The application of managerial innovation in protected areas. Intercontinental comparative study

INTERNATIONAL DOCTORAL SCHOOL OF THE USC Ikrame SELKANI PhD Thesis The application of managerial innovation in protected areas. Intercontinental comparative study Lugo, 2022 Doctoral Programme in Sustainable Soil and Land Management DOCTORAL THESIS THE APPLICATION OF MANAGERIAL INNOVATION IN PROTECTED AREAS. INTERCONTINENTAL COMPARATIVE Ikrame SELKANI INTERNATIONAL PHD SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA PHD PROGRAMME IN SUSTAINABLE SOIL AND LAND MANAGEMENT LUGO 2022 IKRAME SELKANI 1 Introduction IKRAME SELKANI 1 Introduction IKRAME SELKANI Acknowledgments Foremost I am extremely grateful to my supervisors, Dr. Prof. Pablo Ramil-Rego and, Dr. Prof. María Ángeles Jordano Barbudo for their invaluable advice, continuous support, and patience during my Ph.D. study. Their immense knowledge and plentiful experience have encouraged me all the time in my academic research and daily life. My appreciation also goes out to my family and friends for their encouragement and support throughout my studies. The application of managerial innovation in protected areas. Intercontinental comparative study Abstract Due to the current situation of environmental policies we know that the protected areas are essential living spaces and present are of supreme importance in our present time. Their role in balancing ecosystems and the environment is very important, yet, today, in the 21stcentury, we are talking more about protected areas. The governance of these territories needs to be evaluated and controlled, and why not benefit from. Innovation in management is viewed as an advancement of management strategies, which is in itself of real value to businesses that will change the old routines and continue with innovation techniques that respect, and achieve better results in terms of employee well-being. Applying certain concepts that are related to the company at first could be very important if we give them a new way of being. In other words, these techniques that helped a large amount of international companies around the world, could be beneficial if we let the protected areas benefit from them in collaboration with their team and assisting the human being inside these territories in order to be committed, cooperative, risk-taken, initiative-taken… and not just management techniques and forgetting the “human” who is the key element that works so hard in these forgotten and marginalized areas. The primary goal of Protected Areas in the twenty-first century is to make a significant contribution to the protection of the components of Biodiversity at a global level, managing in the best way the majority of threats and pressures and ensuring a good conservation. A favorable conservation helps to guarantee the environmental integrity of the natural area itself at all times. Talking about ecotourism, it has a number of negative consequences, including Chemical and physical strain on the environment: Most hotels dump their waste in the lack of a competent sewage treatment facility to the institution, resulting in degradation of the coast's water quality and oil leaks from ships. Over-consumption of natural resources, loss of wetlands in the coastal plain, deforestation and loss of plant species that prevent over-exploitation of marine resources: fish, corals, and shells are all concerns. "Ecotourism is a sustainable kind of natural resource-based tourism that focuses on experiencing and learning about environment and is ethically managed to be low-impact, nonconsumptive, and locally focused" (control, benefits and scale). It is most commonly found in natural environments and should help to preserve them Fennell (2003). Protected areas are essential as living spaces which role is maintaining the balance between the ecosystems and the environment. The governance of these territories needs to be evaluated and controlled to enhance it. Innovation in management is viewed as an advancement of management strategies: Change the old routines, replace with new innovative techniques to better results in terms of employee well-being. At the 2008 World Conservation Congress in IKRAME SELKANI Barcelona, organized by IUCN: “A protected area is a clearly defined geographical territory that has been consecrated, acknowledged, and administered via any effective legal or other methods with the goal of long-term protection of nature, ecosystem services, and cultural values.” (IUCN, 2008). The main question of this academic thesis is: Do the protected areas apply to the managerial innovation techniques? The main objective of this Ph.D. thesis is to explain the relationship between the managerial innovation techniques application and protected areas through an example, describing the internal management system that applies in protected areas. Does the manager apply the old management style more, (give orders, orient, direct, have the last word….) or does he/she try to put employees within management, taking their opinions into account, and developing them as important human capital? The method used in this study is the ‘semi structured-interview” which belongs to the distinctive data collection methods used in qualitative research (Eskola & Suoranta, 2003). In my study, it is important to develop the vision of the management inside of the protected areas. The managerial innovation is perceived as an evolution of the - management techniques: - finish with the old management modes - respecting the well-being of the employees - and reaching a better performance of the company Management is an indispensable technique for any organization. When we talk about managerial innovation in protected areas, we refer to the set of techniques that allow staff to become autonomous, and favor a scale of comfort and well-being, for better creativity alone or with a team. Concerning the old way of management, and inside of the protected areas that we interviewed, we could notice that more than the half, 56.3%, is participatory management. At the second level, we find that 25% of the quarter is taken over by the delegated management, and direct management is present in these interview responses at 12.5%. “Managerial innovation is a set of practices, ideas, and/or programs relating to the management and running of an organization. It’s an association of information and means corresponding to the modification of old and existing concepts by new, better ones for stronger management and direction of an organization. It is a mosaic of processes and concepts implementing new decisions in management” (Selkani, 2022). The contribution of my investigation is: mixing and matching between the managerial innovations with the protected areas. In this research, we will go in-depth via multiples case studies of 16 protected areas managers that responded positively to this request by completing the interview from 3/4 different continents around the world. 3 of these 16 interviews were answered by managers, not of an exact protected area, but of an entire region. The one from Australia was completed by Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service - Planner. In Sweden, the interview was filled by the manager of the entire province of Norrbotten. There are 7 national parks and 430 nature reserves in Norrbotten County. With Portugal, replied in the same way, the manager represented the position of communication Responsible at the Institute for the Conservation of Nature and Forests but did not specify the region she occupied in terms of management, which is around 743,100 hectares and whose date of creation were in 2008. In Africa, the countries that answered the interview guide were : 1 Introduction desde 3/4 continentes diferentes alrededor del mundo. 3 de estas 16 entrevistas fueron contestadas por gestores, no de un área protegida concreta, sino de toda una región. La de Australia fue completada por Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service - Planner. En Suecia, la entrevista la cumplimentó el gestor de toda la provincia de Norrbotten. En el condado de Norrbotten hay 7 parques nacionales y 430 reservas naturales. En el caso de Portugal, que respondió de la misma manera, la gestora representaba el cargo de responsable de comunicación del Instituto de Conservación de la Naturaleza y los Bosques, pero no especificó la región que ocupaba en términos de gestión, que es de unas 743.100 hectáreas y cuya fecha de creación fue en 2008. En África, los países que respondieron a la guía de entrevistas fueron : Gabón con el Parque Nacional de Lopé; Kenia con la Reserva de Caza de Maasai Mara; en Madagascar con el Área Protegida de Bemanevika; el Parque Nacional del Monte Ntringui; el Parque Nacional de Shisiwani; el Parque Nacional de Zombitse-Vohibasia; en Mozambique con el Parque Nacional de Gorongosa. En América, los países que respondieron a la guía de entrevistas fueron: En Alaska con Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, en Haití con Three Bays Protected Area en Perú, con Huascarán National Park, En USA con Great Basin National Park. En Australia con los Parques y Bosques de Queensland y la Gran Barrera de Coral. En Europa, en Suecia con Norrbotten es la parte más septentrional del país, en Portugal : Red Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (RNAP), en Croacia con el Parque Natural de Medvednica, en Polonia con el Parque Nacional de Ojców La guía de la entrevista constaba de tres partes: La primera parte se llama "Sobre la gestión": Se pregunta al directivo por su sexo y su edad en un intervalo y, a continuación, por su experiencia en el puesto directivo y el número de personas que dirige. Aquí, las preguntas tratan el estilo de gestión, el estrés y la motivación del equipo e intentan detectar una pequeña idea sobre la innovación en la gestión. La segunda parte se denominó "Observación de la innovación directiva": Las preguntas de la segunda parte abordan la innovación directiva un poco más a fondo. Después de dar nueve técnicas de la innovación directiva y de explicar cada una de ellas por separado y dar un ejemplo, aquí el directivo debe elegir las técnicas de innovación directiva que más le hablan, la que más se utiliza con el equipo de trabajo y luego la técnica utilizada en cada situación especial: Resolver problemas, Establecer el plan de gestión, Planificación previa, Evaluación de datos e identificación de valores... La gestión es una técnica indispensable para cualquier organización. Cuando hablamos de innovación directiva en los espacios protegidos, nos referimos al conjunto de técnicas que permiten al personal ser autónomo, y favorecen una escala de confort y bienestar, para una mejor creatividad en solitario o en equipo. La tercera parte se denomina La innovación directiva en la organización En este nivel y tras mostrar y explicar tres grandes empresas que utilizan la innovación directiva y sus objetivos, se pregunta al directivo por el ejemplo que más le convence y si está de acuerdo en utilizar las técnicas de innovación directiva y su opinión con el crecimiento del rendimiento. Sin embargo, las preguntas relativas al área protegida comienzan con el nombre, el tipo: marino o terrestre, el tamaño y el año de creación. IKRAME SELKANI Siguen las preguntas sobre si el área protegida responde a la definición de la UICN, categoría de gestión según la UICN. A continuación, se formulan las preguntas relativas a los convenios internacionales: Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica, Protocolo de Nagoya, Patrimonio Mundial, Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas, Convención sobre la Conservación de las Especies Migratorias, Convención de Ramsar y de los Humedales, si el país donde se encuentra el área protegida es miembro de la convención o no y el año de inscripción en la convención en el caso positivo. Las funciones esenciales de las áreas protegidas escaladas de 1 a 5 según su importancia: Recreación y descubrimiento de la naturaleza, Concienciación pública sobre temas de conservación, Área de investigación científica para un mejor conocimiento del mundo animal y floral, Conservación de valores culturales y espirituales, Lugares de educación. Una pregunta relativa a la etiqueta "Patrimonio de la Humanidad" y las respectivas acciones para obtener esta etiqueta, otra se formula en referencia a la etiqueta "Lista Verde" y la planificación para solicitarla. Sobre la lista roja, se hace una pregunta para saber si hay alguna especie en el área protegida que esté en la lista roja de la UICN y, en caso afirmativo, nombrar alguna de ellas. En cuanto a las actividades que se realizan en el área protegida, como el ecoturismo: el número de ecoturistas que llegan al área protegida al año y las diferentes actividades que realiza el ecoturista: Turismo de naturaleza escénica, expediciones de ecoturismo, senderismo y acampada, senderismo en la selva, observación de aves, observación de la fauna... A continuación, se pregunta por las amenazas que frenan e impiden el normal funcionamiento del área protegida: Disminución de la biodiversidad, Acceso de turistas, Extracción (caza, minería, tala, pesca), Cambio climático, Especies invasoras, Sobreexplotación, Gestión inadecuada, Conflicto con comunidades vecinas o asociadas, Pérdida de conocimientos / cambio cultural... Una penúltima pregunta que interroga al gestor sobre las principales presiones sobre la diversidad biológica en su área protegida: Sobreexplotación y uso insostenible, Ingesta excesiva de nutrientes y otras formas de contaminación, Pérdida y degradación del hábitat, Especies exóticas invasoras, Cambio climático. La última pregunta se refiere a las acciones que el gestor y su equipo realizan para la protección de la biodiversidad en una pregunta abierta. El objetivo de la investigación que realizamos era determinar si las áreas protegidas utilizaban o no enfoques de gestión. Esta hipótesis no fue validada estadísticamente, dado que las estadísticas no nos permitieron validar esta hipótesis de estudio, pero esto no implica que sea un no definitivo. Por otra parte, las áreas protegidas utilizan estrategias de innovación en la gestión en casos muy particulares, como lo demuestran las estadísticas descriptivas de este estudio. También se descubrió que varias áreas protegidas utilizan estas estrategias/técnicas sin conocer su nombre ni su clasificación en el mundo de la gestión. Basándonos en nuestros resultados, podemos concluir que las zonas protegidas no emplean con éxito estrategias de innovación en la gestión. Esto significa que las zonas protegidas no utilizan todas las técnicas de innovación gerencial que propusimos durante la entrevista guía, sino más bien un subconjunto de ellas: el pensamiento de diseño, el codiseño, las redes de aprendizaje, la tutoría, el coaching entre pares y el mentoring, los grupos focales y el codesarrollo, los talleres participativos, la experiencia disruptiva y la inmersión. 1 Introduction La pregunta principal de esta tesis académica es: ¿Se aplican las áreas protegidas a las técnicas de innovación de los directivos? ¿El estilo de gestión del directivo es más tradicional (dar órdenes, orientar, dirigir, tener la última palabra...), o pretende integrar a las personas en la gestión, teniendo en cuenta sus puntos de vista y desarrollándolas como un valioso capital humano? En esta investigación, profundizaremos a través de múltiples estudios de caso de 16 gestores de áreas protegidas que respondieron positivamente a esta pregunta completando la entrevista de 3 a 4 continentes diferentes de todo el mundo. Desde el punto de vista estadístico, esta hipótesis no se ha confirmado, pero esto no significa que sea un no radical. Los espacios protegidos aplican técnicas de innovación de gestión en casos muy concretos. En cuanto al método de gestión anterior, y entre las áreas protegidas que examinamos, descubrimos que más de la mitad, el 56,3%, es la gestión participativa. En el segundo nivel, descubrimos que la gestión delegada se lleva más del 25% del trimestre, y que la gestión directa representa el 12,5% de las respuestas a las entrevistas. Estadísticamente, esta hipótesis no se ha confirmado, pero esto no significa que sea un no radical. Los espacios protegidos aplican técnicas de innovación directiva en casos muy concretos. Cuando se preguntó por la aplicación de técnicas de innovación en la gestión dentro de las áreas protegidas mejoraría el rendimiento y los resultados. Las palabras más repetidas fueron: cambio, innovación, liderazgo, trabajo en equipo, toma de decisiones, nuevo, gestión, innovación, resultados, adaptación, comportamiento... Cuando hablamos de innovación en la gestión de las áreas protegidas, nos referimos a un conjunto de estrategias que permiten a los trabajadores ser más independientes y favorecer una escala de confort y bienestar, permitiéndoles ser más creativos por sí mismos o en grupo. El objetivo de nuestro estudio era comprobar si las áreas protegidas utilizaban prácticas de gestión Las áreas protegidas utilizan estrategias de innovación en la gestión en situaciones muy concretas, como revelan las estadísticas descriptivas de este estudio. Hoy en día, parece que la gestión ha dejado de ser un lujo para convertirse en una prioridad que debe cambiar y modificarse constantemente, dada la inestabilidad de nuestra sociedad actual. La innovación gerencial ha llegado por lo tanto como una técnica para flexibilizar los modos de gestión para el bienestar del equipo y de los colaboradores y un mejor rendimiento de la organización en su conjunto. Podríamos decir, por último, que la innovación empresarial no es sólo para las empresas, sino para todas las instituciones que destacan las ventajas de estas técnicas y la novedad de estos métodos para trabajar mejor y obtener un mayor rendimiento. Según las estadísticas, podemos afirmar que: El 93,3% respondió "Sí" confirmando que los métodos de innovación en la gestión conducen a un mejor rendimiento en términos de resultados. Las palabras más repetidas son: cambio, personas, trabajo en equipo, toma de decisiones, personal, gestión, innovación, resultados, creatividad, imaginación, soluciones... Aquí, podríamos decir que casi la mitad, el 46,2%, provienen de la categoría N ° 2: Parques nacionales que cumplen con la definición de la UICN, el 23,1% de la categoría N ° 5: V: Paisaje protegido o paisaje marino, el 15,4% de la última y sexta categorías: VI: Área protegida con uso sostenible de los recursos naturales. Según el estudio realizado, nuestro objetivo era averiguar si las áreas protegidas aplicaban técnicas de gestión. IKRAME SELKANI También resultó que hay áreas protegidas que aplican estas técnicas sin conocer su nombre o designación en el mundo de la gestión. Basándonos en nuestros resultados, podemos concluir que las áreas y zonas protegidas no emplean con éxito estrategias de innovación en la gestión. Esto significa que las áreas protegidas no utilizan todas las técnicas de innovación en la gestión que propusimos durante la entrevista guía, sino más bien una división de las mismas: pensamiento de diseño, codiseño, redes de aprendizaje, tutoría, coaching entre pares y mentoring, grupos de discusión y codesarrollo, talleres participativos, experiencia disruptiva e inmersión. En cuanto a la antigua forma de gestión, y dentro de las áreas protegidas que entrevistamos, pudimos observar que más de la mitad, el 56,3%, es la gestión participativa. En el segundo nivel, encontramos que el 25% de la cuarta parte es asumida por la gestión delegada, y la gestión directa está presente en las respuestas de estas entrevistas en un 12,5%. A grandes rasgos, la innovación empresarial es entonces aquellas técnicas que ayudan a los miembros de la misma organización a estar en el mismo ambiente. Para beneficiarse de ella, el directivo debe ser consciente de dar a los trabajadores el derecho al error, la posibilidad de tomar la iniciativa y asumir el riesgo. De esta manera, hay más oportunidades para la experimentación entre todos los miembros y la co-creación. Los resultados son encontrar un cierto bienestar dentro del lugar de trabajo teniendo en cuenta el estado de ánimo del momento, el equilibrio de la vida personal y privada... Las técnicas de innovación empresarial ayudan a proyectar en el futuro decidir sobre el futuro teniendo una visión común, y sobre todo a prestar atención a las señales débiles: cambio de tareas, tomar tiempo libre sobre acciones concretas para mejorar la situación del trabajador. La gestión de las áreas protegidas es un tema bastante preciso porque pretende reforzar la conservación de la biodiversidad y la protección de la naturaleza mediante técnicas como el METT, el RAPPAM, el TNC y otros métodos. Con esta visión, entendemos y creemos que es la técnica la que hace el hombre y no al revés. Por otro lado, y según varios estudios, hemos podido demostrar que si el hombre se encuentra en una situación favorable y agradable, los resultados son mejores y van mejorando día a día. La innovación directiva ha llegado, pues, como una técnica para flexibilizar los modos de gestión para el bienestar del equipo y de los colaboradores y un mejor rendimiento de la organización en su conjunto. He aquí algunas ideas que propongo para una mejor aplicación de la técnica de la innovación directiva en los ámbitos protegidos: Implicar al otro en la toma de decisiones, lo que significa aplicar la relación Adulto/Adulto entre el directivo y los colaboradores. Dar autonomía al equipo: establecer un ambiente de confianza, en el que se valore y respete la capacidad de escuchar, comprender y no juzgar. Elegir la técnica que ayudará al equipo a avanzar con el objetivo preestablecido: Hackathon, World café, Red de aprendizaje, Taller participativo. Modificar y cambiar el modo ya empleado para que sea más comprometido, digno de confianza y creativo entre los miembros del equipo. Repitiendo el mismo método si es necesario sin ser mal revisado. En lo que respecta al ecoturismo, es muy importante minimizar los impactos negativos sobre la naturaleza y la cultura que pueden perjudicar a un destino, lo que se puede hacer de las siguientes maneras Educar a los viajeros sobre la importancia de la conservación. 1 Introduction Destacar el uso de estudios ambientales y sociales, además de programas de seguimiento a largo plazo, para evaluar y minimizar los impactos. El objetivo de nuestro estudio era comprobar si las áreas protegidas utilizaban prácticas de gestión. Las áreas protegidas utilizan estrategias de innovación en la gestión en situaciones muy concretas, como revelan las estadísticas descriptivas de este estudio. Dada la inseguridad de nuestra sociedad moderna, parece que la gestión ha dejado de ser un lujo para convertirse en una necesidad que debe ajustarse y modificarse continuamente. Palabras clave: gestión; dirección; innovación; innovación en la gestión, áreas protegidas, UICN IKRAME SELKANI A aplicación de xestión innovadora de espazos protexidos. Estudo Comparativo Intercontinental Resumo Debido á situación actual das políticas ambientais sabemos que os espazos protexidos son espazos habituais esenciais e que a actualidade teñen unha importancia suprema no noso tempo presente. O seu papel no equilibrio dos ecosistemas e do medio ambiente é moi importante, aínda que hoxe, no século XXI, estamos a falar máis de áreas protexidas. Hai que avaliar e controlar a gobernanza destes territorios, e por que non beneficiarse. A innovación na xestión é vista como un avance das estratexias de xestión, que en si mesmo ten un valor real para as empresas que cambiarán as vellas rutinas e continuarán con técnicas de innovación que respecten, e acadarán mellores resultados en termos de benestar dos empregados. Aplicar determinados conceptos relacionados coa empresa nun principio podería ser moi importante se lles damos unha nova forma de ser. Noutras palabras, estas técnicas que axudaron a unha gran cantidade de empresas internacionais de todo o mundo, poderían ser beneficiosas se deixamos que os espazos protexidos se beneficien delas en colaboración co seu equipo e asistindo ao ser humano dentro destes territorios para que estea comprometido, cooperativo. , risco, iniciativa... e non só técnicas de xestión e esquecemento do “humano” que é o elemento clave que tanto traballa nestes ámbitos esquecidos e marxinados. O obxectivo primordial das Áreas Protexidas no século XXI é facer unha contribución significativa á protección dos compoñentes da Biodiversidade a nivel global, xestionando da mellor maneira a maioría das ameazas e presións e garantindo unha boa conservación. Unha conservación favorable contribúe a garantir en todo momento a integridade ambiental do propio espazo natural. Falando de ecoturismo, ten unha serie de consecuencias negativas, entre elas Presións químicas e físicas sobre o medio ambiente: a maioría dos hoteis botan os seus residuos ante a falta dunha depuradora competente na institución, o que provoca a degradación da calidade das augas do litoral e as fugas de petróleo dos barcos. O consumo excesivo de recursos naturais, a perda de zonas húmidas na chaira costeira, a deforestación e a perda de especies vexetais que impiden a sobreexplotación dos recursos mariños: peixes, corais e cunchas son preocupacións. "O ecoturismo é un tipo de turismo sostible baseado en recursos naturais que se centra en experimentar e aprender sobre o medio ambiente e xestionado éticamente para que sexa de baixo impacto, non consuma e se enfoca localmente" (control, beneficios e escala). Atópase máis habitualmente en ambientes naturais e debería axudar a preservalos Fennell (2003). As áreas protexidas son esenciais como espazos habitables que teñen como función manter o equilibrio entre os ecosistemas e o medio ambiente. A gobernanza destes territorios debe ser avaliada e controlada para mellorala. A innovación na xestión é vista como un avance das estratexias de xestión: cambiar as vellas rutinas, substituír con novas técnicas innovadoras para obter mellores resultados en termos de benestar dos empregados. No Congreso Mundial 1 Introduction da Conservación de 2008 en Barcelona, organizado pola UICN: “Unha área protexida é un territorio xeográfico claramente definido que foi consagrado, recoñecido e administrado mediante calquera método legal eficaz ou doutro tipo co obxectivo de protección a longo prazo da natureza. servizos ecosistémicos e valores culturais”. (UICN, 2008). A pregunta principal desta tese académica é: Aplícanse os espazos protexidos ás técnicas de innovación de xestión? O obxectivo principal deste doutoramento. A tese consiste en explicar a relación entre a aplicación das técnicas de innovación de xestión e os espazos protexidos mediante un exemplo, describindo o sistema de xestión interno que se aplica aos espazos protexidos. O director aplica máis o antigo estilo de xestión (dar ordes, orientar, dirixir, ter a última palabra...) ou tenta situar aos empregados na dirección, tendo en conta as súas opinións e desenvolvéndoos como un importante capital humano? ? O método empregado neste estudo é a "entrevista semiestructurada" que pertence aos métodos distintivos de recollida de datos empregados na investigación cualitativa (Eskola e Suoranta, 2003). No meu estudo, é importante desenvolver a visión da xestión dentro dos espazos protexidos. A innovación directiva percíbese como unha evolución das técnicas de xestión: - rematar cos modos de xestión antigos - Respectar o benestar dos traballadores - e acadar un mellor rendemento da empresa A xestión é unha técnica indispensable para calquera organización. Cando falamos de innovación directiva en espazos protexidos, referímonos ao conxunto de técnicas que permiten autónomo ao persoal, e favorecen unha escala de confort e benestar, para unha mellor creatividade só ou en equipo. No que respecta á antiga forma de xestión, e dentro dos espazos protexidos que entrevistamos, puidemos constatar que máis da metade, o 56,3%, é de xestión participativa. No segundo nivel, atopamos que o 25% do trimestre corre a cargo da xestión delegada, e a xestión directa está presente nestas respostas de entrevista nun 12,5%. “A innovación directiva é un conxunto de prácticas, ideas e/ou programas relacionados coa xestión e funcionamento dunha organización. É unha asociación de información e medios correspondentes á modificación de conceptos antigos e existentes por outros novos e mellores para unha xestión e dirección máis fortes dunha organización. É un mosaico de procesos e conceptos que implementan novas decisións na xestión” (Selkani, 2022). A contribución da miña investigación é: mesturar e combinar as innovacións de xestión coas áreas protexidas. Nesta investigación afondaremos a través de múltiples casos prácticos de 16 xestores de áreas protexidas que responderon positivamente a esta solicitude completando a entrevista de 3/4 continentes diferentes de todo o mundo. 3 destas 16 entrevistas foron contestadas por xestores, non dunha área protexida exacta, senón de toda unha comarca. O de Australia completouno Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service - Planner. En Suecia, a entrevista foi cuberta polo xerente de toda a provincia de Norrbotten. Hai 7 parques nacionais e 430 reservas naturais no condado de Norrbotten. IKRAME SELKANI Con Portugal, respondeu do mesmo xeito, a xerente representou o cargo de Responsable de comunicación do Instituto para a Conservación da Natureza e dos Bosques pero non precisou a rexión que ocupaba en canto á xestión, que ronda as 743.100 hectáreas e cuxa data de creación. foron en 2008. En África, os países que responderon á guía de entrevista foron: Gabón co Parque Nacional de Lopé ; Kenia coa reserva de caza Maasai Mara; en Madagascar coa Área Protexida de Bemanevika; Parque Nacional do Monte Ntringui; Parque Nacional Shisiwani; Parque Nacional Zombitse-Vohibasia; en Mozambique co Parque Nacional Gorongosa. En América, os países que responderon á guía de entrevista foron: En Alaska con Wrangell-St. Parque Nacional e Reserva Elias, en Haití con Área Protexida das Tres Baías no Perú, co Parque Nacional Huascarán, en Estados Unidos co Parque Nacional Great Basin. En Australia con Queensland Parks, Bosques e a Gran Barreira de Coral. En Europa, en Suecia con Norrbotten é a parte máis setentrional do condado, en Portugal : National Protected Areas Network (RNAP), en Croacia co Parque Natural Medvednica, en Polonia co Parque Nacional Ojców A guía de entrevista constaba de tres partes: A primeira parte chámase "Sobre a dirección": pregúntase ao xestor sobre o seu sexo e a súa idade nun intervalo e despois sobre a súa experiencia no posto de dirección e o número de persoas a xestionar. Aquí, as preguntas tratan o estilo de xestión, o estrés e a motivación do equipo e tentan detectar unha pequena idea sobre a innovación directiva. A segunda parte chamouse "Ollando a innovación directiva": as preguntas da segunda parte tratan un pouco máis en profundidade a innovación directiva. Despois de dar nove técnicas da innovación directiva e de explicar cada unha delas e darlle exemplo, aquí o director debe escoller as técnicas de innovación directiva que máis lle falen, a que se utiliza maioritariamente co equipo de traballo e despois a técnica empregada. en cada situación especial: Resolver problemas, Establecer o plan de xestión, Planificación previa, Avaliación de datos e identificación de valores... A xestión é unha técnica indispensable para calquera organización. Cando falamos de innovación directiva en espazos protexidos, referímonos ao conxunto de técnicas que permiten autónomo ao persoal, e favorecen unha escala de confort e benestar, para unha mellor creatividade só ou en equipo. A terceira parte chámase: Innovación directiva na organización Neste nivel e despois de mostrar e explicar tres grandes empresas que empregan a innovación directiva e os seus obxectivos, pregúntaselle ao directivo o exemplo que máis lle fala e se acepta utilizar as técnicas de innovación directiva e a súa opinión coa actuación. crecemento. Porén, as preguntas que se refiren ao espazo protexido comezan polo nome, o tipo: mariña ou terrestre, tamaño e ano de creación. Seguen as preguntas se a área protexida cumpre coa definición da UICN, categoría de xestión segundo a UICN. A continuación, realízanse as preguntas relativas aos convenios internacionais: Convención sobre a Diversidade Biolóxica, Protocolo de Nagoya, Patrimonio Mundial, Convención sobre o Comercio Internacional de Especies Ameazadas, Convención sobre a Conservación de Especies Migratorias, Convención de Ramsar e Humidais, se é o país onde se atopa o espazo protexido. está situado é membro da convención ou non e o ano de inscrición na convención no caso positivo. 