2019), pumpkin seeds and peels (Lalnunthari et al., 45 2019) or cocoa by-products (Vásquez et al., 2019) have been reported. 46 This paper takes as a reference the Brazilian wine sector. Brazil is one of the largest wine 47 producers in the world, with a total production of 1.65 million hL and 1.1 million tonnes of grapes 48 (OIV, 2018). The winemaking process is characterized by a sequence of numerous activities, from 49 the cultivation and harvesting of the grapes, the fermentation and maturation of the wine in the 50 cellar, to the management of waste (Escribano-Viana et al., 2018). The valorization of the by-51 products of winemaking has involved numerous approaches, focusing on each type of waste. 52 Kopsahelis et al. (2018) analysed the recovery of phenolic extracts, rich in antioxidants, and 53 tartrate salt from wine lees. Gullón et al. (2017) evaluated the antioxidant activity of extracts from 54 the autohydrolysis liquors of vine shoots. Nair and Taherzadeh (2016) studied the possibility of 55 2 using vinasse as a fermentation substrate for the production of enzymes, organic acids, ethanol 56 and protein-rich fungal biomass. Many studies whose main objective is to obtain polyphenols 57 from grape marc can be found in the literature (Brezoiu et al., 2019; Goula et al., 2016; Valls et 58 al., 2017). Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of grape seeds as a source of high 59 quality unsaturated fatty acids (Fiori et al., 2014), by means of full-scale supercritical CO2 60 extraction (Duba and Fiori, 2019). A less complex alternative is composting, which allows the 61 recovery of organic matter and nutrients that are added as a fertiliser or soil amendment, replacing 62 mineral fertilisers in agricultural activities (Oldfield et al., 2016). In contrast to the environmental 63 benefits derived from replacing peat or mineral fertilisers, there are environmental impacts related 64 to composting that need to be quantified. Most of them are related to potential GHG emissions 65 (Andersen et al., 2010). Although CO2 emitted during composting is usually accounted for as 66 neutral (IPCC, 2006), ammonia (NH3) emissions are also considerable. 67 The main objective of this study was to determine the environmental impacts and benefits of the 68 valorisation of wine growing waste through composting on an industrial scale from a life cycle 69 perspective, identifying the critical points of the system. An evaluation of the use of compost as 70 a bio-fertilizer for cereal, vegetable and fruit crops was also carried out to determine the 71 environmental consequences of fertiliser substitution from a circular perspective. 72 2. Materials and methods 73 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a methodology used to analyse the potential environmental 74 impacts related to the entire life cycle of a system, product or activity. LCA consists of a 75 systematic set of procedures included in the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards to convert inputs and 76 outputs of the system into its related environmental impacts. According to these standards, LCA 77 comprises four phases: (i) Goal and scope definition, (ii) Life cycle inventory, (iii) Life cycle 78 impact assessment and (iv) Interpretation of results. 79 2.1. Goal and scope definition 80 3 The function of the system under study was the valorisation of waste from the wine industry to 81 produce a high-quality compost with marketable value. The production scheme was assessed from 82 a cradle-to-grave perspective since all activities involved from the extraction of raw materials up 83 to the final use of compost were considered. At this end-of-life stage, the compost was applied to 84 agricultural land and the direct emissions from the application of the compost were taken into 85 account. It is also necessary to go beyond this classical description of the system boundaries and 86 to emphasize that in this system a waste was converted into resource. 87 According to ISO standards, the Functional Unit (FU) is the calculation basis to which all study 88 results must refer. Bearing in mind that the main objective of the composting system is to achieve 89 full waste valorisation, the selection of a feedstock-based FU ensures consistency throughout the 90 study. One tonne of feedstock mixture fed to the composting facilities was chosen as FU. 91 2.2. Description of the system under study 92 The composting system consisted of different processes that were aggregated into three main 93 subsystems: composting (SS1), packaging and distribution (SS2) and compost use (SS3). Figure 94 1 shows the sub-systems and process steps included within the system boundaries. The feedstock 95 flow is composed of grape pomace (82.6%), organic waste from aviaries (13.1%) and ash from 96 eucalyptus and acacia wood (4.3%). This composition is of great interest for the composting 97 system, since the organic waste of aviaries provides a large amount of organic matter and the ash 98 provides microelements such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorous, etc. The 99 production processes of the feedstock were excluded from the system boundaries since the 100 environmental impacts were entirely assigned to the products. 101 4 102 Figure 1. Flowchart and system boundaries of the composting system under study. Legend: T: 103 Transport 104 The composting plant evaluated is located in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. This region of southern 105 Brazil is characterized by its agricultural nature and the most important crops are soy, wheat, corn, 106 rice and grapes. In fact, grape production in this region accounted for 90% of the total Brazilian 107 production. 108 The composting process is similar in some general points to the windrow system, and in addition, 109 it requires low material and energy consumption. The feedstock is collected within a maximum 110 radius of 6 km and transported by truck. When this feedstock is received at the composting plant 111 it is placed on electric conveyor belts that take it to the composting area. Once in the composting 112 area, the feedstock is mechanically stacked in piles, which are continuously turned over to avoid 113 anaerobic conditions and a significant amount of water is added (almost 300 L per tonne 114 feedstock). At the same time, the liquid leachate is collected and treated in another parallel line 115 not considered in this study, which generates other value-added products. During the composting 116 process there is no consumption of materials, apart from diesel for machinery and water. 117 5 Additionally, direct emissions produced during the composting process have been estimated. For 118 the estimation of the emission factors, a literature review of other studies on composting food or 119 agricultural waste has been carried out. Specifically, five major gases were identified as emissions 120 from composting: Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO), dinitrogen 121 monoxide (N2O) and ammonia (NH3). 122 The description of the plant operation was based on the information reported by Ferrari et al. 123 (2019). Once the first phases of the composting process are completed, the compost is taken to 124 the maturation zone where it can be stored for up to 3 years When the maturation time is over, the 125 compost piles are collected and taken to the packaging and distribution area. The compost is 126 packed in individual high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bags and several bags are placed together 127 in wooden pallets and rolled up with packaging film. This subsystem considers the transport from 128 the composting plant to the sales points, which are located within a maximum radius of 100 km 129 from the composting plant. The use of machinery for the application of fertiliser and the 130 consumption of fuel within the boundaries of Subsystem 3 were considered. Direct emissions 131 from the application of soil fertilizer as an organic amendment were estimated. In particular, 132 emissions were calculated in terms of CO2, NH3 and N2O to air, nitrate (NO3-) and phosphate 133 (PO43-) to water. 134 2.3. Data acquisition and life cycle inventory 135 The accuracy of the data used is a key aspect of the reliability of any LCA study. A consistent 136 environmental assessment requires the collection of high-quality data that allows the construction 137 of a credible life cycle inventory. This should be done using primary data or, failing that, 138 secondary data from reliable scientific databases or publications. In the present study, the 139 inventory data of the foreground systems, such as the electricity requirements of all equipment 140 (mainly conveyors), the consumption of diesel, tap water and other materials, have been taken 141 directly from a company dedicated to the composting of wine growing waste. This company is 142 the owner and operates the composting plant, so the data used are primary. These data are referred 143 6 to the year 2018. The background inventories have been obtained from the Ecoinvent 3.5 144 database, considering the primary data collected in the questionnaire. 145 All electricity requirements for Subsystem 1 have been directly estimated considering the power 146 of the equipment as well as the duration of its use. Emissions due to the composting processes 147 were calculated using emission factors from a literature review. However, CO2 emissions were 148 not included in the global warming potential taking into account the recommendation of the 149 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to consider CO2 emissions from organic matter 150 degradation as biogenic CO2 (IPCC, 2006). This assumption in in line with other similar studies 151 (Saer et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2019). Infrastructure construction has not been considered in this 152 study, as the environmental impacts of construction, installation and decommissioning of the 153 industrial facilities have been considered negligible over their lifetime (Jeswani et al., 2015). The 154 literature review conducted is summarized in Table S.1 of the Supplementary Material. Given the 155 high variability of the different emission factors reported in the literature, it was considered 156 necessary to perform a sensitivity analysis, in which the minimum and maximum emission factors 157 were compared to the average. Table S.2 of the Supplementary Material overviews these emission 158 factors obtained from the literature review. It is important to note that the emission factors related 159 to slurry composting have not been considered in order to obtain reliable emission factors to the 160 case of wine waste. 