1 Introduction As funcións esenciais das áreas protexidas escalaron do 1 ao 5 segundo a súa importancia: Recreo e descubrimento da natureza, Sensibilización pública sobre cuestións de conservación, Área de investigación científica para o mellor coñecemento do mundo animal e floral, Conservación dos valores culturais e espirituais, Lugares de educación. Unha pregunta sobre o selo “Patrimonio da Humanidade” e as respectivas actuacións para a obtención deste selo, faise outra referida á etiqueta “Lista Verde” e a planificación para solicitala. Sobre a Lista Vermella realízase unha pregunta para saber se existe no espazo protexido algunha especie que estea na Lista Vermella da UICN e, en caso afirmativo, nomear algunhas delas. En canto ás actividades que se desenvolven no espazo protexido, como o ecoturismo: o número de ecoturistas ao espazo protexido ao ano e as diferentes actividades que realiza o ecoturismo: Turismo paisaxístico de natureza, Expedicións de ecoturismo, Paseos e acampada. , Sendeirismo na selva, Observación de aves, Observación de vida salvaxe... A continuación, faise unha pregunta sobre as ameazas que frean e impiden o normal funcionamento do espazo protexido: Deterioro da biodiversidade, Acceso turístico, Extracción (caza, minería, tala, pesca), Cambio climático, Especies invasoras, Sobreexplotación, Xestión inadecuada, Conflito. con comunidades veciñas ou asociadas, Perda de coñecemento/cambio cultural... Unha penúltima pregunta que pregunta ao xestor polas principais presións sobre a diversidade biolóxica no seu espazo protexido: Sobreexplotación e uso insostible, Inxestión excesiva de nutrientes e outras formas de contaminación, Perda e degradación do hábitat, Especies exóticas invasoras, Cambio climático. A última pregunta é sobre as accións que o xerente e o seu equipo realizan para a protección da biodiversidade nunha pregunta aberta. O obxectivo da investigación que realizamos foi determinar se as áreas protexidas utilizaban ou non enfoques de xestión. Esta hipótese non foi validada estatisticamente, dadas as estatísticas, o que non permitiu validar esta hipótese de estudo, pero isto non implica que sexa un non definitivo. As áreas protexidas, pola súa banda, utilizan estratexias de innovación xerencial en casos moi particulares, como demostran as estatísticas descritivas deste estudo. Tamén se descubriu que varias áreas protexidas utilizan estas estratexias/técnicas sen coñecer o seu nome ou clasificación no mundo da xestión. En base aos nosos descubrimentos, podemos concluír que as zonas protexidas non empregan con éxito estratexias de innovación administrativa. Isto significa que os espazos protexidos non utilizan todas as técnicas de innovación de xestión que propuxemos durante a entrevista guía, senón un subconxunto delas: design thinking, co-deseño, redes de aprendizaxe, titoría, coaching entre iguais e mentoring, grupos focales. e co-desenvolvemento, obradoiros participativos, experiencia disruptiva e inmersión. A pregunta principal desta tese académica é: ¿Aplícanse as áreas protexidas ás técnicas de innovación de xestión? É máis tradicional o estilo de xestión do directivo (dar ordes, orientar, dirixir, ter a última palabra...), ou pretende integrar á xente na dirección, tendo en conta os seus puntos de vista e desenvolvéndoas como valioso capital humano? IKRAME SELKANI Nesta investigación afondaremos a través de múltiples casos prácticos de 16 xestores de áreas protexidas que responderon positivamente a esta solicitude completando a entrevista de 3 a 4 continentes diferentes de todo o mundo. Estadísticamente falando, esta hipótese non foi confirmada, pero iso non quere dicir que sexa un non radical. Os espazos protexidos aplican técnicas de innovación de xestión en casos moi concretos. Respecto ao método de xestión anterior, e entre os espazos protexidos que analizamos, descubrimos que máis da metade, o 56,3 por cento, é de xestión participativa. No segundo nivel, descubrimos que a xestión delegada ocupa o 25% do trimestre, sendo a xestión directa o 12,5% das respostas das entrevistas. Estadísticamente falando, esta hipótese non foi confirmada, pero iso non quere dicir que sexa un Non radical Os espazos protexidos aplican técnicas de innovación xerencial en casos moi concretos. Cando se lle pregunte sobre a aplicación de técnicas de innovación de xestión dentro das áreas protexidas melloraría o rendemento e os resultados. As palabras máis repetidas foron: cambio, innovación, liderado, traballo en equipo, toma de decisións, novo, xestión, innovación, resultados, adaptación, comportamento... Cando falamos de innovación xerencial en espazos protexidos, fálase dun conxunto de estratexias que permiten aos traballadores ser máis autónomos e favorecer unha escala de confort e benestar, que lles permite ser máis creativos por si mesmos ou en grupo. O obxectivo do noso estudo era ver se as áreas protexidas utilizaban prácticas de xestión. Os espazos protexidos utilizan estratexias de innovación de xestión en situacións moi concretas, tal e como revelan as estatísticas descritivas deste estudo. Hoxe en día parece que a xestión xa non é un luxo senón unha prioridade que debe ser cambiada e modificada constantemente, ante a inestabilidade da nosa sociedade actual. Por iso, a innovación directiva chegou como unha técnica para flexibilizar os modos de xestión para o benestar do equipo e dos colaboradores e un mellor rendemento do conxunto da organización. Poderiamos dicir, finalmente, que a innovación directiva non é só para as empresas senón para todas as institucións que remarcan as vantaxes destas técnicas e a novidade deses métodos para traballar mellor e obter un rendemento mellor. Segundo as estatísticas, podemos afirmar que: A porcentaxe do 93,3 por cento respondeu "Si" confirmando que os métodos de innovación na xestión conducen a un mellor rendemento en termos de resultados. As palabras máis repetidas son: cambio, persoas, traballo en equipo, toma de decisións, persoal, xestión, innovación, resultados, creatividade, imaxinación, solucións... Aquí, poderiamos dicir que case a metade, o 46,2 por cento, proceden da categoría N° 2: Parques nacionais que cumpren a definición da UICN, o 23,1 por cento da categoría N° 5: V: Paisaxe ou paisaxe protexida, o 15,4 % da última e sextas categorías: VI: Área protexida con uso sostible dos recursos naturais. Segundo o estudo que realizamos, o noso obxectivo era coñecer se os espazos protexidos estaban aplicando técnicas de xestión. Tamén resultou que hai espazos protexidos que aplican estas técnicas sen coñecer o seu nome ou denominación no mundo da xestión. Segundo os nosos descubrimentos, podemos concluír que as áreas e zonas protexidas non empregan con éxito estratexias de innovación na xestión. Isto significa que os espazos protexidos non utilizan todas as técnicas de innovación xerencial que propuxemos durante a entrevista guía, senón unha división delas: design thinking, co-deseño, redes de aprendizaxe, titoría, coaching entre iguais e mentoring, grupos focales. e co-desenvolvemento, obradoiros participativos, experiencia disruptiva e inmersión. 1 Introduction 3.2.2. Command-control model .........................................................................................50 3.2.3. The three types of management by Lewin (1890, 1947) ..........................................51 3.2.4. Management model: unfreeze, change, refreeze by Lewin (1890-1947) .....................52 3.3. MANAGEMENT STYLES ............................................................................................................53 3.3.1. Blake (1918-2004) and Mouton (1930-1987) ............................................................54 3.3.2. Renisis Likert (1903-1981) .......................................................................................56 3.3.3. Management By Objectives (MBO) by Peter Drucker (1909, 2005) ......................57 3.3.4. Paul Hersey (1931-2012) and Ken Blanchard (1939-alive) .....................................58 3.3.5. Theories X and Y of Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) .............................................60 3.3.6. William Ouchi's Theory Z (1943, alive) ..................................................................62 4. THE MANAGERIAL INNOVATION: TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATION ........................................64 4.1. MANAGERIAL INNOVATION: LITERATURE REVIEW ..........................................................................64 4.1.1. Definition of managerial innovation ........................................................................66 4.1.2. The managerial innovation: a new technical change conduct ................................69 4.1.3. The purpose of managerial innovation ....................................................................69 4.1.4. The types of innovation ............................................................................................72 4.1.5. Managerial innovation principles ...............................................................................73 4.1.6. Examples of managerial innovation ............................................................................75 4.1.7. The 6 pillars of managerial innovation ....................................................................77 4.1.8. The components of managerial innovation .............................................................78 4.2. MANAGERIAL INNOVATION TECHNIQUES .....................................................................................80 4.2.1. Design thinking ........................................................................................................80 4.2.2. Learning network.....................................................................................................82 4.2.3. Tutoring, peer coaching and mentoring ..................................................................82 4.2.4. Micro platform or the autonomous team ................................................................83 4.2.5. The focus group and co-development ......................................................................84 4.2.6. Participative workshops...........................................................................................84 4.2.7. Hackathon ................................................................................................................85 4.2.8. Incubator or Spin-Off ..............................................................................................86 4.2.9. Disruptive experience and immersion .....................................................................86 IKRAME SELKANI 18 4.2.10. The value proposition ..............................................................................................86 4.2.11. The Golden Circle ....................................................................................................87 4.2.12. The switch lab ..........................................................................................................88 4.2.13. The junior lab...........................................................................................................89 4.2.14. The collaborative space ............................................................................................89 4.2.15. Visual management ..................................................................................................90 4.2.16. The world café ..........................................................................................................91 4.2.17. The Shadow Comex .................................................................................................92 4.2.18. The nudge .................................................................................................................93 4.2.19. Corporate hacking ...................................................................................................94 4.3. MANAGERIAL INNOVATION TARGETS ..........................................................................................95 4.3.1. Externalization .........................................................................................................96 4.3.2. Collaborative mode ..................................................................................................96 4.3.3. Collective creativity..................................................................................................96 4.3.4. Co-learning ...............................................................................................................96 4.3.5. Empowerment ..........................................................................................................96 4.4. Managerial innovation testimonials ...................................................................................97 4.4.1. Managerial practices based on criteria ......................................................................98 4.4.2. Innovative managerial practices based on Trust ....................................................99 4.4.3. Managerial practices based on responsibility and commitment .............................99 4.4.4. Managerial practices based on Wellness and Fun at work ...................................100 4.4.5. Managerial practices based on Agility ..................................................................101 4.4.6. Managerial practices based on Collaboration and Cohesion................................101 4.4.7. Managerial practices based on Creativity .............................................................102 5. PROTECTED AREAS: A LARGE SPACE FOR PRESERVING THE WILDLIFE ..................................104 5.1. DEFINITION OF PROTECTED AREAS............................................................................................104 5.2. CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY .............................................................................................104 5.3. International conventions ................................................................................................105 5.3.1. Convention on Biological Diversity .......................................................................105 5.3.2. Aichi Biodiversity Targets .....................................................................................106 5.3.3. The Green List of Protected Areas ........................................................................107 5.3.4. World Heritage ......................................................................................................108 5.3.5. RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands ......................................................................109 1 Introduction 5.3.6. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals .............109 5.3.7. Species Conservation and the Red List .................................................................110 5.3.8. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora CITES 111 5.4. NEGATIVE IMPACT OF ECOTOURSIM .........................................................................................112 5.5. INTERNATIONAL METHODS OF PROTECTED AREAS MANAGEMENT ....................................................113 5.6. PROTECTED AREAS GOVERNANCE .............................................................................................116 5.7. TYPES OF PROTECTED AREA GOVERNANCE..................................................................................116 5.7.1. State governance.....................................................................................................117 5.7.2. Private governance..................................................................................................118 5.7.3. Community Governance ..........................................................................................118 5.7.4. Shared governance ..................................................................................................119 5.8. MANAGEMENT OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS ...........................................................................120 5.9. PROTECTED AREAS AND CLIMATE CHANGE .................................................................................122 5.10. THE AGENDA OF 2030 ......................................................................................................123 5.11. BIOSPHERES RESERVES.......................................................................................................123 5.12. GEOPARKS ......................................................................................................................124 5.13. NATURA 2000 NETWORK ..................................................................................................124 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................126 6.1. SPHINX SOFTWARE...................................................................................................................126 6.2. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................................127 6.3. SCREENING DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS .............................................................................................128 6.4. ANSWERING THE HYPOTHESIS .....................................................................................................160 6.5. Discussion: overall assessment ............................................................................................176 7. CONCLUSION...........................................................................................................................185 Individual Interview Guide ..............................................................................................................187 FIGURES LIST .....................................................................................................................................197 TABLES LIST .......................................................................................................................................199 References ......................................................................................................................................203 IKRAME SELKANI 20 1 Introduction IKRAME SELKANI 22 1. INTRODUCTION The environmental policies of the last decades have made environmental protection a central element in solving global and regional problems, marked by loss of biodiversity and the effects of climate change environmental protection. New models emerging in different countries and at international projects include both, strengthening conservation objectives and redefining the use of natural resources according to the principle of sustainable use, as well as the improvement and establishment of more effective models of governance and management of protected areas from an adaptive perspective. Integrated in the area of the running and the direction domain, it is also necessary to evaluate and to put in new management models, which in many cases are focused on effective experiences in protected area. In this academic study, I would like to combine and join two concepts that have not yet been studied simultaneously, which make the value of my PhD thesis: managerial innovation and protected areas. I'd like to discuss protected areas management from the inside, which is, with those who work in protected areas and the management methods they employ. I'd like to introduce the concept of "managerial innovation," which comprises the formation of organizational structures to further organizational goals in management practice and area (Birkinshaw et al. 2008). The managerial innovation proved its success within the organizations and companies. 1.1. IMPORTANCE OF THE PROTECTED AREAS: A Natural Protected Areas (NPA) is an outcome and a consequence as a territory composed of multiple cultural values, spacious landscapes, balanced ecosystem/ habitat for people, fauna and flora, a land that was totally and unspoiled and preserved as an environment. In this sense, the protected areas are very multiple and diverse in all over the world, and there were created to preserve, protect and conserve the main untouchable lands and even with a less intervention of the Man in these spaces. Regarding protected areas and their multiplicity is a recent phenomenon. From 1910 to the present day, we have 200,000 distributed all over the world. According to the Web site of protected planet, the total number of protected area records in the February 2018 release of the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) is 238,563. IKRAME SELKANI 18 Figure 1 : Protected areas around the world Source: www.protectedplant.org - 2020 There are more than 15% of the territories across the planet benefiting from formal protection, which are called "Protected Areas". We notice from the world map that protected areas are in green and marine areas in blue. Throughout history, in 1940, the Western Hemisphere called on contracting parties to build protected areas, the framework of which was national parks in the United States, through the Washington Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation. Beginning in 1965, the United States (and Canada) organized a hugely significant yearly short course on parks for young conservation leaders from across the world. Furthermore, the U.S. International Office of the National Park Service has assisted numerous countries in the establishment of national parks (Phillips, 2002). As far as protected areas and their multiplicity are concerned, this is a recent phenomenon. Therefore, the very first national Park in the world were located in the USA, and from this experience, other countries joined the race of following the same practice and experiment. Figure 2 : Protected areas through the years Source: Protected Planet Report 2020. UNEPWCMC 2020. www.protectedplanet.org Concerning the appellation of the protected areas, years ago, the name and designation of the 1 Introduction 19 protected areas was very different from a country to another, and they have been called by many different names. 1.1.1. The role of protected areas Thanks to the added values and to the location, the NPA’s are very essential for nature and its balance. Protected areas are now recognized as a fundamental tool for conserving biological diversity. Protected areas conserve sometimes threatened species, special ecosystems or rare environments, with the aim of protecting these areas as naturally as possible without major modifications (Western and Pearl, 1989). The functions of protected areas are conservation, education, recreation and nature discovery, and public awareness of conservation issues. They also represent a space for scientific research for a better understanding of the animal and floral world. Protected areas provide goods: products from the forest (honey, medicinal plants, etc.). They are of great importance with regard to climate change, as they are elements of mitigation of this global phenomenon and open-air laboratories of the variations and evolution of nature. Protected areas are sites of conversation of cultural or spiritual values: such as the conservation of an archaeological site within a protected area. Protected areas as a topic are highly intriguing, but according to Panizza (2003) and Piacente (2003), it is critical to investigate associated factors: nature, history, philosophy, or culture must all be taken into consideration in the study. At the same time, these aspects constitute cultural, economic, tourist, educational, and environmental resources that must be evaluated in a variety of ways. Under certain conditions, culture and nature can be real pillars for the protection of nature: example of Madagascar, where some populations recognize the ‘Himera’, the ‘Sifaka’as their ancestor and therefore require a real protection of this animal (Gardner et al, 2013); These territories represent committed spaces for the future. The ability to set aside certain resources and wealth for future generations and to meet their needs in due course is a function of sustainable development for the well-being of future generations as well as current generations. At the global level, protected areas are very essential. They help to conserve biodiversity (Newmark et al. 2017; Pollock et al., 2017). In other words, we could say that a protected area is a territory with certain characteristic attributes of definition recognition and management, and whose primary objective is the conservation of nature (Pimm et al. 2018; Elsen et al., 2018). The protected areas are vital in maintaining species (Gray et al., 2016). Protected areas preserve biological richness and ecological processes that are necessary for life. They allow for the dynamic development of wild species via natural selection in an environment free of human pressures and perturbations (Myers et al., 2000). The impacts of climate change are giving them a fresh start as instruments for climate adaptation (Ocampo-Penuela et al. 2016). In this way, they have a threefold role to complete: supporting species in adapting to climate change systems and extreme weather events by providing shelter and migration routes; defending populations from extreme weather events and building resilience to floods, droughts, and other climate-related disasters; working to IKRAME SELKANI 20 help economies in adapting to climate change by lowering costs associated with adverse effects. Protected areas are among the most effective instruments for preventing species extinction and mitigating the effects of human-caused threats (Zhang, 2017). They can help protect biodiversity if properly designed and managed: conserving sets of natural habitats large enough to withstand large-scale disturbance and long-term change; representing a high level of in conservation of landscapes and protected area networks; preserving and maintaining viable species populations (Sarker et al., 2019). Protected lands could provide natural ecosystems like fresh water, carbon storage, and soil stability, as well as sacred sites for some religions and critical population pools for use in medicine, agriculture, and forestry (D'Aloia et al., 2019). In the face of climate change, the functions of protected areas in improving local people's ability to adapt to climate change are becoming increasingly important (Simms, 2006). 1.1.2. Tourism in protected area As can be seen, the first component is an advocate of the notion of "ecotourism," stressing protection of the environment and assessing how the tourism phenomena may impact the ecosystem. As a result, Hetzer (1965) was among the first to forecast this segment of tourism, outlining four important features of it: lowest possible affect environment; respect for the host culture; enhanced benefits to local people; and increased tourist happiness. Ecotourism Society (1991) defines the ecotourism as: “travel in charge respecting natural regions and maintaining the environment and improving local people's living conditions". Ecotourism as a phenomenon was at first a simple exercise in analysis, discovery and admiration of the natural environment where man has dominated and become the real subject of this theme. Ecotourism has known a widespread practice and a closer activity realized inside the environment which lead to its own degradation because of the non adequate behavior. Later on, with (Allcock et all, 1994), the definition of ecotourism became: “a sort of nature tourism that includes "learning the environment" (including a cultural component) that takes place in order to be sustainable and environmentally friendly (with a clear relation to the local community and long-term conservation)". According to Orams (1995), people who want to describe / explain ecotourism should focus on illustrating the human degree of responsibility (implication) (higher / lower) for the surrounding nature and the impact of its activities, while also being aware of the serious ideological paradigm from above. This technique divides tourism into two categories: active and passive (with greater or lesser involvement). According to Jonathan Tardif (2003): the term was used in an article by Romeril in 1985, and even earlier by the Mexican ecologist Ceballos-Lascurain, in Spanish. Canada's National Forest Service has also used the term for promoting ecotours in 1973. The author Hertzer also used it to explain the relationship between tourists and nature in 1965. (Leroux, 2010). That said, it is that in 1976 the term was used in the sense closest to the contemporary idea that we have, by Budowski, who traced the relationship between nature and activities tourism for mutual benefit. (Brandon , 1996) Ecotourism is a concept that owes its emergence to the movement environmental science beginning in 1970 (Honey, 1999 and Weaver, 1998). Indeed, during this period, the general public had begun to take an interest in the environment and travel oriented towards nature and the outdoors. At the same time, tourists were getting tired of mass tourism, which was the only option available. These conditions demonstrated to tourism professionals that the place 1 Introduction 27 sustainable tourism. In fact, the carrying capacity concept has been used numerous occasions to determine the maximum number of visitors to a location (Whittaker et al., 2010). There are measurement results from Rosgiproles Institute studies, for example, where allowable recreational loads were determined in the following limits: zone of quiet rest – up to 5 tourists per ha; zone of entertainment – up to 20 travelers per ha; zone of active leisure centre – from 20 to 100 visitors per ha (Aktymbayeva et al., 2020). 1.3. PROTECTED AREAS MANAGEMENT 1.3.1. Old management categories: IUCN with 9 management categories Several different terms are used to designate protected areas at the national level, and numerous international protected area systems have been formed under global conventions (e.g., World Heritage sites) and regional treaties (e.g., Natura 2000 sites in Europe). Protected areas were formed one after the other throughout the twentieth century; each country developed its own approach to their management, with no consistent criteria or name at first. In 1933, the International Conference for the Protection of Fauna and Flora in London attempted to clarify language for the first time. This categorizes protected places into four types: national parks, stringent nature reserves, fauna and flora reserves, and reserves with hunting and collecting limitations. In 1942, the Western Hemisphere Convention on Natural Protection and Wildlife Preservation established four new designations: national park, national reserve, natural monument, and strict wilderness reserve (Holdgate, 1999). The IUCN's newly formed Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA), now the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), prepared a World List of National Parks and Equivalent Reserves for the First World Conference on National Parks in Seattle in 1962, with a nomenclature paper by C. Frank Brockman (1962). In 1966, the IUCN published a second edition of what would become a regular publication, now known as the UN List of Protected Areas, with a basic classification system: national parks, scientific reserves, and natural monuments. The IUCN was tasked by the 1972 Second World Parks Conference to "define the different objectives for which protected areas are set aside; to provide adequate standards and terminology for such places" (Elliott, 1974). This was the setting for the CNPPA's decision to develop a protected area categorization system. A categorization system should, according to an IUCN working group report (IUCN, 1978), indicate how national parks can be supplemented by other types of protected areas; assist nations in developing management categories to reflect their needs; assist IUCN in grouping and interpreting data on protected areas; eliminate ambiguities and discrepancies; and ensure that "regardless of nomenclature used by nations... a conservation area can be recognized and categorized by it. There were ten categories available, all of which were regarded essential and were established largely by management objectives. Ten categories were offered, defined mostly by management objectives, and all were deemed essential, with no one being fundamentally more valuable than another: IKRAME SELKANI 28 Table 3 : Ten IUCN Categories Group A: Categories for which CNPPA will take special responsibility I Scientifc reserve II National park III Natural monument/national landmark IV Nature conservation reserve V Protected landscape Group B: Other categories of importance to IUCN, but not exclusively in the scope of CNPPA VI Resource reserve VII Anthropological reserve VIII Multiple-use management area Group C: Categories that are part of international programmes IX Biosphere reserve X World Heritage site (natural) Source: Dudley,2008 1.3.2. Definition of protected areas Today, there are around 238,500 protected areas in the globe. They have become increasingly diverse in terms of categories. In 1930, experts agreed on the terminologies used to designate all the protected areas that existed at that time. Later on, a definition has emerged and has continued to make progress towards improving these territories. A starting point is a definition of protected areaadopted this in 1994: as a land or sea territory committed to biodiversity conservation and protection. These areas are related to social, cultural and natural resources and managed through legal effective means (CBD, 1992). At the 2008 World Conservation Congress in Barcelona, organized by IUCN: “A protected area is a clearly defined geographical territory that has been consecrated, acknowledged, and administered via any effective legal or other methods with the goal of long-term protection of nature, ecosystem services, and cultural values.” (IUCN, 2008). In other words, the protected area is an area that we can delineate on the map: we know where it starts and where it ends. It is a human construction that includes several actors, and even territories, but it should be recognized at some level: local, national and/or international, a private site, an international or local NGO protected area can be recognized by a traditional authority: as community areas or sacred sites. It is a managed territory, that is to say that Man intervenes in these territories for the good functioning of these areas except for sacred sites that are forbidden to access. We consider protected areas: to demand appropriate strategies (dedication, designation, regulation) for the purposes of biodiversity conservation (i.e., protection and maintenance); to demand management forwarded through legal or other effective means; and, implicitly, to demand some kind of management authority be in place to assure conservation (Phillips, 2003). 1 Introduction 29 1.3.3. New Management of protected areas according to IUCN : The Management Categories is a tool to assist in the planning of protected areas. They relate to the objective of land management. One should refer to the objective of the protected area to know its management category. The examination of protected-area management is still in its early stages. Several solutions have been presented during the last 20 years, but few have been accepted by management authorities (Zeng, and Gerritsen, 2015). The framework guides managers in developing locally suitable assessment systems while also assisting in the harmonization of assessment methodologies throughout the world (Hocking, et al., 2004). 1.3.3.1. Protected area management categories2: Category Ia – Strict Nature Reserve: Protected area managed mainly for science. Category Ib – Wilderness Area: Protected area managed mainly for wildness protection. Category II – National Park: Protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. Category III – Natural Monument or Feature: Protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features. Category IV – Habitat/Species Management Area: Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention. Category V – Protected Landscape/Seascape: Protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. Category VI – Managed resource protected Area: Protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. These management categories correspond globally to a progressive progression from territories that we would like to conserve in their most natural state possible (Categories 1 to 3) to territories where human intervention is more and more visible (Categories 4, 5 and 6). According to the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA),each category is managed differently and so does its objective. 1.3.3.2. First category: Strict Nature Reserve. Protected areas that decline from the first category, entitled: Strict Nature Reserve, are those areas where human intervention is strictly limited, and modification of the environment. It is a place where the protection of the most natural whole is one of the priorities of the site in question. The goal is to protect remarkable regional, national, or global ecosystems, species, and/or geodiversity characteristics: these distinguishing traits will have been generated mostly by non-human factors and will be damaged by any but minor human interference. Without enduring human habitation, that are protected for the purpose of preserving their natural state (Casson et al,2007). 1.3.3.3. Second category: Wilderness Area (e.g. National Park) Here, in this protected area "national park", it is about the protection of natural resources through patrols and anti-poaching actions, however, scientific research in collaboration with 2https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/about/protected-area-categories IKRAME SELKANI 30 universities, tourism, and environmental education for awareness of young people and visits to the area, are actions allowed in these areas of second category management. The goal is to preserve natural biodiversity as well as the underlying biological structure and environmental processes, as well as to encourage education and enjoyment. 1.3.3.4. Third category: Natural Monument or Feature (e.g. natural monument) In the third category, these are the territories that will protectnatural monuments: a particular topographical feature, a mountain, a cave, an underwater cave, a small island. There are very few of these in Africa. The goal here is to safeguard certain remarkable natural features, as well as the accompanying biodiversity and ecosystems. 1.3.3.5. Fourth category: Habitat/Species Management Area (e.g. habitat/species management area) More common in Africa, here the focus is on protecting particular species or habitats in environments that require regular and active intervention to maintain these species or habitats, both of which meet the main objective of this management category. Here, we are dealing with areas with considerable human intervention to maintain these species or habitats. Maintain, conserve and restore species and habitats is the objective of this category. 1.3.3.6. Fifth category: Protected Landscape/Seascape They are territories where the interaction between man and nature produces specific or even cultural characteristics of its own. These protected areas are surrounded by village territories that ensure their connectivity. A protected area with significant ecological, biological, cultural, and scenic values, where the interaction between people and nature has produced an area of distinctive character, and where preserving the integrity of this interaction is critical to protecting and maintaining the area, the associated nature, and other values. The goal here is to safeguard valuable landscapes and seascapes, as well as associated natural and other assets that have been developed as a result of interactions with traditional management approaches. The European Landscape Convention, the world's first international convention exclusively regulating landscape, was opened for signing for Council of Europe member states in Florence, Italy (Jones et al., 2007). This Convention's goals are to enhance landscape conservation, management, and planning, as well as to organize European cooperation on landscape concerns (Council, 2000). The landscape serves an important public interest role in the cultural, biological, ecological, and sociocultural factors, and it is a resource that benefits economic activity and whose protection, management, and planning may help create jobs (Déjeant-Pons, 2006). The landscape helps also to the establishment of local cultures and... is a fundamental contribution to human well-being and the consolidation of European identity; is a vital aspect of people's quality of life everywhere (Jones, 2007). 1.3.3.7. Sixth category: Managed resource protected area These protected areas preserve ecosystems and natural habitats while promoting the sustainable management and development of the natural resources within them. Protected areas in this category are large territories that have a natural condition but an area is subject to 1 Introduction 31 moderate and rational use of natural resources in a controlled and monitored manner such as fishing and hunting. Here, the purpose is to protect natural ecosystems and use natural resources sustainably, where conservation and sustainable use can be mutually beneficial. Table 4 : Protected area versus distinctiveness Category Ia Category Ia areas are totally protected areas designated to maintain biodiversity and perhaps geological/geomorphological traits, with human access, usage, and impacts rigorously regulated and constrained to guarantee conservation values are safeguarded. These protected areas may be excellent resources for academic monitoring and assessment. Category Ib While not normally exposed to mass tourism, category Ib protected places may be available to a limited number of persons equipped for self-sufficient travel, such as on foot or by boat, which is not necessarily the case in Ia. Category II Protected areas in Category II are massive natural or near-natural areas set aside to safeguard large-scale ecological systems as well as the accompany of species and ecosystems unique to the area, and to serve as the foundation for environmental friendly and culturally compatible spiritual, scientific, educational, leisure, and visitor possibilities. Category III Category III protected areas are intended to protect an unique natural monument, which can be a landform, seamount, undersea cavern, geological structure like a cave, or even a living feature like an ancient grove. They are frequently small protected areas with high visitor value. Category IV Category IV: The purpose of protected areas is to conserve particular creatures or habitats, and management reflects this priority. Although it is not a requirement of the category, many category IV protected areas will require continuous, active interventions to suit the needs of certain species or to conserve ecosystems. Category V Category V A protected area where the interaction of people and nature over time has tends to result in a distinct character with major ecological, biological, cultural, and scenic value: and where maintaining the integrity of this interaction is essential in protecting and sustaining the area and its associated nature conservation and other values. Source: adapted from Dudley,2008 Until this level, we have seen the management categories introduced and practiced by the IUCN into the protected areas but what about the “human”, the “person” who works inside of these areas? My contribution for this PhD thesis is this one: to figure out the type of management practiced inside of the protected areas, and find out if the managerial innovation IKRAME SELKANI 32 as a new practice is feasible by suitable by protected areas practitioners. The “human” is central as the territories the flora and the fauna. Talking about managerial innovation is using notions related to the firm, This might be very crucial if we offer them a new way of being. In other words, these techniques, which have aided a large number of international companies around the world, could be interesting if we allowed protected areas to practice them with their teams, assisting human beings within these territories to be more characterized by: commitment, cooperation, risk-taking, initiativetaking, projecting oneself into the future with the team. Protected areas as a territory should not be reduce in importance simply for archaeological, climatological, endangered species investigations, and so on. Because of how it operates within a firm, the likelihood that the technique management innovation works in these areas is extremely high, given that managerial innovation is more than just a new method or a technical, technological, or technology innovation. Otherwise, it is a strategy that takes into consideration the human individual, the "employee," who is the essential component of the organization, and the opinion expressed is critical to the firm's proper functioning and progress. Protected areas are living spaces, and their function in balancing ecosystems and the environment is critical in our day. Today, in the twenty-first century, we're talking about protected areas more. When we talk about it nowadays, it's only to count the species of flora and wildlife... the "human" who is the fundamental element that works so hard in these forgotten and disadvantaged locations is completely marginalized. Many examples of managerial innovation techniques demonstrated the methodology used to balance and make employees and appreciate their journey within the company, with more group workshops where the level of creativity and innovation is very high and be able to take advantage of the well-being and comfort. 1.4. GREEN BELT AND PROTECTED AREAS The need for green belts conservation to be a pillar of urban-region planning is as pressing now as it was in the 1930s. Farmland preservation, leisure, and local habitat conservation continue to play important roles. With rising challenges for climate change mitigation, compact urban design and carbon-sequestering lands are necessary (Taylor, 2019). Green space in the green belt serves functions that may become more important in the near future, particularly in international contexts where lands are needed for flood protection and other forms of disaster mitigation, not to mention other global 'infrastructure' roles represented by the IUCN (Amati et al., 2010). The Greenbelt served several purposes, including slowing population growth and industrialization; preventing contiguous metropolitan sprawl from merging cities (Bae, 1998), preventing expansion due to security and risk associated with development, and developing an environmental protection area by reserving regional open spaces such as national and regional parks (Chaphekar et al., 2021). Green Belts have several advantages, such as being a type of urban forest that can help the earth's survival. The Green Belt can clear dust, chemical that have merged in the air, as well as carbon dioxide or CO2, trees and other flora that will preserve the quality of the air by absorbing particles; also, the Green Belt may be utilized as a heat absorber in metropolitan areas (Shannigrahi, et al., 2003). 1 Introduction 33 The lack of a Green Belt in an urban region that has experienced air pollution will have a significant impact on the quality of human life, particularly in the community whose house is directly near to the primary sources of pollution, such as industries and roadways. Green belts have long been a key issue in rural planning, and they are at the center of our obsession with urban and rural distinctions, particularly surrounding cities and towns experiencing rapid expansion. Green belts may have been founded on an oversimplified vision of life and landscapes both inside and outside the city, and they surely risk maintaining urban–rural environmental imaginaries. A Green Belt is required to address all air pollution issues in metropolitan areas. The Green Belt is the physical division between urban and rural regions, manifested in the form of free zones or green open structures or spaces that surround outlying metropolitan centers. (Basri, 2009). 1.5. THE ATTRIBUTES OF THESE CATEGORIES: These areas varies in terms of name, scale, spatial context, governance forms, management goals, and management techniques, resulting in substantial variation in protected areas both within and throughout countries. Attempts to apply a descriptive framework to this broad range of practices extend back to 1933 (Phillips, 2004), concluding in the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories (IUCN, 1994). The IUCN category system, which was adjusted and updated in 2008 (Dudley, 2008), is now accepted as a central strategy for the description, definition, and comparison of the world's protected areas by governments (Dillon, 2004) and conservation organizations, and its use is supported and inspired by the Convention on Biological Diversity's Programme of Work on Protected Areas (SCBD, 2004). The methodology divides protected areas into six major groups depending on their principal management purpose (Dudley, 2008a; Dudley et al., 2010). Category V, one of the six management categories under the IUCN system, has received the most attention and controversy (Locke & Dearden, 2005; Martino, 2005, Mallar, 2005). The formation of the World Commission on Protected Areas Category V Task Force, as well as the release of a variety of reports aimed at clarifying and promoting the approach, are evidence of this discussion. Category V, unlike the other six, focuses on locations where there has been a historical contact between humans and environment (Phillips, 2002), and where this interaction has formed the landscape features that are the objectives of the conservation intervention. The approach's major goal is to "reserve and perpetuate significant landscapes/seascapes, as well as the accompanying nature conservation and other standards established through interactions with traditional management practices”. In contrast to the preceding categories, where management concentrates on preserving what is considered to be natural, the category V method "places people at the heart of the operation—and really requires them to be there" (Phillips, 2002). This topic is expanded upon in the IUCN criteria (Dudley, 2008). 'A balanced link between humans and nature that has endured over time and yet retains integrity' is one of the distinguishing characteristics mentioned for category V. The primary management principle of the method (Phillips, 2002) is to "maintain the harmonious interplay of people and nature." IKRAME SELKANI 34 Protected area management and administration are becoming more diverse and adaptable to national and local demands. IUCN has recognized six management options since 1994, ranging from places where human access is prohibited or severely limited to cultural landscapes or seascapes that incorporate permanent human groups and support sustainable resource use (Dudley, 2008). Although less restrictive categories have been criticized (e.g. Locke & Deardon, 2005), prompting some significant responses (e.g. Mallarach et al., 2008; Ferraro et al., 2013), all categories are now widely accepted as playing an important role within the conservation landscape and are increasingly applied. Existing protected area managers are also experimenting with new ways. As a result, some formerly limited places are making stronger attempts to boost benefits without jeopardizing conservation needs. While less stringent management approaches are common in areas with considerable human populations, this is not always the case: for example, communities may urge severe protection to conserve precious natural sites (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006). In this academic work, I would like to debate protected areas management, however from inside, which means with people who work inside the protected areas and the management mode they entertain. In the first hand, I would like to bring the concept of “Managerial innovation” which incorporate the creation in the management practice and field, organizing structures to further the organizational goals (Birkinshaw et al. 2008). Inside the companies and the enterprises, the managerial innovation revealed its success. And in the other hand, I would appreciate to incorporate the concept of “protected area”. From the very beginning, management has always been that function which was held in the hands of a single person of economic, social and political power and that categorically refused to share with others. History has been the main witness to this for a long time now. We call this person "chief", "boss", "director"..., and from there, the terminology has evolved, developed overtime, until arriving at the term "manager", hence the main verb derived of this key person, namely "management". In the military models, management was already present where knowledge and information was held by the hierarchy, source of authority. Here we refer to directive management. We would have to wait until the 1980s and 1990s to reach the dominance of persuasive management, where the technical and technological evolutions made it impossible for the manager to have all the knowledge. It was, therefore, necessary to explain the method to the employees and to control them regularly. Later on, the persuasive model was introduced to establish relationships with more trust and delegations During the 21st century, at the very beginning of the 2000s, participative management was born, in the face of emergence of communication tools and the acceleration of the rise incompetence of all employees, whatever their hierarchical level was. The delegating and collaborative style consists of releasing energies and leaving a large part of autonomy to the employees: where everyone has an important competence and therefore a great deal of autonomy and collaboration is always important. Today, many companies call upon this type of management. As management developed, it was not until the 1990s, when we were talking more about "Administrative Innovation" and/or "Organizational Innovation", referring to new ways of recruiting staff, allocating resources, defining tasks, managing or developing staff (Evan, 1966). 1 Introduction 35 Lastly, Mol and Birkinshaw (2008) define four criteria for the identification of managerial innovation. Managerial innovation: modifies the work of managers in such a way as to represent a significant advance in the state of knowledge at a given time, is implemented and operationally deployed, and aims. Afterward, there was a renewal of managerial innovation in the 2000s under the impetus of Hamel (2007), Mol and Birkinshaw (2006), within the Managerial Innovation Lab of the London Business School to practice managerial innovation as we know it today, which is the will to improve together and to give everyone the desire to participate in the development of their company, in other words, it is to promote collective intelligence and to get out of the established hierarchical codes. The objectives of innovation revolve around well-being at work, group cohesion and having more freedom of expression and involving everyone to work together and go further. Hamel(2007), in the earliest of the 21st century, recognized that innovation was the keyword for the R&D and Marketing departments only, which was representing the 8% of the workforce, getting the 92% stuck in the forgotten area, forgetting its importance. Later on, just 11% of the new, innovative ideas, proposed to the managers by the collaborators were really treated, giving a valid barrier to the company and the management model operational. In the last years, and according to the said of (Boyer, 2016), the very large importance of the model of managerial innovation was shown as it is more competitive and ease the autonomy to the employees and the work team. However, the difficulty to practice this field is emerging as a border which does not allow the operation is fluent to establish a link for better performance with no strings attached. Innovations are considered as such when they are new to the state of the art and not just because organizations adopt them (Rogers, 1995; Zbaracki, 1998). Finally, the authors specify the intentionality of managerial innovations, which aim to prolong and extend the organization's objectives. This work is part of an "evolutionary" perspective (Zbaracki, 1998) in which perceived changes in the organization lead to variations in practices, and thus to the creation of new practices, some of which will be selected by organizations and then tested and retained. Within the extensive literature on innovation, some authors have focused on a specific form of innovation: managerial innovation. This has been analyzed from different perspectives: the process of adoption by organizations (Gill and Whittle, 1992), the process of diffusion (Huzcynski, 1993), the socio-economic conditions for the emergence of innovation (Chandler, 1972). This literature tends to consider managerial innovation as a monolith in its conception, adoption, and application (Wolfe, 1994). Managerial innovation is, many times, is the absentelement of the innovation puzzle, Mol and Birkinshaw (2006). In its common sense, innovation is linked to technology. It involves the introduction of an innovative product or an innovative production process. In contrast to this vision, several authors propose to center theinterest on innovations that are not technological. This is how the concepts of "administrative innovation" (Evan, 1966), “organizational innovation" (Daft, 1978) or, more recently, "managerial innovation" (Birkinshaw and Mol, 2006) have been developed. The term "managerial innovation" was first used by Kimberly (1981). The introduction of this term was motivated by a desire to gain recognition for innovations that are not of a IKRAME SELKANI 36 technological nature, which have been neglected till today So far, companies, managers, public authorities, economic and management researchers, etc., have focused most of their attention on technological innovation. They paid very little attention to other forms of innovation, such as managerial innovation. Managerial innovation must be a collective process that involves the greatest number of people and must not be reserved for elite, as has been the case until now. It will be all the more relevant and effective if it is the subject of exchanges and sharing between the different players in the company, whatever their status and their professions. Innovation as such is a field that has grown considerably through its many typologies: technological innovation, IT, software, processes, products and services. On the other hand, management as a managing mode has remained stagnant in Lewin unless one speaks to Fayol, Taylor or Mintzberg. - The SNCF is bridging the gap between its various managers thanks to a kind of online platform called the "managerial community", which enables its executives to submit to and find solutions together to specific problems, with everyone's contact details accessible. - Dell allows its customers and employees to note on a dedicated platform the defects noticed on the IT products sold by the brand. - Air France operates according to the principle of not punishing errors as long as they are admitted, which allows total confidence and access to all the information necessary to ensure that the error does not recur. These examples of the managerial innovation techniques witness the methodology used to balance and make the employees and the staff love and appreciate their journey inside of the company, with more group workshop where the level of creativity and innovation is very high and be able to take advantage of the well-being and comfort. Protected areas are living spaces and are of paramount importance in our time just as their role in balancing ecosystems and the environment. Today, in the 21st century, we’re talking more about protected areas. Nowadays, if we're talking about it, it's just to count the species of flora and fauna... That is good in itself, but we should also try, as a manager, to look at the subject and try to apply a new method to better achieve the biodiversity objectives and the employee’s wellbeing In order to move forward and develop, protected areas as a territory should not be marginalized solely for archaeological, climatological, endangered species studies , etc. Apply certain concepts that are related to the company at first and could be very important if we give them a new way of being. In other words, these techniques that helped a large amount of international companies around the world, could be interesting if we let the protected areas to practice them with their team, helping the human being inside these territories to be more characterized by: commitment, cooperation, risk-taking, initiativetaking, projecting oneself into the future with the team and thanks to the team… and not just technical management techniques for the places and forgetting the “human” who is the key element that works so hard in these forgotten and marginalized areas. Until the last work, the management that has been studied in protected areas was accentuated through techniques that assist the conservation of biodiversity as the main target, the management of natural resources, the study of endangered animals, the climate...,if not other techniques such as: RAPPAM: Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management; METT: Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool; ‘Enhancing our Heritage’,… where the objectives are around protecting the existing natural and landscape assets; managing the visitors for a better journey; establishing for a protected scenic and conserved spectacular wildlife…. 