161 As far as the consumption of materials in Subsystem 2 is concerned, the corresponding inventories 162 were obtained from Ecoinvent, considering the primary consumption data. It was determined that 163 20% of the materials consumed (plastic and wood) during packaging were discarded. The 164 Brazilian profile of plastic and organic waste management was followed to determine the end-of-165 life treatment of plastic and wood waste. 166 Compost application to agricultural land has been determined using an Ecoinvent process of 167 organic fertiliser application (Nemecek and Käggi, 2007), which includes the production and 168 consumption of diesel and the use of agricultural machinery. Direct emissions of CO2, NH3, N2O, 169 NO3and PO43produced after the application of compost have also been quantified. The 170 7 estimation of direct emissions was estimated considering an average content of 45% carbon, 2.4% 171 nitrogen, 1.6% phosphorus and 3% potassium in compost (Ferrari et al., 2019). An average 172 content of 45% carbon, 2.4% nitrogen, 1.6% phosphorus and 3% potassium in compost have been 173 considered. The emission factors used to calculate the direct emissions produced by the 174 application of the compost are shown in Table S.3 of the Supplementary Material. 175 The application of compost to the soil produces some environmental benefits, such as the addition 176 of organic matter and natural fertilizers, which reduce the need for mineral fertilizers. The 177 environmental impacts of applying compost to the soil and the resulting gaseous emissions were 178 calculated. However, the environmental benefits produced by the substitution of other types of 179 mineral or chemical fertilizers were not included in the baseline scenario but in Section 3.2. In 180 order to estimate the total amount of NPK fertiliser that can be avoided, the total content of 181 nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the compost was taken into account, along with the 182 limiting nutrient in each case (maize, tomato and strawberry). A summary of the main inventory 183 data for the composting of agricultural waste to produce high quality compost is shown in Table 184 1. 185 186 14 impact is produced by emissions from composting. Since the min EF scenario reduces ammonia 313 emissions by 90% with respect to the base scenario, the impact on this category is drastically 314 reduced to 79.7%. In the max EF and max EF* scenarios, the opposite effect occurs, increasing 315 the impact of this category by 102%, from 1.3 to 2.7 kg SO2 eq per tonne of feedstock. 316 Table 2. Results of the sensitivity analysis: Impact variation (in %) respect to the values 317 reported in “Base scenario” considering the minimum, maximum and maximum* 318 emission factors and 25% variation in electricity and diesel consumption. 319 Impact category Unit Base scenario Min EF Max EF Max EF* EC ±25% DC ±25% GW kg CO 2 eq 472.59 -24.3% 310.2% 77.4% ±0.04% ±1.0% OF kg NO X eq 0.2 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% ±0.1% ±16.3% TA kg SO 2 eq 1.1 -79.7% 102.0% 102.0% ±0.04% ±1.6% FE kg P eq 0.01 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% ±0.6% ±17.0% TET kg 1,4-DCB 219.9 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% ±0.1% ±6.6% FET kg 1,4-DCB 0.9 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% ±0.5% ±14.1% HT kg 1,4-DCB 2.1 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% ±0.2% ±17.7% MRS kg Cu eq 0.2 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% ±0.06% ±19.1% 320 The change in electricity consumption in SS1 and SS2 implies a maximum impact variation 321 ranging from -0.58% to +0.58% in the FE category, which is the impact category most affected 322 by electricity and shows the greatest impact variation. In contrast, GW and TA, mainly affected 323 by on-site emissions, are the impact categories least affected by variations in electricity 324 consumption. This change implies a variation in environmental impact of 0.4% in both categories. 325 According to the results, it can be affirmed that electricity consumption is not a key element in 326 the environmental profile of the valorisation process. 327 The variation in diesel consumption has a more pronounced effect on most impact categories, 328 except those in which the main contributors are on-site emissions (GW and TA). The total 329 variation in environmental impact ranged from 1% in GW to 19.1% in MRS. Despite the fact that 330 on-site emissions are the main contributor in the GW and TA categories, diesel production and 331 consumption stand out as the most harmful element when all impact categories are considered. It 332 15 seems clear that if improvement actions were implemented that would reduce diesel consumption, 333 the environmental profile of the recovery process would improve considerably. 