2 Methodology of Research 41 After giving nine techniques of the managerial innovation and explaining each one apart and giving example to it, here the manager should choose the managerial innovation techniques that speak to him the most, the one that is most used with the work team and then the technique used in each special situation: Solve problems, Establish the management plan, Pre-planning, Evaluation of data and identification of values… The third part is called: Managerial innovation in the organization At this level and after showing and explaining three big companies that use the managerial innovation and its objectives, the manager is asked about the example that speaks to him the most and if he does agree to use the managerial innovation techniques and his opinion with the performance growth. Yet, the questions refereeing to the protected area begin with the name, the type: marine or land, size and year of establishment. The questions follow if protected area meets the IUCN definition, management category according to the IUCN. Then, the questions concerning the international conventions are asked: Convention on Biological Diversity, Nagoya Protocol, World Heritage, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species, Ramsar and Wetlands Convention, if the country where the protected area is located is a member of the convention or not and the year of registration in the convention in the positive case. The essential functions of the protected areas scaled from 1 to 5 according to its importance: Recreation and nature discovery, Public awareness of conservation issues, Scientific research area for better understanding of the animal and floral world, Conservation of cultural values and spiritual, Places of education. A question concerning the “World Heritage” label and the respective actions to obtain this label, another one is asked referring to the “Green List” label and the planning to apply for it. About the Red list, a question is asked to know if there are any species in the protected area that are on the IUCN Red List and, in the affirmative case, name some of them. Concerning the activities running in the protected area, such as the ecotourism: the number of eco-tourists to the protected area per year and the different activities are done by the eco-tourist: Scenic nature tourism, Eco-tourism expeditions, Walking and camping, Trekking in the jungle, Bird watching, Wildlife viewing… Then, a question is asked about the threats that stop and prevent the normal operation of the protected area: Biodiversity decline, Tourist access, Extraction (hunting, mining, logging, fishing), Climate change, Invasive species, Overexploitation, Inappropriate management, Conflict with neighboring or associated communities, Loss of knowledge / cultural change… A penultimate question that asks the manager about the main pressures on biological diversity in his protected area: Over-exploitation and unsustainable use, Excessive intake of nutrients and other forms of pollution, Habitat loss and degradation, Invasive alien species, Climate change. The last question is about the actions that the manager and his team take for the protection of biodiversity in an open question. IKRAME SELKANI 42 2.6. PRESENTATION OF THE PROTECTED AREA 2.6.1. Africa 2.6.1.1. Gabon Lopé National Park4 Lopé National Park, located right in the center of Gabon, was the first protected area. The land covers an area of 4910 km² and is mostly rainforest. Here, we could find some of the mammal species, included forest elephant, western lowland gorilla, chimpanzee, mandrill, buffalo forest, leopard... Bird species include rosy bee-eater, crowned hawk-eagle, Dja River Warbler…(Gugala et al., 2016; Yumoto, et al., 1995; Roca, et al., 2001). The park is under constant threat from hunting and ivory poaching as well as commercial logging. However, a training center has been set up to train young African conservationists and a good educational program which operates in the surrounding villages for further education on wildlife issues. Created in 2002, it was the first protected area in Gabon when the Lopé-Okanda Wildlife Reserve was established in 1946. In 2007, UNESCO added the Lopé-Okanda landscape to the World Heritage List. Thanks to its unique archeological and natural landscape, Lopé and its surrounding areas –the Lopé-Okanda Ecosystem and Relict Cultural Landscape–were recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The species in this protected area, that are on the IUCN Red List, are among others: gorillas, panthers, elephants, giant pangolin, mandrils. Lopé is one of the oldest archeological sites in Africa and the remains of numerous prehistoric villages are still visible on the savannah hilltops. Lopé is also home to 412 of the 700 bird species recorded in the country, including seven hornbill species, three forest kingfishers, and vulnerable gray-necked picatharts. 2.6.1.2. Kenya Maasai Mara Game Reserve5 Located in the southwest of Kenya, covering an area of 1,510 km², the Masai Mara National Reserve is a land of breathtaking views, abundant wildlife and endless plains. The Masai Mara National Reserve is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Kenya-Africa. The reserve is in the Great Rift Valley, mainly open grassland (Lamprey, & Reid, 2004; Thompson, et al., 2009). Masai Mara National Reserve was established in 1961 as a wildlife sanctuary covering a small area of only 1,510 km².In the same year, the Masai Mara National Reserve Kenya was extended to the East to cover around 1,821 km².It's at this point that it was converted into a game reserve under the new management of the local community of Narok County Council. The quintessential Masai Mara safari has many attractions, as the reserve is home to an excellent concentration of game throughout the year, including over two million wild beasts, zebras and other antelopes that make up the famous Great Migration. & Beyond owns 2 lodges in the Masai Mara, the KichwaTembo Tent Camp and the Bateleur Camp. Some 95 4https://www.zambezi.com/locations/lope-national-park/ 5https://www.maasaimara.com/ 2 Methodology of Research 43 species of mammals, amphibians and reptiles, and more than 400 species of birds have been recorded in the reserve. The reserve is a paradise for photographers and naturalists, with abundant elephants, buffalos, giraffes, lions and cheetahs alongside migratory wild beasts and zebra. Leopards are frequently encountered, endangered black rhino hides in dense thickets, and large rafts of hippo and huge crocodiles are found in the Mara River. The park is also home to more than 450 bird species. The species in this protected area that are on the IUCN Red List were from others: Zebra and Hirola Antelope. 2.6.1.3. Madagascar 2.6.1.3.1. Bemanevika Protected Area The Bemanevika Protected Area (NAP) was created in 2005. The protected area of Bemanevika, with a surface area of 356.06 km², is the only place in Madagascar with four major habitats: - forest ecosystem, - lake ecosystem, - wetland ecosystem and - savannah ecosystem. According to Rabearivony et al., (2010), Bemanevika Protected Area has as objectives:  promote sustainable management of renewable natural forest and wetland resources,  resolve conflicts of use that lead to environmental degradation and resource depletion,  improve natural resource management by giving more responsibility to local communities following management transfers,  preserve endemic species, natural habitats and ecological functions inseparable from the harmonious development of the region,  promote research and monitoring activities, environmental education, ecotourism to ensure the effectiveness of the management adopted. The establishment of the NAP Bemanevika contributes to the ratification of certain international conventions by Madagascar. These are, among others, the Rio Convention 1992 on the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Algiers Convention 1968 or African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and the 1971 Ramsar Convention or Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as waterfowl habitat. The species in your protected area that are on the IUCN Red List, the answer was presenting as examples: Aythya innotata, Anas melleri, Tachybaptuspelzelnii, Ardeola idea, Eutriorchis astur. 2.6.1.3.2. Mount Ntringui National Park6 Mount Ntringui National Park is a natural park of international importance of 11,700 hectares located in the center of the island of Anjouan or Ndzuwani, created in 2010, with 79.14 km². It is one of the three natural sites of the Union of Comoros. It includes the Mount Ntringui Central Massif, a remnant of the island's last natural forest areas, and Lake 6Parcs Nationaux des Comores Plan d’Aménagement et De Gestion du Parc National Mont Ntringui 2017-2021 IKRAME SELKANI 44 Dzialandzé, a wetland important for birds. In 2006, the park became a RAMSAR site under the Ramsar Convention. The Mount Ntringui Park, on the island of Anjouan, deserves to be among the sites to visit. Covering an area of over 3.8 hectares, it has a rich biodiversity as it is home to other endemic and endangered species, as well as a great wealth of orchids, mosses, lichens, selaginella and tree ferns and heathers. Concerning the species in your protected area that are on the IUCN Red List, the answer was: Pteropuslivingstonii. Mount Ntringui (Massif of Mt Ntringui). Ramsar site, IBA, Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE), WWF Global 200, CI Hotspot. National Protected Area (this designation and the IUCN category may change during project implementation, in light of new legislation slated to be enacted with project support. The island of Ndzuwani is an extremely steep triangular ensemble. Its surface area is 424 km2. The population density is 827 inhab/km2 in average (2017) with peaks well above 1.000 inhab/km2 in the region of the Nioumakele. Mount Ntringui is 1.595 m high. 2.6.1.3.3. Shisiwani National Park7 Ntringui National Park and Shisiwani National Park are grouped and managed within the Comoros Protected Areas System, created in 2010. - 15 upgrades in 2017 and 1st quarter 2018 - 01 successful turtle - 20 recorded cases of poaching It’s a marine protected area, with 64,97 km². Concerning the species in your protected area that are on the IUCN Red List: Turtles, Dygong and the coral reefs. 2.6.1.3.4. Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park8 Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park was founded in 1997 and is located in southwestern Madagascar, 147 kilometers northeast of Toliara (Tuléar) in the Atsimo-Andrefana district. It covers 36,308 ha and is divided into three plots: the Zombitse forest (16,845 ha), the IsokyVohimena sites (3,293 ha) and Vohibasia (16,170 ha). The park is located at an elevation of 485m to 825m and has a dry tropical climate with an average temperature of 23 to 24°C. Rainfall ranges from 721 to 833 mm, with a dry season from April to December and a wet season from January to March. This park, Madagascar's southernmost, has a tropical dry deciduous woodland. The Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park is well-known for its abundance of endangered bird species that are native to Madagascar. It also has 8 lemur species, some of which are critically endangered, such as the Phanerfurciferpallescens. The Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park is a scientific field of distinction, with "exceptional biodiversity." The National Park is home to exotic biodiversity, including sixty bird species, 47 percent of which are endemic to Madagascar, 24 percent to the Malagasy region, and one local endemic species: Phylastrephusapperti, common lacertilians and vulnerable species. Ispidinamadagascariensis was recorded in the Zombitse forest. 7Parcs Nationaux des Comores Plan d’Aménagement et De Gestion du Parc National Mont Ntringui 2017-2021 8https://www.parcs-madagascar.com/parcs/zombitse.php 2 Methodology of Research 45 The Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park is a premier science destination due to its biodiversity. When we consider the types of study that can be conducted there, it qualifies as a living laboratory9. The flowers of the Zombitse-Vohibasia Reserve are composed of two species of didieraceae that are native to this region; various species of baobabs such as dwarf baobabs and Grandidier baobabs; and the dominance of Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, and Apocynaceae. 2.6.1.4. Mozambique Gorongosa National Park According to Correia et al., (2017), Gorongosa National Park is in the heart of central Mozambique, Southeast Africa, at the south end of the Great African Rift Valley. The park covering over 4,000 km2 covers the valley floor and portions of adjacent plateaus. Hot and humid summers and cool and dry winters characterize the climate (Tinley, 1977). Extensive floods are a key driver of most ecosystem dynamics during the wet season, and the dry season is often marked by large fires of human and natural origin (Tinley 1977; Daskin et al., 2016). Concerning the species in this a protected area that is on the IUCN Red List, the answer was: Elephant, Lion, Wild dog. 2.6.2. America 2.6.2.1. Alaska Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve According to Arp, & Simmons, (2012), The Park and Preservation is the largest area managed by the National Park Service with a surface area of 53,320.57 10km², which could encapsulate six Yellowstone National Park. Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve was established by the Alaska National Lands Conservation Act in 1980. The park is full of long, extremely cold winters and a short summer season. However, the 1979 designation of the region as UNESCO World Heritage Site. 2.6.2.2. Haiti Three Bays Protected Area Kramer et al., (2016): Three Bays Protected Area is the second largest proclaimed marine protected area in Haiti, approximately 750 km², established by Presidential Decree in 2013 to protect its unique marine ecosystem of fringe and barrier coral reefs, mangrove forests, deep coastal waters and dry tropical forests. 2.6.2.3. Peru Huascarán National Park11 9https://www.madacamp.com/Zombitse_Vohibasia 10 The number are cited by the American way: The radix character is another name for the decimal separator. Similarly, whereas the United Kingdom and the United States use a comma to divide groupings of thousands. 11https://www.sernanp.gob.pe/huascaran IKRAME SELKANI 46 Huascarán National Park is a national park comprising most of the mountain range known as Cordillera Blanca (the highest tropical mountain range in the world), which is part of the central Andes in the Ancash region. With 3,400 km², operated by the Peruvian Network of Protected Natural Areas: SERNANP, it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1985. Concerning the species in this protected area that are on the IUCN Red List, the answer was: Tremarctosornatus; Vulturgryphus; puya de raimondi… 2.6.2.4. USA Great Basin National Park Great Basin National Park is an American National Park in White Pine County, in the east of central Nevada, near Utah border. Established in 1986, the park is named after the Great Basin, a dry and mountainous region between the Sierra Nevada, with a surface area of 312 km². 2.6.2. Australia12 The Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service is the Department of Environment and Science within the Government of Queensland to protect and maintain Queensland Parks, Forests, and the Great Barrier Reef for decades to come, managed areas include over 1.000 national parks, state forests, marine parks and other protected areas, and five world heritage sites. QPWS handles the day-to-day maintenance of the five World Heritage Areas of Queensland, two of which are within the protected area estate. Such properties are excellent examples of the world's natural or cultural heritage and provide Queensland with important environmental, tourism and economic services. Concerning the species in this protected area that are on the IUCN Red List, the answer was: Tremarctosornatus; Northern hairy nosed wombat, malandella stick-insect, dwarf swordfish, winged beak-abdomen stick insect, Fleays barred frog (Mixophyesfleayi, chinchilla white gum, Agathis robusta subsp. nesophila, hedgehog seashorse, graceful shark, sharptooth lemon shark, Daintree river ringtail possum. 2.6.3. Europe 2.6.3.1. Sweden Norrbotten is the northernmost part of the county, it is bordered by Västerbotten to the south - west and the Gulf of Bothnia to the south. Norrbotten province covers only the eastern part of Norrbotten County. The northern part of Norrbotten lies within the Arctic Circle. ‘7 National Park and 430 Nature reserves in the county of Norrbotten’ 2.6.3.2. Portugal National Protected Areas Network (RNAP), in Portugal, we find 46 protected areas. Concerning the species in this protected area that is on the IUCN Red List, the answer was: Iberian Lynx, Iberian Wolf… 2.6.3.3. Croatia Medvednica Nature Park is located in the western part of Medvednica was declared a nature park in 1981. There are eight separate forest reserves within the park. 12https://parks.des.qld.gov.au/ 2 Methodology of Research 47 Medvednica Mountain, which rises north of Zagreb, with its highest peak, Sljeme, which is 1035 meters above sea level. The Nature Park is located in the western part of Medvednica, in an area of 179.4 km². Flora of Medvednica is very vibrant, diverse and interesting. Also, 81% of the territory of the Park is protected by 12 separate forest communities, which are home to over 1.200 plant species. Concerning the species in this protected area that are on the IUCN Red List, the answer was: Bombinavariegate, Lycaenadispar, Morimusfunereus, Myotisbechsteinii, Cordulegasterheros, Myotismyotis. Lutralutra, Osmodermaeremita. 2.6.3.4. Poland Ojców National Park (Polish: Ojcowski Narodowy Park) is a national park in Kraków County, Less Polish Voivodeship in Southern Poland, established in 1956. It is named after the village of Ojców, where it also has its headquarters. It is the smallest national park in Poland, with an original area of 14,40 km² and has since been extended to 21,46 km². The park is situated approximately 16 km (10 mi ) north of Krakow, in the Jurassic Cracow-Częstochowa Upland. Concerning the species in this protected area that are on the IUCN Red List, the answer was: Bats - Barbastellabarbastellus, Rhinolopushipposideros, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, Lutralutra, Osmodermaeremita. IKRAME SELKANI 38 3. FROM OLD MANAGEMENT TO NEW MANAGEMENT: A LITERATURE REVIEW Management practices date back thousands of years, but the development of management as a knowledge discipline and as a field of knowledge is relatively recent. Management as a practice has existed since the existence of mankind. The pyramids of Egypt area very striking example: projects of a phenomenal scale were already being implemented long before the modern era (Jolivet, (1998). The construction of a single one of its monuments occupied thousands of people for several decades: organized, planned activities, men who took care of the distribution of work, the coordination of tasks, the availability of stocks of stones to prevent any interruption of the construction site... This kind of responsibility was the responsibility of the managers, no matter what they called it at the time. Speaking of these activities, there was a managerial process, and from this example, we understand the planning, the organization of tasks, the importance of the animation of men... In short, the managerial function existed long before the industrial revolution (Gally et al., 2017). But it is only in the last few centuries, in the 20th century, that the manager began to constitute his own field of knowledge and to impose himself as a discipline in his own right. Long before the development of management as a discipline, Adam Smith, in 1776, had advocated the division of labor as a means of increasing the productivity of the company, and the benefits that the company could retain from it (Smith, 1950). Early definitions of management are the following: "Management is whatever is necessary, to develop a business, large or small" (Torrès, 1999 ; Ries, 2012). “Management is a process, consisting of planning, organizing, directing and controlling activities, by which a company seeks to achieve its objectives in a performance-oriented manner”. (Emery, 2005 ; Islami et al., 2018). The management is a special area where the development was and still activated, and constantly in change. In other words, the variation between the old management to the new management was a real advancement in the model, the principles and the target. The management mode knew a very immense development throughout the years. The progress was adjusted because of the time obligation and the generation movement. In this part, we will figure out the old management modes, its fundamentals, its styles and objectives, before reaching the innovation in the management mode. If we link this chapter to the thesis target, is simply to know the origin and the source of the management in the history and then to join it later with the protected areas management and then to answer the research question related to the innovation in the management area. 3.1. THE CLASSIC SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT The classic school of management is composed of three streams:  Scientific stream: represented by Taylor and Ford. 3 From old management to new management: A literature review 39  Administrative stream: constituted by Fayol.  Bureaucratic stream: which emphasizes Max Weber. 3.1.1. Scientific current: Taylor and Ford 3.1.1.1. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) Taylor was the inventor of the scientific organization of work. He proposes a formal differentiation of the tasks entrusted to managers and performers, but identifies and structures the different functions of the company. He introduces psycho-technical methods of selecting individuals (the right man in the right place) and explains the one best way to accomplish a task. During the second half of the 19th century, the industrial revolution made it possible to establish a new technical system and the emergence of engineers. These two factors have played a role determining in the birth of Taylorism (Wright, 1993). The traditional organization was characterized by two categories of actors: the foremen, who authority; the workers, who worked incomplete autonomy, their technical competence is still irreplaceable. Taylorism corresponds to a profound change in the way of conceiving the organization of work with a view to increasing productivity, where the principles of Taylorism revolve are around four principles: decomposing work into tasks elementary, simple and repetitive; elimination of unnecessary time; specialization and individualization of workers; control and monitoring of workers: strict control of execution and encouragement of work through performance bonuses(Wagner‐Tsukamoto, 2008). Frederick Taylor is an American engineer and the father of scientific management theory, since he introduced a scientific methodology that can help to find the optimal way to achieve a task: The One Best Way. Taylor recommends that each task be timed and that each task be to determine the minimum time required to complete this task. The work process is broken down into the following operations elementary. Unnecessary operations are deleted and, for each operation retained, the best method is selected. From the study of times and methods, the precise content of each activity is defined. Thus, each worker is assigned a specific task, to be carried out in a prescribed time and according to an imposed procedure (Pouget, 1998). Taylor constantly revolted against the inefficiency of the workers, who always tend to laze and linger. To remedy this situation, he created the scientific study of movement, of employees at work, based on an analysis of time, an analysis of gestures, and an analysis of poses with the objective of discovering the least tiring and most productive gesture. In Taylor's view, this improvement in movement will allow employees to accomplish a precise, limited task and, above all, to achieve the best possible performance. Twenty years of research to determine the optimal way to perform each task. Taylor is the inventor of the Scientific Labor Organization (S.L.O.) which has allowed the distinction between two types of division of labor(Brödner, 2007) Horizontal division of labor: choosing the person best suited to the job and training them in the best way to perform the task in question, where there is a strict separation of work preparation and execution. IKRAME SELKANI 40 Vertical division of labor: the distinction between design and execution, by separating the tasks of the performer and the tasks of the manager, Taylor told these workers: 'You are not here to think'. For him, no fundamental conflict should exist between employer and employee. He advocated the introduction of pay for performance where we find decomposition by the methods office of any work into elementary operations with a time limit on performance. Taylor developed four key principles of scientific management (Paton, 2013)1 - The firstclass men: Each type of man is "first-class" for a certain kind of work. So, you have to look for the right kind of work for each individual. 2 - Recruitment and training of staff: It is up to the management to select, in order to a scientist, the worker, and then to train, instruct and perfect him. However, the training proposed by Taylor is limited to a strict acquisition, by the worker, of a mode the particular operation, without any explanation as to why this choice was made. Taylor is, therefore, advocating a close control of management overtraining. 3 - Control over the staff: Close control by management over the execution of the work is realized. The aim of monitoring is to eliminate any margin of uncertainty and to insert the worker into a network of constraints that leave him with no choice but to submit or resign. 4 - The role of the salary: The salary system is a secondary element. What is important is that the worker who works at the set rate can earn a higher wage. This supplement of salary is intended to make the worker accepts the change in working methods, the motivation by the salary: each task corresponds to execution time, the stopwatch then determines the worker's compensation. The objectives of Taylorism were increasing productivity and thus achieving the development of the country's wealth, respecting time management to reduce costs to achieve better prices, and its advantages: lower costs, and improved production by tackling waste, the specialization of workers. Increase in the merit pay of employees. 3.1.1.1.1. Taylorian principles concerning the command-control management model Individuals participate in group decisions. Communication takes place vertically as well as horizontally and information flows freely. In constant development, we could find very special progress and evolution is explained by the obsolescence of the four Taylorian principles concerning the command-control management model (Autissier et al, 2018). 3.1.1.1.2. Principle of the predictability As the principle’s name, the predictability means the status of knowledge and realizing what something is like, now, in the present, and to know in advance and anticipate when something will happen in the future. According to this principle, the past explains the present and predicts the future, however with globalization and the extra financial phenomenon, the environment is insecure and the future uncertain. The manager, therefore, is no more the only responsible for the stable path, but the one that explains and finds a solution for the unstable and unusual movements of the markets and the company. 3 From old management to new management: A literature review 47 extremely efficient, ideal, rational form of organization. And based on the principles of logic, order, and legitimate authority, justified by law and status (Weber, 2015)The application of bureaucratic principles enables the enormous amount of work to be carried out efficiently and quickly, which, according to Weber, is only possible if the staff complies with instructions and formal rules. This is why these principles are still very widespread in many organizations such as banks, insurance companies, hospitals, etc. The application of bureaucratic principles is still very much in evidence, widespread, especially in organizations such as the military, the municipalities, hospitals, schools, universities, etc. If so many organizations today are using the principles is because their success is based largely on the fact that they have a part on the efficient and rapid realization of a huge amount of work, which is only possible if their employees follow certain rules and instructions. Max Weber was a thinker on rationalization and bureaucracy.He proposes to challenge the traditional and charismatic organizational model, be based on explicit operating procedures. He is responsible for the concept of "legal-rational organization". 3.2. MANAGEMENT MODELS The management model has been employed through years and decades: At the very beginning, the management and the direction of the workshops and even a large number of people inside the factory was very different and unlike. At first, the economy was very manufacturing and industrial, the physical force were the initial element that permits the employees to have or have not the job opportunity. Over time proceed and the technologies advanced, we were facing the knowledge economy where the employee had less physical force but more certifications and qualifications, here, the brain was the main factor in parallel with the job tasks required. However, lately, the heart was replaced and substituted by the heart, which is actually the main ingredient that makes the difference, where the employees should have a certain passion before doing the job tasks, without deny the importance of diplomas and certification. The most effective manager is the one who knows how to use styles adapted to different situations by function of its employees or team. The management style represents the set of attitudes and behaviors that describes the way in which the company whose leader exercises power over a group. It is about how to command, how to exercise authority. Several intellectuals are developing theories based on the importance of the individual within the company (Ramond, 2017). Several theories have been developed to define styles of management: what differentiates them is the criterion that the authors used to describe the different styles of management, the cause and effect relationship between the style of the management and the behavior of individuals or the approach (empirical vs. scientific) used. ''We passed from an industrial economy where we went from employing because of hard physical work and chain work; we arrived in the knowledge of an economy where we offered IKRAME SELKANI 48 jobs to brains till reaching the human economy where we provide work for hearts'' (Seidman, 2011). According to Max Weber, the companies were organized through the model of armies with a hierarchy that gave orders to specific units in the function of their attribution: “the hierarchy was and will still be the power always presents in the companies and organizations” (Weber, 2009). 3.2.1. Collaborative model Later on, the collaborative mode was activated, where the cooperation is the start point. The collaborative model is not about repetitive activities and the formalization of operations but by the commitment and the participative postures shown by the employees. In this level, empathy and comprehension are the keywords (Le Saget,2006). It all begins with the thought ‘think global and act local’. The collaborative model can contribute to a company's economic performance, with the founding precepts of trust, freedom of choice, cooperation and conviviality. It is a question of freeing the company from a hierarchical operation. This style of management encourages creativity, flexibility, a friendly working environment, authenticity, complementary profiles. Table 5 : Traditional management vs collaborative management Traditional management Collaborative management Overriding interest Short-term profit Contribution to the world Mobilization lever Award Sense, pleasure Organization Hierarchical partitioning Flexible Assignment Know-how, choice of hierarchy Aimer-faire, co-decision Size of structures Undetermined Limited to 200 Working conditions Negotiated at hiring Continuously negotiated Selection criteria Past: skills, experience Future: talents, potentials, passions Circulation of information By domain, profession Accessible to all Decision Centralization Decentralization of the "how” Reporting Hierarchical Group Evaluation Through the hierarchy By the group Innovation Dedicated functions (business lines, R&D) Everyone (employees, customers, suppliers) Compensation Individual or group Individual and collective 3 From old management to new management: A literature review 49 Nature of the relationship Obedience (Parent/child) Confidence (Adult/Adult) Living environment Rules Values, postures, principles Role of the manager Prescribe, control To make people want to be involved, to make them feel responsible Recognition Individual effectiveness Contribution to the group Source: https://www.innovationmanageriale.com/agilite/les-4-piliers-du-management-collaboratif-les-4c/ According to (Boyer, 2012), collaborative management is based on pillars that allow to bypass the limits of traditional management and to integrate the values of the company and the teams. In this way, both parties are satisfied and therefore more motivated.In collaborative management, we talk about four important components: Figure 4 : The collaborative management elements Source: https://www.enjoyyourbusiness.fr/en/choosing-collaborative-management/ Exchange: Exchange means acting and working together to get more ideas and therefore a better result. Innovations very rarely come from a single person but rather from a process of brainstorming the ideas. Co-creativity consists in letting each person come up with new ones and especially exchange to create the "good idea" of the moment. IKRAME SELKANI 50 Finally, collaboration, exchange helps the problem solving and innovation. Each person must be able to talk to his or her superior or colleague without having to go through an intermediary or encounter hierarchical barriers. In order to have a good, support is a must! The person must feel supported and reassured in order to develop professionally. Decisions: In order to make decisions, the company must give freedom to its employees and make them want to commit themselves. Employees must be free to organize themselves and make decisions, as they see fit in order to achieve their results. A good level of collaboration makes people want to get involved in an informed way. Companies must learn to question their organization and constantly renew themselves. They will then be more flexible and therefore more responsive to the unexpected. It will also allow them to explore new practices in order to best satisfy their employees. Trust: honesty and clearness in a relationship is the key to its longevity. At the company, it’s the case too, being honest with each other, we can move forward and have a result more quickly with a more favorable qualification. Sincerity and transparency are a good process to build this trust. In the management world, the employee must feel appreciated for his or her value and the contributions should be valorized. This appreciation can be expressed with recognition to a group or an association with a new project. The more the person sees that their efforts are recognized, the more confidence they will have in their manager.Teams must feel they are listened and been able to go to their manager in case of having any doubts or questions. Conviviality: Conviviality refers to the pleasure of being together and sharing good times. In companies, conviviality is one of the primary motivations of an employee. The first factor that plays on conviviality is the atmosphere. The work atmosphere (values, organization, relationships between employees) contributes strongly to the development of employees. This is also the case for the infrastructure and working conditions. Enjoy working in the company is very important because a person who loves his work and his missions will invest more. Celebrating certain events helps to strengthen bonds and solidify teams. It is just as important celebrating the success of projects as it is to organize parties to get to know each other. 3.2.2. Command-control model The dehumanization and the bureaucratization of management systems, most of all the technology updates help to lose the autonomy and the responsibility of the manager. The managers, therefore, feel less productive where the system controls everything (Dupuy, 2015). The old management model was the organization traditional working criticized by numerous publications, the command-control model was a hierarchical model where there are no participation imposed decisions, not enough responsive, growing according to the bureaucracy, low transparent. In the command-control system, the working the process becomes different, this style of managing gives more freedom to the controlling and yet to the manager himself/herself: In this system, other than senior management set the rules, no one could do it, we find more about centralizing decision making, by creating a strong distinction between (senior) 3 From old management to new management: A literature review 51 management and workers. There are some advantages if you do work with the top management because you have more of an increased salary, and flexibility. The command-control management constitutes the hierarchical management which began at the end of the XIX century and the beginning of the XX century in the industry sector, where it lacks ones: low participation and low agility. 3.2.3. The three types of management by Lewin (1890, 1947) There were three authors that came up with a classification in different styles about the management: Lewin, Lippit and Whit (1939).Mostly known and identified by the three styles of management behavior. Figure 5 : The three types of management by (Lewin, 1939) Source:https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/fundamentals-of-leadership-theory/0/steps/56180 According to the author, Kurt Lewin (1939), here are the following types: The autocratic style: authoritarian, very directive. We find little dialogue and creativity, conducive to tensions and de-motivation. At the moment of taking the decision, in the autocratic style, the manager does not consult with the others. In Lewin's experiments, he found that this caused the most level of discontent and dissatisfaction. Here, the leader is not interested by the creativity in the decisions and does get associated with the team or group work. The democratic or participative style: here, the manager animates, encourages, motivates and takes into account the opinion of his employees. Comparing it with the ‘A with autocratic style’, there is less production but better quality. The team then is working with no tension. The manager suggests his collaborators to have more grou’s work and activity. Here, the manager accepts the advice and suggestions from the colleagues. In the democratic style, the IKRAME SELKANI 52 manager involves the people in the decision-making; this style could produce more creative solutions about problem-solving. It is about managing individuals as a group rather than each one separately. The idea is that the group members share the tasks and the leader relies on the leader to make decisions.It helps to feel committed and involved, which contributes to the quality of their work. The "laissez-faire" (delegative) style: the manager gives great freedom to his employees. The delegative style, known in French as ‘laissez-faire’ is to minimize the manager's involvement in decision-making and hence allowing people to make their own decisions, with freedom, although they may still be responsible for the outcome. Concerning the delegative work, here, we talk about the staff is engaged and make their own decisions and where the central coordination is flexible. Research shows that children in the group characterized by delegating leadership are the least productive in absolute terms. In particular, it is those who pose the most of questions to the leader and those least able to work independently. This management style may be effective when the group is composed of highly qualified members. 3.2.4. Management model: unfreeze, change, refreeze by Lewin (1890-1947) The Lewin System for Change Management Figure 6 : Model UnfreezeChangeRefreeze Source: Lewin, 1931 Understanding the Three Changes:In the current world, the change and transformation is very common. In the business universe, the organizations handle the same phenomenon where the variation is a must. Organizations that handle change thrive well, while those that don't survive may struggle. The model is called Unfreeze – Change – Refreeze: it helps to understand the three-stage change cycle. Here, Lewin explained the changes in the organization using the analogy of changing the shape of an ice block (Lewin, 1951). Back in the 1940s, Kurt Lewin developed a model for understanding organizational change and still holds true today. Understanding Lewin 's model for change 3 From old management to new management: A literature review 53 To begin every productive process of change, the company begin by understanding the reason of the change needs to take place. As Lewin put it, "Change can come first before, and people can be motivated by change before it really occurs” ". It is the unfreezing stage from which progress starts (Doyle, 2002). Unfreezing Change is a process that normally is hard stressful. When the company starts breaking down the “the routine of doing things”, the aim is the creation of a new balance influenced by the manager. In people, the suggestion of new and strong reactions is necessary to change the old habits and practices, and that is exactly what needs the company to be done (Lewin, 1947; Burnes, 2004). This first step of change means to prepare the organization to accept the need for a change: this implicates the current status before building a new way of operating. The easier way to understand this is to figure out the failing points, which help to indicate that change is required. Change Stage of change is where people start to resolve their uncertainty and searching for new ways of doing things. People start acting in new ways which support the new direction. The transition from unfreeze to change doesn't take place quickly: people take time to accept the new path and take part in the change. The Change Curve, a related change model, focuses on the specific issue of personal transitions in a changing environment and is useful for more detailed understanding of this aspect. To accept the change, and to help make it successful, people need to understand how it will benefit them. Not everybody will fall in line just because the change is needed and the business will benefit. This is a growing mistake that should be avoided (Burnes, 1996, 2004; Dawson, 1994). Communication and time and are the two keys to successful changes happening. People need time to understand the changes, as well as feel strongly connected with the organization throughout the transition period. When you handle the transition, it can take a lot of time and energy, and the best way is typically between the manager's hands. Refreeze The organization is ready when the changes are effectives and people begin to be flexible with.. The refreeze's external signs are a clear map of organization. The refreeze stage often needs to help internalize or institutionalize the changes for people and the organization. This means ensuring that the improvements are used all the time and integrated into daily business. Employees feel relaxed and happy with the modern ways of operating, with a strong sense of security (Robbins and Barnwell, 1998; 2006). 3.3. MANAGEMENT STYLES Management styles represent the ways in which a manager tries to perform the function, by establishing relationships with subordinates and directing the activities of his team towards the achievement of objectives. IKRAME SELKANI 54 The manager's vision of the world, his system of values, beliefs and behavior are so important, because thanks to them the company will embrace a special future and from that the means mobilized in priority by this manager to obtain performances from his collaborators. Here, we will figure out different styles of management according to different authors: 3.3.1. Blake (1918-2004) and Mouton (1930-1987) Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, both PhDs in psychology and law and management theorists, worked together in the 60s and 70s at the University of Texas and formalized "the managerial grid" (Burke, 2017). This managerial grid is a tool that allows us to quickly map and define management styles. It defines different behavioral models according to two criteria: concern for profitability and interest in the human factor. The Blake and Mouton matrix makes it easy to identify the 5 main types of management. This managerial matrix is structured around 2 axes: - The abscissa: which correspond to "management's interest in profitability" (turnover, results, production costs, the achievement of objectives, etc.). - The ordinates: which correspond to "the manager's interest in people" (working conditions, well-being, team cohesion, needs, etc.). With this in mind, Blake and Mouton divides their grid into 9 values for each axis. The result of this managerial grid, the highlighting of the 5 major management styles according to the manager's degree of concern for profitability, coupled with his degree of attachment to the human factor (Blake & Mouton, 1982). Building on the researchers' work, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton proposed a visual representation of leadership types via a management table (grid) in 1960. The grid demonstrated two dimensions of leading behavior, concern for people on the y-axis and concern for output on the x-axis, where each dimension vary from inferior (1) to elevated (9), thereby creating 81 different places in which theis created (Blake & Mouton, 1962). Figure 7 : Managerial leadership Grid Source: Cai et al., 2019 3 From old management to new management: A literature review 55 The five leadership styles (Blake & Mouton, 1964) which result are as the following: Impoverished management (1, 1): here, managers with this strategy seem weak. In terms of both dimensions and practice minimal energy to get the job done by co-workers. The manager is worried about employee satisfaction and job schedules, resulting in disharmony and disorganization within the company. The leaders are called ineffective in that their acts seek hardly to maintain employment and seniority. He avoids all difficult situations such as conflict or confrontation for example and does not take a position on matters related to his responsibility. The "lax" manager is only very little concerned about the company's results or the well-being of its employees. It can be said that his only motivation is to keep his job, which is his sole objective. Task management: (9, 1): Also known as dictatorial or form of perishing. The leaders here are more worried about the development and are less worried about individuals. The design is based upon McGregor's theory X. The interests of the workers are not being taken care of and are merely a means to an end. The leader understands that productivity will only result if work processes are well-coordinated and people removed whenever possible. Such a style will certainly improve the organization's performance in the short run, but high labor turnover is inevitable due to the strict policies and procedures. In the "task-oriented" the manager is characterized by an authoritarian, even "dictatorial" style, using women and men as strategically placed pawns to achieve the set objectives. Control tools are then put in place. Results take precedence over the Human and employees must obey without question. Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5): it is essentially a negotiating mode in which the manager attempts to keep a balance between business priorities and people's needs. The leader does not reach the accomplishment limits resulting in average organizational efficiency. Neither employee nor industrial needs are fulfilled entirely here. The "middle" manager, also known as political management, represents the perfect balance between taking into account the needs of all employees and the concern for profitability. It is the style of compromise, results above all, but not at any price, especially with regard to the development and well-being of the employees. Country Club (1, 9): It is a type characterized by low mission and high people orientation where the manager is bewared to people's needs, thereby creating a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere for them. The leader believes that such employee care will find a way to self-motivation, which will leave employees working hard on their own. Low concentration on tasks, however, can impede development and trigger questionable results. The employees are pampered and listened to; they are at the center of the manager's preoccupations. The latter develops real quality relationships with his team. Financial results come second. Team Management (9, 9): Characterized by high people and concentrated activities, the mode is based on McGregor's Y theory and, according to Blake and Mouton, has been called the most powerful styling. The leader feels confidence; engagement, trust, and appreciation are essential elements in building a team in an environment that will result in high employee satisfaction and performance automatically. IKRAME SELKANI 56 This is the managerial style that we advocate at FlexJob, it is about optimizing human resources in order to achieve objectives. Objectives are no longer fixed but shared. The "integrative" manager is an open-minded, attentive and often inspiring person. He promotes collective intelligence that is put at the service of the organization. The Management Grid is helpful for managers to evaluate the types of leadership through a process known as a grid design. This is achieved by conducting a survey to define how they stand in relation to their performance and individual concerns. The curriculum aims ultimately to help leaders achieve the optimal state of 9, 9 (Blake & Mouton, 1964). 3.3.2. Renisis Likert (1903-1981) According to another classification introduced by (Likert, 1961), an American psychologist famous for his scale,he classified 4 modes of management when making decision,(Likert, 1961). The following figure explains the four styles of management used by Likert, 1961: Figure 8 : Management’s four systems Source: Likert, 1961 The Exploitative, authoritative style: In this style, the management is more about punishment if the work is not done properly and rewards if it’s well done. Here the manager does not trust anyone, does not communicate at all. It is a stressful way of work and does not help to motivate and creativity. It gives very precise explanations of what needs to be done, when and how to do it; best applied in cases where decision time is very limited or when the leader is more qualified than the group members (Baumrind, 1971; Kimmel & Weiner, 1985; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Even the groups cannot participate in the decision-making process and power is totally centralized. At this level, this style has a very low concern for people and uses such methods as threats, fears and punishments methods to achieve the tasks. Communication is one-way and people are perfectly ignored. The Benevolent style: Here, we are more facing another type of management based on rewards; the communication is similar to the ‘Exploitive authoritative’ which means One-way communication, but surely does not go up, the hierarchy is very present (Wood, 2008). Since we are at the level of operational management, the decision-making is very centralized by the manager, sometimes; there might be some exceptions to have some delegation at certain tasks (Likert and Likert, 1976). 3 From old management to new management: A literature review 63 Table 6 : Characteristics of an American and a Japanese firm Type A (American) Type J (Japanese) Short-term employment Lifetime employment Individual decision making Decision-making by consensus Individual responsibility Collective responsibility Quick evaluation of promotions Slow evaluation and promotion Formal and explicit control Informal and implicit control Specialized Careers Non-Specialized Careers Concerns Divided Holistic Concerns Source: Ouchi et al., 1978 Ouchi chooses this name "the Z theory" to also refer to Mc's theory. Gregor, as a logical extension of the latter's thinking (Ouchi, 1981). Theory Z combines the best of the Y theory and Japanese management, introducing a lot of freedom and a climate of trust with employees. Japanese management advocates that employees should be loyal and improve their teamwork and organization. In its work, quality control circles are described, and a particular crop called Z is exposed for a long time (Gellerman, 1963). A typology of corporate cultures is drawn up. These various investigations were intended to clarify the organizational reasons why Japanese companies have shown themselves since the 1950s, the era of the Japanese economy managerial, more efficient than American companies (Nonaka and Sato,1983). IKRAME SELKANI 64 Theory Z offers more reliability based on the attitudes and responsibilities of employees, whereas in McGregor's theory, XY is essentially focused on management and on motivating the perspectives of managers and the organization (Nonaka, Johansson, 1985). It was thus found that this success was the result of a different way of looking at the company and was due to the systematic consideration of different styles of collaboration. The various observations made within Japanese companies led to the conclusion that the proper functioning of the company depends on the organization's ability to understand all the information in a global manner, while demonstrating a high degree of flexibility. 4. THE MANAGERIAL INNOVATION: TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATION Given the multiple drawbacks and inconvenient of the classical school of management, such as bureaucracy, which requires a stable environment, and the rigidity of the system in relation to the environment, as well as the poverty of interpersonal relations-dehumanization-, and not forgetting the rejection of novelty and innovation, we can say on this occasion that a certain type of phenomenon occurs because of the excess of power, and obedience: Authority is the ability to make people voluntarily observe orders, while power is the chance of forcing obedience. “The employees are not tired of working, but of bad working” (Clot, 2008). This explains that these problems do not help to have effective work, and they do mechanically the tasks, which leads to boring and de-motivation. That clearly explains that once the motivation decreases at work, the “bore-out” syndrome emerges, and therefore, the dissatisfaction comes as a result of work as well as for private life. The “fed-up” model is where the work is very bureaucratic, the boredom or “bore-out” always emerges, and where the autonomy has no place. The employees who are working under this system find themselves indented, set back, in mistrust, and non-productive. The “bore-out” syndrome could be defined as that nonintentioned process due to the emptiness gradually of any content at certain jobs (Barrion, 2017). The “bore-out” and the “fed-up” syndrome could cause tiredness at work: In addition to “boredom” at work, the first symptoms of this problem are de-motivation, anxiety, isolation, guilt, and sadness that occur in the workplace. These symptoms can then spill over into the patient's private sphere, where they can also lead to permanent feelings of dissatisfaction, frustration, and loss of self-esteem. Depending on the extent of the latter, the patient may fall into depression, which may lead to suicide. Another point that makes the organization very mechanical is the presence of all the technology, these ones replaced the human being, the human resources, the Man in the organization that seems to be so absent, with less productivity. 4.1. MANAGERIAL INNOVATION: LITERATURE REVIEW As early as the 1960s, research such as that of Evan (1966), Evan and Black (1967), Downs and Morh (1976) focused on innovations that do not have a technological dimension. These authors introduce the terms "administrative innovations". The term "organizational innovations" is used to describe these innovations. They propose the following definition: "Administrative innovation is an innovative idea that relates to the recruitment of personnel, the allocation of resources, the definition of tasks, the model of management or the development of personnel" (Evan, 1966). We should clearly distinguish between different innovations (Kimberly and Evanisko, 1981; Damanpour, 1987). However, recent studies have analyzed management innovations in a more precise way (Sapprasert, 2010). For example, Bodas Freitas (2008) shows differences 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 65 in the diffusion of managerial and organizational innovations. We distinguish between the two in the following way: organizational innovations encompass responsibilities, accountability, command lines, and information flows. They focus on the divisional structure of functions, and, for example, change the number of hierarchical levels. Managerial innovations, on the other hand, affect the operations and procedures of the enterprise, such as the specifications of responsibilities, the content of commands and of information flows, and the way they are dealt with. They involve the speed and flexibility of production and the reliability of products and production processes. Managerial innovation includes the invention and implementation of management practice, management process, management techniques, and organizational structures that are intended to further organizational goals (Birkinshaw et al. 2008). Literature on management innovations underlines the fact that they are very different in nature compared to technological and especially product innovations (Alänge et al. 1998). This is because innovation in terms of management represents investments in knowledge, procedures, behavior, and relations, but less with artifacts. Managerial innovations are typically tacit and difficult to protect by patent (Teece, 1980). These characteristics allow a higher level of subjective interpretation by the potential user than with technological innovations, which increases the importance of social and political processes (Birkinshaw et al. 2008). In the same period, researchers such as Mintzberg (1973) and Kimberly (1981) were the first to distinguish between managerial innovations and "other" innovations, including technical innovation. Managerial innovations have a propensity to influence the firm's traditional decisionmaking process. They are seen as organizational means or strategies for managing uncertainty. Thus, for Kimberly, a managerial innovation is defined as "any program, product or technique that represents a significant departure from the state of management at the time it first appears and affects the nature, location, quality or quantity of information available in a decision-making process". (Kimberly, 1981). In the 1980s, Damanpour (1984, 1987) was one of the first authors, following Evan (1966) and Kimberly (1981), to make a clear distinction between technological innovations, which refer to the technical sphere of the firm, and administrative innovations, which refer to the social sphere of the organization. Damanpour proposes to make them the subject of a specific study and gives the following definition. "Administrative innovations are defined as innovations that have an impact on the social system of an organization. By social system we mean the relationships between individuals who interact senses on each other in order to accomplish a specific task or goal" (Damanpour, 1984). In the same vein: "managerial innovations are indirectly related to the basic production activities of the organization; they require changes in the organization and in the processes more directly related to its management" (Damanpour, 1984). Also in the 1980s, Van de Ven (1986) proposed a definition of managerial innovation that would gain some notoriety. According to this author, "managerial innovation” is a new idea that can be either a combination of old ideas or a pattern that modifies the existing one. The order of the present, i.e., a unique formula or approach that is perceived as new by the individuals concerned" (Van de Ven, 1986). In a somewhat different conception, for Harrow and Willcocks (1990) or Rogers (1995), a managerial innovation is "an idea, practice or object perceived as new by individuals or organizations" (Rogers, 1995). This definition highlights the notion of perception of novelty IKRAME SELKANI 66 by the actor. It emphasizes that more than the intrinsic radicality of managerial innovation, it is the perception of the actors in the context that largely conditions the reception given to it. In the 1990s, all of this research found an echo in France, at the École des Mines de Paris, under the impetus of authors such as David, Hatchuel, and Weil. These authors were particularly interested in the structure of managerial innovations (David, 1996). David thus distinguishes three interacting elements:  Knowledge-based innovations: these innovations relate to the knowledge produced and correspond to what Hatchuel and Weil (1992) call "managerial techniques".  