334 3.2. Effect of compost application on different crops 335 Compost is widely recognized as an organic amendment that has a beneficial impact on the 336 physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil (Głąb et al., 2020). It has been shown that 337 compost improves soil structure and causes a decrease in surface runoff and erosion (Głąb et al., 338 2020). Other benefits derived from compost use as a soil amendment are, among others, an 339 increase in soil porosity, water retention and hydraulic conductivity (Ramos, 2017) and a higher 340 volume of residual and storage pores (Głąb, 2014). It is also important to note the capacity of 341 compost to be used as a substitute for mineral fertilisers. In fact, in this section, the addition of 342 compost was evaluated as the only fertiliser in the agricultural production of maize (Noya et al., 343 2015), tomato (Ingrao et al., 2019) and strawberry (Valiante et al., 2019), examples of cereals, 344 vegetables and fruits. Taking into account the different stages of cultivation, the modification of 345 the scenarios was considered by replacing mineral fertilisers with compost and quantifying the 346 direct emissions of CO2, NH3, N2O, NO3and PO43produced after the application of compost, 347 following the guidelines of Section 2.3. Figure 4 shows the comparative environmental 348 performance between the crops considered as reference and those in which compost is used as the 349 only fertiliser. 350 351 Figure 4. Environmental profiles of maize, tomato and strawberry production when compost is 352 used as fertiliser. 353 16 According to the results depicted in Figure 4, land application of compost instead of the use of 354 mineral fertilisers would be the most appropriate route for most impact categories. In strawberry 355 cultivation, all impact categories improve their environmental results. A maximum improvement 356 of 65% is reached in the TET category, mainly because the impact of fertilisers is particularly 357 relevant in this category (almost half). On the other hand, the environmental impact of the TA 358 category is only reduced by 3%. Maize cultivation shows reductions between 78% in TA and 3% 359 in GW and a minimum improvement in the TET category. It is notable that in this crop, the FE 360 and MRS categories present negative impacts. This occurs because the environmental credits 361 obtained from the fertilisers avoided exceed the impact of the rest of the inputs consumed during 362 production and application of the compost. Just the opposite is observed in the TET category, in 363 which the impact derived from the use of fertilisers only contributes 25.3%. When mineral 364 fertilisers are replaced by compost, the environmental burdens derived from their production 365 exceed the benefits of their replacement. Tomato cultivation shows slightly worse results in 366 relative terms. Although there are categories that considerably improve their environmental 367 impact (TA and MRS), the GW category increases the environmental impact by 11%. The impact 368 of fertilisers only represents 25.3% for this category and therefore the emissions from production 369 and application of compost are higher than those avoided. It is important to note that these results 370 are in line with other studies, which demonstrate the feasibility of replacing mineral fertilisers 371 with organic and waste-derived fertilisers (Mancini et al., 2019). Substituting mineral fertilisers 372 for the nutrients recovered from waste could be considered a climate change mitigation strategy, 373 since the synthetic production of NPK-based fertilisers is an energy-intensive process (Cobo et 374 al., 2018). Compost also plays an important role as a carbon sink, which allows the long-term 375 storage of organic carbon (Bong et al., 2017). 376 5. Conclusions 377 This study focuses on the environmental implications of a wine waste recovery route through 378 composting with the aim of obtaining a high quality biofertiliser. According to the results, special 379 attention should be paid to the diesel consumption of machinery as the main critical point. 380 17 Furthermore, the selection of emission factors for direct gaseous emissions during composting is 381 really important, as the results change considerably, especially in the GW and TA categories. The 382 results of the sensitivity analysis showed that the environmental impact can differ by more than 383 300% in GW and almost 100% in TA. 384 This study has shown that, if the system boundaries are similar to those of previous studies, the 385 evaluated process has a promising environmental profile. Unlike previous studies, the use of 386 compost as an organic amendment was evaluated, where some environmental burdens related to 387 direct emissions and diesel consumption during the application stage must be taken into account. 388 The feasibility of using compost as an organic fertiliser in maize, tomato and strawberry crops 389 has been demonstrated, avoiding the use of mineral fertilisers. The results of this analysis showed 390 that the environmental profile of the evaluated crops improved considerably in almost all impact 391 categories. This work shows that composting is an appropriate way to obtain products from waste 392 according to the principles of Circular Economy. 393 Acknowledgements 394 This research was supported by the European Project STAR-ProBio (Grant Agreement Number 395 727740). A. Cortés, M.T. Moreira and G. 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