Relationship-oriented innovations: they concern relations such as a new decentralized structure, the constitution of project teams, a network of trainers, etc...  Mixed innovations: these are managerial innovations that relate simultaneously to the knowledge produced and the relations between actors. In a more recent period, work on managerial innovation is experiencing a strong resurgence of interest. Managerial innovation is at the heart of a research program at the London Business School led by Hamel, Mol and Birkinshaw. These three authors have set up an Innovation Management Lab whose objective is to better understand managerial innovation. In the first hand, we have technological innovations, are mainly much more tacit (Birkinshaw et al., 2008). In the other hand, managerial innovations are not patentable and their forms are not easy to identify. Therefore, they include a greater level of subjectivity in their definitions than technological innovations(Birkinshaw et al., 2008). In order to better define the concept, Birkinshaw and Mol (2006) return to a definition close to that of Kimberly (1981): "Managerial innovation is the implementation of practices and processes, new management structures, which are significantly different from the standards usual"(Birkinshaw and Mol, 2006). Hamel (2006) gives a rather similar definition: "Managerial innovation can be defined as a significant departure from traditional management principles, processes and practices, or as a departure from the traditional forms of management that have been used in the past”. The goal is to improve the quality of current organizational practices that significantly change the way managerial work is done. Simply put, managerial innovation changes the way managers do what they do. (Birkinshaw and Mol, 2006). 4.1.1. Definition of managerial innovation According to a survey conducted in December 2017 by BVA (French research and consulting firm specializing in behavioral sciences) for Audencia (Audencia Business School, a leading French business school), managerial innovation is perceived as: • A means of improving economic performance (64%) • A way to make employees work harder (61%) • A caprice or whim of the leaders (55%) • A way to promote well-being (40%) Managerial innovation is a major transformation of collaborative practices and postures between (and for) managers and employees, to evolve from a "Parent/Child" (principle of unilateral hierarchical subordination) to an "Adult/Adult" (principle of co-responsibility) relationship. The aim is to find the right balance between personal development and professional performance in order to create new values for the company, its employees, and its environment (Boyer, 2020). 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 67 Innovation as a concept itself matters in times of newness, but what matters the most is not the importance of the novelty but its impact on the company and its performance. This means that the innovation could involve meetings, the company’s operations, and even the decision concerning the strategy and the company’s future, proposed by the employees. When we talk about ‘Managerial innovation’, we refer essentially to practices (rituals, systems, approaches, etc.) and postures (state of mind, ways of thinking, attitudes, etc.). The main innovation concerns the collaboration between managers and employees, so:  The novelty lies in the way of collaborating (how to do and be together).  The innovation can concern an individual or a group.  The managerial function remains, on the contrary, the concept of liberated enterprise, which agrees on the suppression of hierarchy and self-governance, cannot be qualified as managerial innovation.  The innovations concern both managers and employees.  Innovations are co-constructed by (and for) managers and employees in an interactive process (test& learn).  The innovation allows evolving from a "parent/child" relationship (dependence, submission) to an "adult/adult" relationship (co-responsibility, autonomy).  The new postures and practices must enable managers and employees to find the right balance between personal fulfillment (social dimension) and professional performance (economic dimension) and not one more than the other. Nowadays, there are many companies that look for new management models in order to involve innovation, collaboration, commitment in a development dynamic. "A managerial innovation is a new idea that can be either: 1. A recombination of old ideas, or 2. A representation that modifies the order of the present, or 3. A formula and unique approach perceived as new by the individuals concerned. It contributes to increasing the stock of knowledge available to managers, which takes the form of improvements or additions made to all techniques, practices, and postures for a direct impact on the management mode" (Godowski, 2001). “Innovative in management does not need the adoption of concepts coming out from Harvard, at the contrary, the management practices qualified as innovative come from companies, real conviction to leaders, the interchange between people bold experiments from all the models that you know till today that are qualified as ineffective” (Boyer, 2016). Managerial innovation is a recommendation and transferring managerial activities. The managerial mode is adapted from military and religious organizations where the main goal was the hierarchical obedience.In the company, the case is different; it’s reproduced maintaining the hierarchical role where the director (boss) has the last word. The managerial innovation gives real importance to the collaborative work and the wellbeing of the people in order to have a better performance. The classical management was about the hierarchical process ‘structure-functional’, where we had structure, function, director. Then, the ‘control/command’ type: orders and control systems in order to realize the orders once again. In summary of this period, Alcouffe (2004) proposes the following definition based on the work of Gilbert (1998): "a managerial innovation is a new combination of means, material and/or conceptual, already existing and/or new, in relation to the state of the art of management at the time it first appears and which allows the implementation of a IKRAME SELKANI 68 management technique that can be perceived as more or less new by the individual or any other unit analysis considering it". Hamel (2007) defines managerial innovation as: “it is all that modifies the way in which the tasks or the traditional structures are managed in order to better achieve its objectives”. In other words, managerial innovation is a set of micro-actions that helps to progress the practices and, therefore, the management principles. It could be defined as a set of big principles and little practices conducted by individuals who would challenge the standards norms. Birkinshaw, Hamel, and Mol (2008) combine to provide a new definition of managerial innovation. Thus, for these three authors, "managerial innovation is the invention and implementation of a new management practice, process, structure or technique compared to what is known with the aim of better achieving the organization's goals" (Birkinshaw, Hamel and Mol, 2008). Later on, these authors clarify their thinking. "Managerial innovation is the introduction of something new into an established organization that represents a particular organizational change. In its broadest sense, managerial innovation can be defined as a difference in the form, quality or state of managerial activities over time in an organization, where change is new or unprecedented compared to the past" (Birkinshaw, Hamel and Mol, 2008). A key element in the definition of managerial innovation is introduced by Mol and Birkinshaw (2009). They consider that managerial innovation is motivated by a desire to improve the quality of the organization's performance. Damanpour and Aravind (2012) take the same view by establishing a direct relationship between managerial innovation and performance. "Managerial innovation is a new organization, a new administrative system, new managerial practices, or new techniques that can create value for the organization adopting them" (Damanpour and Aravind, 2012). "Managerial innovation is the introduction of new management practices for the company with the intention of increasing the company's performance" (Birkinshaw, 2009). Hamel reinforces the normative character of managerial innovation by defining it as the main source of the firm's competitive advantage. "We have come to an obvious conclusion: major advances in management practice often lead to a significant change in the competitive situation and frequently confer lasting advantages on pioneering companies"(Hamel, 2007). As an author of this thesis, I would propose my definition as per se: “Managerial innovation is a set of practices, ideas, and/or programs relating to the management and running of an organization. It’s an association of information and means corresponding to the modification of old and existing concepts by new, better ones for stronger management and direction of an organization. It is a mosaic of processes and concepts implementing new decisions in management (Selkani, 2021). 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 69 4.1.2. The managerial innovation: a new technical change conduct Figure 10 : Proceeding methods Source: Adapted from Autissier and al., 2019 Conducting instrumental change for computing projects: For a change, the common mode is realizing a project: a project has a special organization from beginning till the end passing by phases and specific budget and governance to support the projects conducting the change via ‘Instrumental’ way structured between 1980/1990 with consulting companies (Kanter, 1992). For conducting instrumental change, we usually need two phases: scoping phase and the piloting phase. Conducting managerial change: to make the manager not a relay but a co-builder of change. It seems more important to make for the manager the relay of change than realizing ‘projects’ via the instrumental mode (Kotter, 1996). The change conducting comprises training the manager and making them able to explain and deploy the change in the field. Conducting managerial change was developed from the writing of Kotter: the manager is not a retransmitted but a real founder of change inventing new manners of collaboration and cooperation with techniques that advantage real innovation ideas. 4.1.3. The purpose of managerial innovation Talking about the past innovations that each company tried to reach out was realizing the target is to meet company expectations (optimizing productivity, quality, and performance) or proceeding to the employee needs (work comfort, stress reduction, etc.), but rarely both at the same time. Managerial innovation encompasses postures and practices that enable companies and their employees, all in order to "find the right balance between personal fulfillment and professional performance", whether on an individual or collective basis. IKRAME SELKANI 70 Figure 11 : The innovation goal Source: Adapted from Boyer, 2016 In 2016, Boyer exposed in his article six qualified innovations as practical and put in the center the managerial innovation. Boyer calls this: around the world of managerial innovation practices which is summarized by six objectives: confidence, commitment, well-being, agility, collaboration, creativity (Boyer, 2016). Figure 12 : The six management styles Source: Adapted from Boyer, 2016 The fundamental difference between managerial innovation (co-responsible culture) and all other previous forms of management lies in the relationship's nature. Whereas the paternalistic (boss), directive (leader), bureaucratic (manager), strategic (leader), and collaborative (manager coach) cultures are based on a parent (father or mother) / child relationship, the co-responsible culture that characterizes managerial innovation is based on an adult/adult relationship between leaders, managers, and employees. This is where management becomes innovative. To simplify, here is a synthesis of the main differences between traditional management (paternalistic, directive, bureaucratic, strategic, collaborative culture) and managerial innovation (co-responsible culture): 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 77 In the definition chosen here, managerial innovation concerns all the company's functions, and the company. The company's functions all stem from ideas and creativities and are regularly transformed by managerial innovations (Jaouen and Le Roy, 2013). 4.1.7. The 6 pillars of managerial innovation According to (Boyer, 2020), there are six pillars of managerial innovation. To find the right balance between personal development and professional performance; and to create new values for the company, employees, customers, and environment should display the six pillars of managerial innovation, which are: Trust The establishment of trust is essential to start new management methods, especially when they are disruptive and challenge certainties, habits, practices, or attitudes. Trust is a very important element in building authentic relationships where everyone is convinced of the sincerity and respect of the agreed commitments in order to:  Avoid any feelings of betrayal or abandonment.  Get a real and sincere commitment to the terms and conditions of collaboration agreed to by all parties.  Manage with serenity and enthusiasm any uncertainties or difficulties encountered. Responsibility Empowering employees means a profound transformation of the processes of involvement, decision making, freedom of action, and valuing successes and mistakes. Intrapreneurship is not only a new state of mind but also a new way of working together that can be learned and appropriated regarding cultural and organizational specificities. Considering each employee as an adult handles his or her choices, making him or her the author and actor of his or her own development and performance.  To offer the possibility (to those who wish) of being a force for change at several levels (his job, his team, the company).  Strengthen autonomy and encourage experimentation with new practices.  Recognizing successes and learning from mistakes. Pleasure They have designed most management methods to optimize performance, rarely to develop personal fulfillment. And yet it is quite possible to reconcile both. But to do so requires a change in culture and certain managerial practices. This is in order to co-create the conditions for professional fulfillment in such a way as to:  Strengthen involvement and commitment in a sustainable way.  To develop the pleasure that each employee feels in carrying out the missions entrusted to them.  Boost the conviviality and good atmosphere that prevails at all levels of the company. Collaboration Faced with the complexity of today's world, the company must mobilize all the intelligence it has at its disposal, both internally and externally. Conviviality, benevolence and mutual support, the sharing of ideas, and best practices are the essential conditions for the success of a collective project. IKRAME SELKANI 78 In order to reform modes of collaboration so that they can:  Reinforce complementarily and the valorization of differences (personalities, professions...).  Valuing "collective intelligence", free ideas.  Developing cooperation across functional and hierarchical boundaries. Agility In order to become more reactive, or even proactive, the company will have to emancipate itself from the traditional hierarchical modes of operation to organize itself into interdependent autonomous cells, to move from a "client-supplier" approach to a "coconstruction" approach, to progress in "short cycles" rather than in stages, to make its risk control more flexible and to learn from its trial and error. Having as objectives to adapt its organization and operating methods to:  Adapt constantly to the increasingly rapid and unpredictable changes in its environment.  Reduce activity processing times (responsiveness).  Anchor a "start-up" spirit that encourages boldness and innovation (proactivity). Creativity The primacy of respect for the established order over experimentation with new ideas, lack of time and resources devoted to research and implementation of new ideas, and all that: In order to promote and facilitate the emergence of new ideas, those are sources of new value creation to:  Allow and encourage the expression and experimentation of new ideas.  Implementing innovation processes and approaches.  Differentiate yourself from your competitors through differentiating offers. Figure 16 : Six pillars of managerial innovation Source: Boyer, 2020 4.1.8. The components of managerial innovation There are five components relative to the concept of managerial innovation. As key elements, we are talking about the major factor that constitutes this concept: Small groups: In a small group, we gather from proximity and better coordination. The optimal size of a group is between 4 and 20 people (Bion and Anzieux, 1965). 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 79 These groups are more agile and the relation is directly creating a favorable environment for sharing and change. Informal moments: The exchange time in an organization is very hierarchically codified. The meeting, interviews, professional appointments are very formal and this way of exchanging does not help the innovation time to be shown. The managerial innovation is created to help the innovation spontaneity and to link the peoples’ connection more naturally. In this way, we need more about the collaborative dimension and cooperative modality to intense the sharing and quality time. These informal moments keep the level of spontaneity and energy high for all the present participants. The sessions are short and last 1h30 maximum. A leader is necessary for the good proceeding of the exchange time, following the collaboration between all the participants and respecting the five major principles of the session: kindness, listening, antihierarchical, participation, non-controversial. Figure 17 : Principles of collaborative sessions Source: Adapted from Autissier and al., 2019 The innovation continues: Managerial innovation plays fully its role when it is new because the principle of managerial innovation is creating the surprise. If we repeat many time the same technique, it becomes repetitive and loses its newness. They become references and management techniques recurrently. Hackathon, for example, is a technique very compromising but was qualified by interest lost ‘the participant play at 100% the first time, 50% the second and the third time is a constraint. References: The managerial innovations become with time real references techniques that the managers use when they want to practice a new method of innovation inside their organization. Sometimes, one or more of these techniques becomes ‘the innovation of the moment, which all the organization wants to test and practice for real. Inspiring moments: A quality exchange is because of the production of quality and its utilization. These two concepts are linked to the participants’ pleasure: sharing, discovery, more forward, to create the ‘inspiring moment’, when the participants are ready to combine between the working side and the animation mode; this cruse has three ways: IKRAME SELKANI 80  In plenary: where the group attends the conference to sign the work instructions, vote’s observations, ask questions and having conclusions.  In small groups: from 3 to 7 people, where the work is done in a workshop fostering the co-development and direct exchange in discussion between the group.  In binominal or individual: it is an activity about introspection and how to be better and to progress in the working day. It could be done individually or in a binominal way with certain actions to realize. 4.2. MANAGERIAL INNOVATION TECHNIQUES The managerial innovation is perceived as an evolution of the management techniques, which makes up real importance towards the companies that would finish with the old modes and begin with the innovation techniques respecting the well-being of the employees and reaching better performance. These techniques showed the limits of the classical model of management. Therefore, managerial innovation becomes the basis of its competitive advantage (Hamel, 2006; Mol and Birkinshaw, 2009). Managerial innovation refers to innovations in management systems, knowledge, and supporting activities; in this sense, managerial innovation becomes a new management doctrine for performance (Hamel, 2009). Based on these definitions, we consider that managerial innovation is the adoption by an organization, of new management practices or methods for it, to improve its overall performance. Managerial innovation is a new management method practiced by an organization as the adoption of an existing management technique but new to the organization that adopts it. Figure 18 : Managerial innovations Matrix Source: Adapted from Autissier and al., 2019 4.2.1. Design thinking Design Thinking is a regular style, representing a developed method. It has been practiced several times at Stanford. The technique helps to teach individuals new strategies in order to solve problems. The procedure challenges are to mix empathy, originality, and reasonableness and especially to create successful solutions with an innovator’s mindset. Tim Brown, CEO of IDEO, one of the leading innovation consulting firms from Palo Alto, California, using Design Thinking, defines it as “a discipline that uses the designer’s 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 81 sensibility and methods to match people’s needs with what is technologically workable and what a viable business strategy can convert into customer value and market opportunity” (Brown, 2008). Another definition stems from Kelley (2013). He defines Design Thinking as “a way of finding human needs and creating new solutions using the tools and mindsets of design practitioners”. A very practical tool mixing 21st-century skills and an innovator’s mindset in the management workplace. This is what we call Design Thinking. It shows the direct connection between where inspiration and creativity are mixed to create original designs and find keys (Shamiyeh, 2010). Figure 19 : Design thinking process Source: Adapted from Stranford University, 2016 Design thinking, co-design: is a set of methods that allow you to solve a problem by applying an approach similar to that of the designer: Empathy, Definition, Ideation, Prototyping, and Test. Design thinking is a problem “defining and solving” approach that deals with illstructured situations where the problem is not articulated and is considered a hypothesis where action stimulates thoughts to inspire better hypotheses (Brown, 2009; Kelley & Littman, 2006; Liedtka & Ogilvie, 2011; Martin, 2009). Design thinking is a strategic capability that contributes to value creation based on a generic managerial competency (Glen, Suciu, & Baughn, 2014; Gruber, de Leon, George, & Thompson, 2015). Design thinking can provide project management with new perspectives for addressing innovation challenges; by doing this, we highlight and address the following gap (Brown, 2008). The central idea of design thinking is to build quickly aesthetic and pedagogical (designer) prototypes to test them with users (Johansson Sköldberg, Woodilla, & Çetinkaya, 2013; Liedtka, 2014; Seidel & Fixson, 2013). These prototypes are the result of excellent observations of the users' employ on their problems. Design thinking applied to business strategy and business transformation involves the visualization of concepts and the actual delivery of new products and services (Cooperet al., 2009). Design thinking is a “method for innovation and creating value” (Hassi, & Laakso, 2011). The objective of the Design thinking method is an innovation process based on the observation of uses and prototyping. It applies to product innovation but also to service innovation. This practice was born in the mid-2000s at Stanford University and in design companies such as Ideo. The world's leading experts on the concept are David Kelley, Tim Brown, and Bruce Nussbaum. Stanford created the "d.school" inspired by the ideas and concepts of design thinking (Brown, 2009; Brown, Katz, 2010; Marchal, 2013). The concept of design thinking is now taking hold in management and is paving the way for design to address new problems in the organization (Cooper, et al, 2009). IKRAME SELKANI 82 4.2.2. Learning network It is a hierarchical system where the roles are defined from the very beginning and implementing the positions to help strengthen a particular issue, with the participation of many people to develop collective intelligence (Van der Krogt, 1998). Exchanging ideas, peer-to-peer approaches, etc., could be highly effective at sharing knowledge between the employees. The Learning network can help support the learning in collaboration. Sometimes, meeting the confrontation's vision of a problem to be solved or a planned change is a normal thing. The exchange and sharing of ideas are practiced in an antihierarchical way so that everyone can take part in developing collective intelligence. Learning networks are a modality for developing collective intelligence. On a subject, a group of people meets to understand and provide solutions. The duration is limited, and the exchange times are organized and animated. A learning network is a modality for solving collective problems, but also an opportunity to learn about collective functioning. The point of the learning network is that the participants could debate from their exploration practices and problems in a problem-solving logic. Thanks to the exchange of practices, the learning network is a device for explaining and developing solutions that allow its participants to better understand their way of acting, in a learning logic. This system is framed by duration, frequency of exchanges, modalities of animation, and objectives, where the participants debate from their practices in the logic of exploration and resolution. The Learning Network is a device for explaining and developing solutions that allow its participants to better understand their way of acting, in the logic of learning. Figure 20 : Learning network Source: Autissier et al., 2015 4.2.3. Tutoring, peer coaching and mentoring Schaufeli and Salanova (2007) suggest that coaching employees and helping them with planning their work, highlighting potential difficulties, and offering advice and emotional support helps to foster engagement. It also helps to instill confidence or self-efficacy among employees. Coaching is an important source of support from one's supervisor, but social support from coworkers is also important for engagement. Kahn (1990) identified work interactions as important for psychological meaningfulness. In particular, individuals experienced 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 83 meaningfulness when they had rewarding interpersonal interactions with co-workers and clients. Mentoring and coaching are processes that enable individuals and corporate clients to achieve their full potential, as mentor offers ongoing support and development opportunities to the mentee (Clutterbuck, 2004). Coaching relates primarily to the learning performance improvement, often in a short term in a specific skills area. The coaching goals are set at the suggestion of the coach. The learner has the primary ownership of the coaching goal and the coach has the ownership of the coaching process (Megginson and Clutterbuck 2005). When two individuals work in the same sector of activity and do cross coaching or peer coaching; coachee and coach and vice versa. Parsloe defined mentoring as “To help and support people to manage their own learning in order to maximize their potential, develop their skills, improve their performance, and become the person they want to be” (Parsloe, 1992). Sarah Fletcher gives another comprehensive definition of mentoring. She said “mentoring is guiding and supporting trainees to ease them through difficult transitions; it is about smoothing the way, enabling, reassuring as well as directing, managing and instructing. It should unblock the ways to change by building self-confidence, self-esteem and readiness to act as well as to engage in ongoing constructive interpersonal relationships” (Fletcher, 2000). Besides the above-mentioned similarities, mentoring, coaching and tutoring have also some differences that distinguish them from each other (Conner and Pokora, 2012).  Mentoring, Tutoring, and Coaching are distinguishing in the length of the relationship (Wallace and Gravells, 2006). Mentoring and tutoring are ongoing relationships that can be last for a long period of time, while a coaching relationship generally has a set duration.  Mentoring and tutoring are more informal and meetings can take place as and when the mentee or the learner needs some advice, guidance, and support while coaching generally is more structured in nature, and meetings are scheduled on a regular basis.  Both mentoring and tutoring are long-term and take a broader view of the person, while coaching is short-term and sometimes time-bounded and focused on specific development areas/issues.  Mentor and tutors are usually more experienced and qualified than clients. Often a senior person of the organization can pass on knowledge, experience, and open doors to otherwise out-of-reach opportunities, while coaching is generally not performed on the basis that the coach needs to have direct experience of their client’s formal occupational role unless the coaching is specific and skills-focused. 4.2.4. Micro platform or the autonomous team It’s a small group that manages themselves without the intervention of a leader, except in case of problems. Small groups, self-manage internally, let the team operate in a homogeneous and autonomous manner (Autissier et al., 2019). The notion of micro-plateau comes from the first experiments with Lean in the Japanese automobile industry, and more particularly at Toyota in the 1970s (Womack, 2009). It is about having small groups of people who manage themselves in their production activities without hierarchy and control processes. The group has an obligation of results and it solicits the company's hierarchy if there are problems of coordination and adequacy between the resources allocated and the results. The group is autonomous in its internal management. This mode of operation is intended for small groups for which the cost of coordination is low. We IKRAME SELKANI 84 find in this practice the theory of small groups (Anzieu, 1968; Mucchielli, 2015). According to this theory, a small group of about 15 people has a strong capacity for self-management and for effecting change by changing the group's norms. 4.2.5. The focus group and co-development According to Autissier et al., (2019), implementing a new way of thinking about a problem. State the situation, propose solutions. Co-development is a technique for exchanging practices developed by two Quebec authors, Claude Champagne and Adrien Payette (2005). Co-development, more commonly known as codev, is a focus group, a practice-exchange group oriented towards proposing solutions with the proposed role-play comprising each participant being a client and a consultant. Focus group. Of the forms of managerial innovation cited, this is probably the oldest. This practice stems from Lewin's work (1946) during the Second World War in the United States. The technique comprises people meeting in groups to exchange among themselves (with or without a facilitator) their practices on a subject with a view of changing these same practices. Lewin's famous focus group experiment on the consumption of offal showed 10 times higher adoption rate for people who were in focus groups compared to those who did not use this technique. Focus groups are the basis of all practice exchange techniques. The SOL (Society for Organizational Learning) approach of Senge (2006) proposes modalities inspired by the logic of focus groups such as the World Café (Brown, 2005). The idea is to put people in informal mode with a formal label. The first step is to define a collective theme. Then the participants are divided into small groups of 3 to 5 people at a table. Each group discusses for 20 to 30 minutes and then the members disperse to other tables in a pollination logic. One person remains at the table to explain the previous exchanges to the newcomers. Ideas are noted on flipcharts or tablecloths (drawings are made on the restaurant's paper tablecloth). After several rounds (at least 3), the participants meet in a plenary to synthesize the ideas. The codev workshop is mobilized to deal collectively with a subject that poses a problem (blockages, difficulties) or raises questions (subject under exploration and not yet binding). It is a way of dealing collectively with a subject based on the concrete situations that the participants encounter. 4.2.6. Participative workshops Moment of exchange between people where we talk about a defined problem under the supervision of a moderator or a supervisor using the methods of brainstorming, exploration, decision… between 1 hour to 3 hours (Autissier et al., 2019). A participatory workshop is a moment of exchange between people with an animation structured by a script that alternates times of individual, group, and collective production. Depending on the aim envisaged (catharsis, brainstorming, exploration, decision), participants alternate productions in terms of observations, dysfunctions, and solutions in a collective context. To do this, the facilitator proposes free expression workshops in meta-plan mode or structured with matrices and other figures (Autissier and Moutot, 2013). An example of a participatory workshop is called an icebreaker, which consists in breaking the ice on a subject and/or when the participants do not know each other. Sessions last between 1 and 3 hours, with a sequence of 1 to 4 45-minute workshops (Autissier and Moutot, 2015). 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 85 4.2.7. Hackathon It’s about finding solutions to technical problems at a time limit that lasts between a few hours or even a few days. The best solution is rewarded by a jury (Autissier et al., 2019). A hackathon is understood as a programming marathon, resulting from a combination of the English words "hack" (program) and "marathon". A hackathon is a technology event with a date of accomplishment and a defined duration. They usually have a duration of only 24 hours, but in some cases, programmers, designers, and project managers can stick together to create a new product or service for up to one week. One of the world's best practices for responding to specific day-to-day challenges, whether they are to improve living inside companies or improving the processes of a particular production line, is the called "hackathon" (Ramos, 2018). The objectives by which a hackathon is created are several, such as building computer applications, creating corporate innovations, recruiting new professionals, promoting improvements in a company's services or in society, among others. A Hackathon is generally defined as an event in which certain problems are resolved in a limited period of time with intense collaboration from participants. The focus of a hackathon is usually predefined (Pogaþara et al., 2016). Creativity in problem-solving is a very important aspect and solutions must be technological, as technologies are increasingly present in everyday life, causing a significant impact on society. The notion of the hackathon was first used in IT to design a challenge between teams over a short and continuous-time to test applications and/or find solutions to problems encountered. Companies summon “computer scientists who must, within 48 hours in” “continuous” (usually the weekend), individually or collectively, “crack lines of code” to find a solution, test applications, and ensure security. This practice was then generalized to deal with various problems with the possibility of mobilizing people inside and outside the company”. “Hackathons are thus organized to design a digital application, manage irritants, review the customer journey, etc.”. The principles are short and continuous duration (12 hours, 24 hours, 48 hours), teams that deal with a subject, made up of internal and external people, the presentation of proposals, and a jury that rewards and values one or more proposals. To quickly resolve in “collective intelligence” mode an exploratory and/or problematic question without resorting to project mode, such as the aim of a “hackathon”. It's a way to open the company to “outsiders”, benefit from new perspectives, and take advantage of the energy of the challenge to find innovative and quick solutions. Figure 21 : Hackathon Source: https://www.profesionalreview.com/2020/06/06/hackathon-que-es-y-para-que-sirve/ IKRAME SELKANI 86 4.2.8. Incubator or Spin-Off A small group of people grouped together forming a laboratory for carrying out projects working with the resources at their disposal (Autissier et al., 2019). Recent developments in digital transformation have put forward the notion of incubator and spin-off. Spin-off comprises creating a subsidiary and offering employees the opportunity to take part in it in an entrepreneurial and capital-intensive way. This makes it possible to carry out projects within a start-up logic without the administrative and political inertia of large companies. An incubator is an intermediate form of a spin-off. Employees are put in lab mode (laboratory) to carry out a project. They benefit from autonomy within a lab-type structure that provides them with the resources they need to function properly. This may be a temporary organization or the preliminary stage prior to a spin-off (Autissier et Métais, 2016). 4.2.9. Disruptive experience and immersion Visiting a local or a company for a few hours or a few days, discovering new ways of working and challenging, exchanging and sharing experience (Autissier et al., 2019). It is a technique that aims to invent new managerial scripts to develop the collaborative mode, collective intelligence, creativity, and development. It allows experiments on a set of teams a participative device in the logic of creativity and collective intelligence. 4.2.10. The value proposition The value proposition allows customers to understand whether the solution addresses their problem and thus learn more about the product or service. It's a kind of promise for the future (Conner et al., 2010). The Value Proposition Canvas makes explicit how you are creating value for your customers. It helps the company design products and services that their customers want (Osterwalder et al., 2014). The value proposition responds to a need that is not being met sufficiently. It is ultimately what the customer will pay for. By extension, the value proposition framework is the method by which the value proposition is defined. With this matrix, we focus on: - The audience. - Their problem and therefore their need. - The answer we're going to give them. Integrating the Value Proposition Canvas (Osterwalder, 2010) to the creative process has a proven interaction with the qualitative data from the approaches with the potential users of the product, allowing to delimit the collected data in quadrants, thus serving as a data processing tool for the target audience for the synthesis of problems and inputs collected (Clark et al., 2012) The value proposition is a tool imagined by Alexandre Osterwalder that allows you to: - Validate your target(s). - Validate the needs, problems, hopes of your target. - Imagine how to respond in terms of services, offers, and value proposition. This matrix invites you to ask your customer about his problems, his hopes... and about the products/services that will help him to solve his problems, to create his hopes. Thus, you will eventually be able to adjust your idea but, also, find complementary products/services to offer to your customer. This will also allow you to differentiate yourself from your competitors. 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 93 The creation of a Shadow Comex allows a company to consult the opinions of its young employees on new developments and changes within its sector. Perfect, one might say! Indeed, everyone seems to be a winner: the company, which is thus "enlightened" about the changes because of digital and digitization, and the participants in the Shadow Comex, enthusiastic at the idea of finally being able to give their opinions. At Accor Hotels, for example, the initiative was not easily accepted by the over 35-yearolds, who felt that they were useless in changing their company... Figure 28 : The shadow comex Source: Autissier et al., 2019 Accor, Eiffage, Havas, Macif, Adecco and Carrefour have succumbed to its sirens. All of them have communicated widely through the press, suggesting a fad, but the trend promises to become established over the long term. If this practice could be accused of leaving out seniors who are not part of any comex, it is more a question of cooperation. The secret of a successful shadow comex lies in the cooperation between the different generations. The young people have ideas and the seniors can help them to implement them (Tessier, 2011). Shadow Comex is a way of challenging decision-making processes so that they can be managed partially or totally by groups of people other than institutional management bodies. Shadow Comex stands for shadow management committee (comex). It is a tradition in the British political parties where we speak of Shadow Cabinet. When a political party is in opposition, it forms a Shadow Cabinet, a cabinet of two ministers whose purpose is to criticize the policy of the party in power and to prepare for the alternation. The Shadow Comex is used in many large groups for the sake of innovation, but also to send strong messages to the company in terms of participation in decision-making (Autissier et al., 2019). 4.2.18. The nudge It is a technique for getting a person or group of people to change their behavior and make choices without coercion. Through architectural, ergonomic, design, and information techniques, it is putting obvious choices in front of the eyes and thus orienting behavior. Nudges use the notion of cognitive bias. They facilitate individual behavior regarding collective issues and projects (Autissier, 2019). IKRAME SELKANI 94 Economist Richard Thaler, Nobel Prize in Economics in 2017, and philosopher and jurist Cass Sunstein invented this concept in 2003. According to this concept, it is, therefore, possible to encourage citizens to choose one choice over another, to improve their behavior. Thaler and Sunstein then advocate that governments and corporations use this principle to change society and increase social welfare. It is a nudge, also known as libertarian paternalism, which is a third way between the liberal principle of "laissez-faire, laissezpasser" and welfare state interventionism. It thus allows public authorities to guide citizens to serve their own long-term interests (Autissier, 2019). This theory is based on the premise that incentive works better than coercion to change behavior. It is particularly useful and used in the field of ecology, with the establishment of "green nudges" that encourage, among other things, better sorting and limiting pollution. Objective The nudge is an ergonomic and/or informational device to trigger behavior that is not spontaneous. Nudges use cognitive biases to induce certain behaviors. The notion of bias is explained by the presence in humans of a double thought: one intuitive and the other reflective and rational. The first is called automatic and the second is called reflective. The biases are generally in automatic thinking (Thaler and Sunstein, 2009). 4.2.19. Corporate hacking Corporate hacking refers to behavior by individuals who decide to do something without permission because they think it is good for the organization. It is an act of emancipation from institutional constraint. It's a way of self-fulfillment and of looking for energy and a reason for being in this parenthesis of freedom. It is not a call to rebellion but the possibility for people to express themselves, to enjoy themselves, and to feel fully useful. These small moments of free expression are times of people's regeneration, commitment, and well-being subject to their acceptance and tolerance in social systems (Autissier, et al., 2019). This activity has developed in some companies seeking innovation and change internally. It can be defined as the fact that one or more employees use the means provided by the company to make things happen beyond the mission entrusted to them, even if it means circumventing certain established rules. The movement here is, therefore, similar to an intention to transform the organization from within. And of course, many qualities are necessary for this, if we only cite the sense of opportunity, improvisation, organizational tinkering, and hijacking, but in a positive sense. Indeed, the goal of corporate hacking is not to use the means of the company to enrich oneself personally. It is rather a movement to improve the company and lead it towards development and innovation. That said, the means used to achieve this are much less classical since corporate hackers can be perceived as rebels since they do not wait for orders to act. It is the opportunities and the will to do well that drive them and make them what they are (Holt, & Schell, 2011). The notion of corporate hacking has recently emerged to describe a process of consciously transgressing the rules of the organization with the aim of improving those rules and the way it works. These people are called corporate hackers. They decide to make systems evolve by themselves in a benevolent way and group and organize themselves to constitute a resource in organizations. Behind this posture, there is a will to make the systems evolve, which are mired in administrative and political inertia, but also a will to feel useful and to find meaning and a raison d'être. Thus, the concept of a corporate hacker can be linked to that of Ikigai (Holt, & Schell, 2011) 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 95 Figure 29 : Ikiagai Source: Autissier et al., 2019 All the forms of managerial innovations mentioned aim to develop the collaborative model (problem-solving in autonomy and small groups) in parallel with the traditional hierarchical organization. Based on the forms of managerial innovation identified, we can put forward a hypothesis of structuring managerial innovation to function and posture (Autissier, et al., 2019). All forms of managerial innovation have an aim of agile functioning for a greater adaptation of people and systems. This functioning is permitted but also makes up new postures of people in terms of commitment and responsibility. The forms of managerial innovation will evolve, but their purpose to function and posture will make up collaboration and long-term development. The concept of managerial innovation is seen as a manner to achieve the change inside the organization. In order to support change, the organization should create a dynamic of innovation in the ways of operating internally. The managerial innovation helps to lead energy and organizational dynamic to create the change condition. Following this, say: ‘Do not change a person, put her in a dynamic that helps her to change by herself’ (Kotter, 1996). 4.3. MANAGERIAL INNOVATION TARGETS All the managerial innovation forms objective is to develop the collaborative mode in order to have more autonomy in small groups.The main target of all the managerial innovation forms is the agile operation for a better adaptation of people and systems. This operation is constituted of new people position in commitment and responsibility. The finality of the managerial innovation forms is represented in the following table: IKRAME SELKANI 96 Table 10 : Finalities of managerial innovation Finality of the managerial innovation Form of managerial innovation Externalization Incubator or Spin-Off Disruptive experience and immersion Collaborative mode Participative workshop Learning network Collective creativity Hackathon Design thinking & Co-design Co-learning Tutoring, peer coaching and mentoring The focus group and codevelopment: Empowerment Micro platform or the autonomous team Source: Adapted from Autissier and al., 2019 4.3.1. Externalization During the externalization stage of the knowledge-creation process, the individual commits to the group. The sum of the individuals' intentions and ideas fuse and becomes integrated with the group's mental world (Nonaka and Konno, 1998). It is about creating new organizational forms other than the traditional ones in order to have small organizations and more agile to develop products and innovation. This is doable by creating start-ups or spin-offs. Externalization comprises looking for experiences and ideas outside of the organization (Autissier et al., 2019). 4.3.2. Collaborative mode There are devices improving the people relationship. The target of it is to seek collective intelligence, to make people take part in order to find a problem’s solution. In focus groups and learning groups this method is favorable (Autissier et al., 2019). 4.3.3. Collective creativity As a device, collective creativity allows each one to be an active actor of the innovation. Design thinking and Hackathon are the best examples of this finality (Autissier et al., 2019). 4.3.4. Co-learning Learning modality comes from the experience and knowledge exchange between people with the principle of reciprocity and problems resolution: the monitoring, focus group, peer coaching are example of co-learning finality (Autissier et al. 2019). 4.3.5. Empowerment It is an inventing new organizational form of control and coordination between employees. An autonomous team illustrates the empowerment finality, which means in practice giving more freedom and autonomy to the employees (Autissier et al., 2019). To sum up, we would declare that the managerial innovation concerns a practice, a process, a structure, or one more technique: we are therefore at an operational level, that of the innovations actually implemented by organizations, and not at the abstract level of the managerial ideas. 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 97 All the courses done at the universities, private schools, etc. are mostly the publication of Porter, Drucker, Fayol, Mintzberg, Maslow, etc., however, the managerial innovation is the fact of considering new modalities of cooperation and coordination between people and production system, and that should be taught for students because we are in constant change. 4.4. Managerial innovation testimonials “Managerial innovation is the missing piece of the innovation puzzle” (Mol and Birkinshaw, 2006). Therefore, the managerial innovation practices will be categorized into four types in order to get the best performance. Managerial innovation is not a new model of management, but a process that companies invent regularly new practices. Figure 30 : Managerial innovation types Source: Adapted from Autissier et al., 2019 Birkinshaw, Hamel, and Mol (2008) join forces to provide a new definition of managerial innovation. Thus, for these three authors, “managerial innovation is the invention and implementation of a new management practice, process, structure or technique compared to what is known with the aim of better achieving the organization's goals”(Birkinshaw, et al. 2008). According to Autissier et al., (2018), we will be explaining the figure: there are four managerial innovations’ types, that would be explained through some companies’ examples:  Practices that help to strengthen up the ties Zappos: At the employment process, the company proposes to the new candidates after a week to choose between two options, to stay with the company or to leave and win a prize of $2000. The candidates that stay should be sure about the company culture and work method, therefore, the company is sure about the seriousness and the devotion of the candidates. HCL Technologies: The Indian SSII, HCL Technologies, proposes an application called ‘U&I’, where the general direction is committed to answering the questions and doubts.  Practices that allow freedom 3M: applies the 80% - 20%. In this company, there is 80% of work and 20% of chosen tasks. Once a week, the employees devote it to a project of their own, confirming the say of William Knight: ‘Hire good people and let them do’. IKRAME SELKANI 98 Gore: to the new candidates, Gore, the textile company, let them have a tour inside of the workshop and team of the project to choose where they want to work with or in. Orange: Idclic, a platform where each one could deposit his idea, that 5000 volunteers people will study further. In 2007, 120.000 ideas were published, and the one that deserves it receives a reward.  Practices to develop the well-being Fiat: Daily, each employee in Brazil has to choose between three buttons according to their mood. Green: everything is ok. Orange: average motivation. Red: it is not at all. A person from the Human Resources department or a manager receives the employees that chose the Red option in order to fix the problem. Mars Chocolat: In France, every six weeks, for thirty minutes, a meeting is fixed between the manager and the employees where the questions and doubts get answers and clarifications.  Practices that help the raise of individual and collective performance Poult Biscuits: The employees manage themselves to less get the control costs and increase decision making. Morning Star: here, the employees negotiate the objectives between themselves seeking what’s good for the company. Innovations in the managerial world consist in applying practices to combine company performance and quality of collaboration. 4.4.1. Managerial practices based on criteria According to the firm GERESO, a specialist in Human Resources training, consultancy and publishing since 1972 in France, there are a multitude of techniques for managerial innovation. This dossier takes you on a world tour of innovative managerial practices, discovering companies in different sectors and of different sizes. Discover the practices of different companies, based on trust, commitment, well-being, agility, collaboration and creativity, innovating in managerial practices to combine company performance and quality of collaboration. While innovation is usually associated with the terms business strategy, organizational model, information system, technology, etc. and rarely associated with management, innovations in managerial practices can be considered as factors of competitiveness, to the benefit of improving the quality of life at work, for better performance in human resources management and differentiation in the organizational model. There are innovative managerial practices that make us understand the discovery of companies on the innovations implemented within their entities; these can be summarized in two categories:  Antagonistic managerial innovations (contrary to common managerial practices)  Integrative managerial innovations (assimilating the values, behaviors or thoughts emerging from our current society). 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 99 Figure 31 : Innovative managerial practices Source: Made by the author Base on “Management et quelité de vie au travail: un tour du monde des pratiques innovantes”, November 15th, 2016. GERESO Team 4.4.2. Innovative managerial practices based on Trust A profitable and healthy collaboration for all the employees in a company is based on trust. Indeed, it is the first lever of importance according to French companies. The renewed trust within companies is based on criteria such as the reliability and transparency of information, a balance between what is said and what is done at the level of the governing bodies, particularly at the level of the management and managers, the respect of commitments and promises given... Intuit (California, USA) At Intuit, a software development company with 2000 employees, a special habit called "defeat party"... is organized following a failure in the realization of a project. Within the framework of this pseudo-festivity, all the employees meet at the company's head office... around a drink and exchange on the mistakes made, which will then be to be avoided in the future. Under the guise of a general debriefing, it is an opportunity for the team to talk about failures in order to "collectively turn the page" and learn from their mistakes. By setting up this organization, the company takes advantage of failures instead of denying them and exposing itself to a generalized loss of trust that alters the overall working atmosphere. In traditional companies, the "mistake = sanction" culture prevails. Making a mistake is seen as proof of incompetence. On the contrary, in Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon countries, it is assumed that making a mistake demonstrates the individual's ability to take responsibility for the mistake and to cope with the difficulty, an aspect that has an impact on employee motivation. In fact, 94% of the employees who work at Inuit say they are proud to belong to the company, 92% of them consider the management style to be honest and ethical, and 95% find that communication within the company is excellent. 4.4.3. Managerial practices based on responsibility and commitment An international survey conducted by the Gallup company, the results of which published in 2014, showed that only 11% of employees say they are committed to their work, 61% do just IKRAME SELKANI 100 what they are asked, and 28% have a negative view of their company and say they are actively disengaged, figures that have not changed much over the decade. Air France (France) The French airline company has put in place an approach that formalizes the principle of nonpunishment for error. Starting from the observation that error is human and involuntary, the company wants to prioritize learning and process improvement, taking these errors into account so that they do not happen again. Through its "Non-Punishment Charter", the company encourages its employees to express themselves without fear of reprisals. Under cover of anonymity, employees can therefore declare their errors, report incidents or malfunctions. Without getting into the business of denunciation, the aim of this approach is to declare and inform about any situation deemed "non-compliant" so that everyone can benefit from the lessons learned from their mistakes. The authorization of the right to make mistakes is part of a strategy aimed at reinforcing the accountability of employees by giving them the means to take responsibility for their missteps, which is a prerequisite for a learning process and the continuous improvement of processes. Leroy Merlin (France) In the 1990s, this do-it-yourself store set up a system called "Vision": a participatory approach in which all employees are invited, as a first step, to imagine how the company would operate in the future, the store of the future, and the threats and opportunities that need to be prepared for. In a second step, these projections were studied from an immediate operational perspective, which led to the emergence of a number of changes in the brand's service offering. This practice was then institutionalized by the Leroy Merlin brand in order to involve all employees, at all levels, in the development of the company's strategy: each employee is proud to belong to the company because he or she knows that he or she can make a contribution. Furthermore, the fact that all Leroy Merlin employees are shareholders in their company also contributes to everyone's commitment and responsibility, because employees at all levels feel involved in the creation of valuethe benefits of which will be distributed fairly among all. 4.4.4. Managerial practices based on Wellness and Fun at work According to the results of the 2016 edition of the Edenred-Ipsos barometer, 67% of French employees say they are satisfied with their well-being at work. On the other hand, 42% of employees surveyed in the 2015 Cegos Barometer noted deterioration in the social climate in their company (Cegos-Climat social 2015 Barometer). By improving working conditions, we are acting on employee satisfaction, but this does not increase pleasure at work. The responsibility for achieving the creation of pleasure at work then rests on whom: the company, the employee. Google (USA) The American giant remains uncontrollable in the ranking of American companies where it is good to work. Aside from the examples of social benefits for employees (total health coverage, 18 months leave for new mothers, 6 months for new fathers, child birth bonus, etc.), and 4: The managerial innovation: techniques and application 101 miscellaneous benefits (free meals, free transport between home and work, sports facilities available to employees, etc.), employees can use 20% of their working time for personal projects. Employees then have full freedom to manage their working time in order to match the needs of the company (productivity, achievements...) without fear of being blamed for the use of company equipment for personal use, thus also contributing to the establishment of accountability at the level of the different actors of the company. 4.4.5. Managerial practices based on Agility Agile management can be seen as an organizational model based on the rational motivation of human resources. Its values and principles are based on the foundations of Taylorism: dividing up work, breaking up traditional hierarchical models, encouraging the emergence of self-organization, developing collective intelligence. In the current economic and environmental context, competitive pressure is forcing companies to review their decision-making and functional models, by being more flexible, more adaptable, more reactive. It is then necessary for managers to be forces of adaptation and anticipation, in order tonsil in their organization the capacity to move in a fair and coordinated way, in a relevant and effective collective dynamic. Semco (Brazil) Considering that remuneration is a non-negligible factor in the motivation of its employees, Ricardo Semler, head of the Brazilian company SEMCO, with a workforce of more than 3,000 employees, has implemented a practice that is at the very least unconventional: offering employees who so wish to set their own remuneration. According to Ricardo Semler, "why treat employees like children by imposing rules on them when it is possible to boost their creativity by giving them more freedom. By putting their money where their mouth is, the company boss allows his employees to choose the salary they feel is appropriate for the work they do, and they can also determine their working days and hours. Currently, nearly 75% of the company's employees have chosen to set their own remuneration, based on the integration of 5 criteria, namely: what they think they can earn elsewhere, what their colleagues earn at the same level of responsibility, what their entourage earns for comparable training, what they need to live, and finally, what they hope to bring to the company. In the long run, a reconciliation between the employee's remuneration and his contribution is made by all the company's employees, which makes extravagances or overevaluated proposals transparent (or under-evaluated, the opposite also prevails), so as to put everyone on an equal footing with regard to his contribution and his claim. 4.4.6. Managerial practices based on Collaboration and Cohesion Managerial innovation consists of recreating links and proximity, mobilising collective intelligence, allowing each person to express themselves, giving an opinion on a process or a person, strengthening links between entities and creating moments of conviviality within a department, between departments and at the level of the entire company. Indeed, in a work context where conviviality and closeness between the different factors that make up the company are essential, a stronger collaboration is born between team IKRAME SELKANI 102 members, the management board, the top management, because everyone enjoys working together, and the implementation of actions to achieve collective objectives is facilitated. S.N.C.F. (France) Within this French group, so that the managers of the various departments can exchange and share their experiences on the problems they encounter, a community portal dedicated to managers has been set up. Accessible to all managers, this platform also enables them to request support or advice from an expert on the delicate situations they encounter in their practices. Based on the observation that there are managerial situations that local managers can come up against, the approach introduced makes it possible to overcome the compartmentalization of the various management functions within the company, and also to strengthen the links between the different professions. Moreover, this community has the advantage of being a space where the different managers associated with the different branches and activities can get to know each other better and become aware of the importance of the work of others, but not only focus on the work of their team, especially since all the company's activities are intertwined. 4.4.7. Managerial practices based on Creativity Creativity is seen as one of the drivers of performance. It allows the company to stay ahead of its competitors by anticipating better, being more innovative, more agile, more efficient. Creativity as a basis for management aims at developing a creative spirit in employees, capable of getting out of complex or delicate situations, or at the other end, establishing a managerial system that is quick to develop employees' creative abilities. In any case, whether it is for one method or the other, asking employees to show creativity and ingenuity requires the company to set up an appropriate framework that is conducive to this state of mind. Orange (France) Within this French telephony and internet access provider, employees are encouraged to express their ideas through an internal platform called "IdClic". Regardless of the position, status, or department to which the employee belongs, he or she can submit an idea that will be studied by volunteer experts from the company. Each proposed idea is either archived or explored within the framework of a feasibility study, with an estimation of the gains that can be made. If the feasibility study is conclusive, the idea is put into operation, together with the author, and can even be implemented at the national level. The employee who has come up with the idea is then paid by "talents", a virtual currency within the company, which will enable him or her to make purchases in a dedicated shop. Since 2007, this approach has enabled the company to save several hundred million, with 10% of some 120,000 ideas deployed by employees. In the end, the whole difficulty of innovation in terms of managerial practices lies in the ability of managers and decision-makers to shed old considerations in order to be open to new ideas, knowing that when talking about change and innovation, a change in technology takes 6 to 18 months, while a cultural change takes 1 to 5 years. It is surely because of this difficulty that managerial practices evolve at such a slow pace. It is a dimension which, all in all, is difficult to make evolve, more because of fear of change and failures than because of a lack of conviction about the improvements that can result, as illustrated by the case of the pioneers in this field. 5 Protected areas: a large space for preserving the wildlife 109 The World Heritage Marine Program was established by UNESCO in 2005 in response to the need to focus on marine ecosystems and secure the conservation of marine sites of "outstanding universal importance" (Douvere et al., 2016). By the year 2019, 50 marine sites in 37 countries had been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their biodiversity, beauty, or geology (UNESCO, 2019). 5.3.5. RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands Wetlands are a collective good to be protected, hosting 80% of biodiversity. They play an important role in the regeneration of water resources and the preservation of biodiversity (Russi et al, 2013). The Ramsar Convention on International importance is an international convention for the protection and sustainable use of wetlands, particularly as waterfowl habitat. This is also known as the Wetlands Convention. It is called after the Iranian city of Ramsar, where the Convention was established in 1971. The Convention on Wetlands is part of the framework for international cooperation and national action for the conservation and wise use of wetlands, adopted in 1971 (Finlayson et al, 2013). Nearly 80% of UN member states are contracting parties to the RAMSAR Convention. The convention has adopted a broad definition of wetlands including all lakes, rivers, swamps and tides, wet grasslands, peat lands, oases, deltas, coastal areas, coral reefs (Halls, 1997). According to Matthews (1993), by wetlands we mean the river basin which contains the following typologies: Natural wetlands, Artificial wetlands, Continental wetlands, Marine and coastal wetlands. Every three years, the representatives of the Contracting Parties meet as the Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP), the Convention's policy-making body that adopts decisions (Resolutions and Recommendations) to administer the Convention’s work and to improve the way in which the Parties are able to achieve their objectives - Wetlands help to store water and ensure its quality, - Protect against flooding and storm effects, - Provision of food and other services, - Habitat supply. The Ramsar Convention is one of the few conventions to address a particular type of natural environment. Protected areas are dependent on the health and productivity of wetlands, wetlands are essential to biodiversity. They represent an essential asset in relation to the UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites (Navid, 1989). Ramsar sites support vulnerable, migratory, endemic or endangered species. Wetlands are crucial for sustainable development because they provide all the water we need. Wetlands are critical for biological diversity and provide water and primary productivity for countless species and plants and animals that depend on them for their survival (Bowman, 1995). 5.3.6. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) stands for International Conservation of Migratory Species, an international treaty signed in 1979 to protect migratory animal species. This text entered into force on November 1, 1983. By migratory species, the text1 implies populations or parts of animal populations (terrestrial and / or aquatic) which cyclically and predictably cross one or more limits of national jurisdictions. IKRAME SELKANI 110 The convention contains two appendices in which migratory species are distributed according to their state of conservation and their degree of vulnerability. The Convention on the Survival of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, or CMS, is a global convention aimed at ensuring the conservation of terrestrial, aquatic, and flying migratory species over their entire range (Lyster, 1989). The Convention has as its goal the protection of migratory animals. It is intended to work by providing strict protection for certain endangered migratory species and by seeking to persuade states hosting certain other (which may not always be endangered) (Lyster, 1989). There are 121 countries that are in agreement with the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species. The importance of migratory species lies in the following points: The value of wildlife is ever increasing, Communities depend on it for their livelihood, Migratory species also contribute to the functioning of local ecosystems that also regulate populations of non-migratory species (Lewis and Trouwborst, 2017). Because of their nomadic natures, migratory species are particularly vulnerable, Significant threats include capture, habitat destruction or modification, introduction of invasive alien species, industrial pollution, hunting and fishing (Marra, 2011). Climate change disrupts reproduction, increases disease transmission and reduces the resolution of ecosystems. CMS is the only Multilateral Environmental Agreement dealing with all migratory species, to meet the issues of conserving species that do not reside in a single location, a distinctive strategy is required, as is the preservation of their migratory pathways (Martin, 2007). At the world stage, CMS has independent, legally binding documents. Another normative framework utilized is the classification of species in one or more annexes, which are renewed every three years (Mihoub et al, 2010). 5.3.7. Species Conservation and the Red List The Red List focuses on species at risk of extinction. They provide a sign of a major threat to the planet's species (Werner, 2003). Wild species: animals and plants, defines the heritage of the protected area. Protected areas are largely created to preserve biodiversity across the planet. IUCN Red list Established in 1964, “The Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature” which has evolved to become the world's most comprehensive source of information on the global conservation status of animals, fungi and plant species (Neuenschwander et al, 2011). The IUCN Red List is an important measure of the global health of biodiversity. Far more than a list of species and their condition, it is a powerful instrument for educating and galvanizing action for biodiversity conservation and policy reform, both of which are critical to maintaining the natural resources we require to flourish. This provides data on distribution, population size, biodiversity and environment, usage and/or trade, threats, and conservation strategies to assist guide conservation decisions (IUCN, 2012). Some species are more important than others in determining certain management activities in or around protected areas. In each protected area, there is one or more important and charismatic species that promote the area and bring tourists, which will be symbolic of the territory (Puissauve et al, 2016). 5 Protected areas: a large space for preserving the wildlife 111 Protected areas are reservoirs of biodiversity that will contribute to the food security of the inhabitants and local communities (Schnittler and Günther,1999). For example, the Red List of Threatened Species and the report on the conservation status of species of Public concern, through their species aspect, have the shared goal of tracking the state of biodiversity. They do however react to various application frameworks. Thus, since the 1960s (e.g. Scott, 1965), several Red List programs have emerged at the international and national levels. These status reports, in addition to providing lists of endangered species, serve as indicators for monitoring the status of biodiversity (Rodrigues et al., 2006; Miller et al . , 2007), and provide a tool for increasingly influential conservation planning and priority processes of species (Fitzpatrick et al . , 2007; Hoffmann et al., 2008; Schmeller et al., 2008). The role of protected areas is to protect the biodiversity of a given region, however, there are species that are problematic: by their nature, large, ferocious... Such as elephants, lions etc. On the other hand, these animals have an attractive side as they attract tourist activities... species can damage an area because of their size, which creates damage and management constraints and can create obstacles for their integrity in the protected area (Butchart et al., 2004) To identify areas that are threatened within protected areas, IUCN has developed a site called the Red List of Threatened Species, where all the information related to the species is listed with their respective criteria, with a categorization in five levels of extinction measurement of the areas studied (Azam et al, 2016). The Red List is compiled by IUCN and experts and associated organizations by expert workshops for in-depth study or training to be given to protected area managers for better understanding and preservation of the species (Rossi et al, 2014). The Red List has several uses:  It is used to define action plans;  Habitat identification and threats to these species;  As an indicator, the red list is used to study the state of biodiversity and the efforts made for the preservation of biodiversity;  Identify priority areas for conservation ;  Strategy for the establishment of unprotected protected areas ;  Prioritize protected area conservation actions. 5.3.8. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora CITES The Washington Convention, also known as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, was adopted in 1973 (Heppes and McFadden,1987). Its purpose is to regulate international trade in specimens of wild fauna and flora to ensure that such trade does not lead to over-exploitation of the species which may lead to its extinction (Hutton and Dickson, 2000). International trade in wildlife poses a significant challenge to the protection of biodiversity (Broad et al . 2003; Sutherland et al. 2009) and may decrease the numbers of organisms, trigger removals and eventually endanger the functioning of the environment (Duckworth et al . 2012; Smith et al. 2010). It is a major worry for politicians right now because of the growing demand for traditional Asian medicine, luxury foods and curios, and IKRAME SELKANI 112 other commodities (e.g., pets), and present rules and regulations are progressively being ignored (Challender & MacMillan 2014; Natusch & Lyons 2012; Rosen &Smith 2010). This trade seems to exploit species that are already in extinction such as the rhinoceros, elephants for the fauna, for the flora, the pink wood of Madagascar very well known in Madagascar (Challender et al . 2015). 5.4. NEGATIVE IMPACT OF ECOTOURSIM Tourism in protected areas may have both beneficial and bad consequences. The sorts of repercussions are diverse, including protected area resources, local economy, communities, and tourists themselves. Tourism in protected areas may have a significant positive influence on conservation (Buckley, 2010a). Tourism in protected areas has some benefits on local communities and encourages the support for the protected region (Pegas & Stronza, 2008; Biggs, et al., 2011). There are multiple advantages that the tourism presents to these areas such as:  Citizen science volunteers can help with environmental and species monitoring.  Encourage new projects and diversify the local economy;  Encourage people to appreciate and be proud of their local culture and protected regions;  Contribute financially to protected areas by collecting and remitting tourism duty and fees. Tourism in these areas may be a minor or major component of conservation efforts, depending on the conditions (Steven, et al., 2013; Pegas, 2008). Tourism may also provide money for protected area authorities, incentivize local people to care for natural resources, and promote the private sector to conserve biodiversity (Bushell & McCool, 2007; Buckley, 2010a). According to Grimes (2017), the advantageous effects of ecotourism are the positive influences on the economy and the city's image. It's an essential field because tourist growth compels authorities to consider environmental concerns; economically, it's the key economic sector that provides employment and money, as well as foreign currency transfer. Ecotourism helps to grow other sectors of the economy, such as agriculture and fisheries, and it improves access to the city. It also aids in the promotion of city beautification activities, such as heritage rehabilitation, landscaping, vistas, trails, and so on. Nevertheless, tourism has numerous negative effects on the protected areas: simply traveling to a protected region, for example, leaves a carbon imprint, and visitor use within the area must be controlled to avoid harming vulnerable ecosystems (Belsoy et al., 2012; Candrea, 2009). Potential biophysical impacts involve those at the landscape level, such as degradation of air and water quality, higher water use, major changes in landforms due to extensive infrastructure construction, mineral and energy consumption (Buckley, 2010). Negative effects on vegetation may include the unintentional introduction of invasive species or diseases, the formation of unplanned paths, and the purposeful eradication of valuable species, Direct impacts on wildlife may occur, as in situations of vehicle-related wildlife deaths, hunting and fishing to provide tourist markets, the introduction of disease vectors, and the culling of human-habituated animals (Jurdana, 2014; Pickering et al., 2003). However, ecotourism has a number of negative consequences, including chemical and physical strain on the environment: Most hotels dump their waste in the lack of a competent 5 Protected areas: a large space for preserving the wildlife 113 sewage treatment facility to the institution, resulting in degradation of the coast's water quality and oil leaks from ships. Over-consumption of natural resources, loss of wetlands in the coastal plain, deforestation and loss of plant species that prevent, over-exploitation of marine resources: fish, corals, and shells are all concerns. Ecotourism is a form of responsible tourism. "It is to explore areas while keeping biodiversity and local populations in mind." (Zhang et al., 2010). The impact of ecotourism on the ecosystem, on the other hand, may be infamous: mistreatment of a site or equipment leads to the failure, if not destruction, if the attendance threshold is exceeded, reducing the period for natural regeneration (natural or artificial spaces, historic buildings, equipment, etc.). It is critical to follow attendance rules, which are sometimes obeyed not just for financial reasons, but also due to a lack of conviction and monitoring (Grimes et al., 2017). The fragmentation and deterioration of ecosystems provide significant challenges to animal species that need to relocate to new habitats (Taylor & Figgis, 2007). The most current trend in protected area networks is the maintenance of connectivity, which unites existing national parks to a geographic diversity of conservation zones and corridors (Buckley et al., 2007). 5.5. INTERNATIONAL METHODS OF PROTECTED AREAS MANAGEMENT There are several international methodologies used for the management of protected areas, according to Leverington et al (2008). The "Yellowstone model," or conventional approach of administering protected areas, has been characterized by reliance on government personnel as resource owners and decisionmakers. This protected area management approach often involves expert-driven rationalcomprehensive planning methods geared at attaining a specific set of objectives, most notably nature preservation and the provision of ecotourism possibilities (Akamani, 2020). Table 11 : International methods of protected areas management IKRAME SELKANI 114 Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management: RAPPAM Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) was created by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) (Ervin, 2003). Between 1999 and 2002, WWF developed the methodology, which was field-tested in France, Cameroon, Gabon, China and Algeria. According to Kurdoğlu and Çokçaliskan (2011) ;Lu, et al,(2012), the Rappam methodology helps to: Identify management strengths, constraints and weaknesses; analyze the scope, severity, prevalence and distribution of threats and pressures; identify areas of high ecological and social importance and vulnerability; indicate the urgency and conservation priority for individual protected areas; help to develop and prioritize appropriate policy interventions and follow-up steps to improve protected area management effectiveness (Stoll-Kleemann, 2010). RAPPAM offers a fast and simple tool for policy makers and protected area authorities to identify major patterns and concerns that need to be addressed to "improve management effectiveness in any given program or community of protected areas. Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool: METT The METT evaluation should ideally be done annually in order to continuously monitor progress and adjust action plans. The METT gives a rapid assessment of the success of a certain protected area's management. The method is a straightforward evaluation based on a questionnaire on the scorecard. The scorecard is made up of six management criteria based on the IUCN-WCPA Framework. It is straightforward and easy to use, and it provides a framework for tracking progress to more effective management over time. It is used to help park administrators and funders identify requirements, limits, and priorities for increasing the efficacy of protected area management (Geldmann, 2015). It has the benefit of being relatively simple for managers to implement and offers sufficient information to identify the primary management concerns that need to be addressed at the Protected Area level. 5 Protected areas: a large space for preserving the wildlife 115 Enhancing our Heritage (EoH) The Enhancing our Heritage (EoH) project is creating and evaluating a methodology, outlined in the World Heritage Management Effectiveness Workbook (Hockings et al . 2007), which helps managers and stakeholders : assess existing operations, recognize problems and explore how to resolve issues. The IUCN-WCPA Framework is the unifying theme the Workbook is structured around. It is suggested that indicators and tools for evaluating each component of the Framework provide a picture of the adequacy and appropriateness of management and the extent to which goals are being achieved (Van Cuong et al., 2017). The workbook contains 12 tools that are based on a variety of protected area best practices, and in particular World Heritage Assessment. The evaluation tools concentrate on defining the core values (biodiversity, financial, economic and cultural) that the World Heritage Site was set up to preserve (and other relevant values), ensuring that reasonable targets were set based on these values, and then evaluating management's effectiveness in achieving those goals. Conservation Action Planning (CAP) Conservation Action Planning (CAP) is an effective tenstep technique for guiding conservation teams in developing targeted success strategies and assessments. The CAP is concerned with designing and executing strategies to meet priorities and accomplish goals; and all three approaches include parts of monitoring results' (Esselman, 2007). • The consistent detection and evaluation of risks to certain targets; •Defining clearly the 'targets for conservation' or the most critical values; • Use of surveillance data and other information to allocate current conservation status (poor, medium, good or very good) to the conservation target; • The findings are applied to adaptive management. Conservation Action Planning addresses the whole project cycle — including design, execution, and evaluation — and thereby contributes to performance. Identify the biodiversity of interest to the project and its current and desired status; identify currently or probably the most crucial dangers to biodiversity degradation; acknowledge the financial, environmental, political, and cultural factors that contribute to or represent threats to biodiversity enhancement; plans to address the threats and preserve or reestablish biodiversity based on the current situation; and implement strategies, monitor results (Patterson, and Grundel, 2014). WWF-World Bank MPA ScoreCard The WWF-World Bank MPA ScoreCard's goal is to enhance management. This is a basic scoring system created for marine protected areas. It is made up of a data sheet for gathering general protected area information and an assessment sheet with 68 questions. (Staub and Hatztolos, 2004) IKRAME SELKANI 116 Source: Leverington et al., 2008 5.6. PROTECTED AREAS GOVERNANCE "Governance is concerned with who chooses what is done and how those choices are made," according to the definition (Borrini-Feyerabend, 2014b). Governance is a key factor in explaining the successes and failures of protected areas. When we talk about governance, we are referring more to who manages protected areas and not just how we manage them, which is why we most often talk about the quality of governance or even good governance (Nguinguiri,2003). It is defined as "a collection of interactions between institutions, procedures, and traditions that govern how power and duties are exercised, how choices are made, and whether people or citizens or other stakeholders are involved" (Graham & Plumptre, 2003). Governance is neither a set of rules nor an activity; it is a process that is built on accommodation rather than dominance; it is not codified but is based on continual interactions; and it involves both private and public actors. Nguinguiri (2003) cites Smouts (1998). We have moved from a philosophy of preservation based on the exclusion of inhabitants to a philosophy oriented towards the sustainable use of resources involving the populations in conservation or sometimes the private sector. We have thus widened the circle of actors involved in the management of protected areas, even if it is not always easy to apply (Botazzi, 2006). Governance defines how power is structured. Protected area governance deals with issues of power, relationships and responsibilities, in other words, protected area governance is a core element that has been progressively expanded to include new and many actors. 5.7. TYPES OF PROTECTED AREA GOVERNANCE According to Worboys et al (2015) and Lockwood (2010) the types of governance are all legitimate and important for conservation:  State governance: protected areas under the authority of the government.  Private governance: protected areas under the authority of the private sector (owners of the land or natural resources concerned).  Community governance: protected areas under the authority of indigenous peoples, or sedentary and/or mobile local communities with customary or legal rights. The Score Card's purpose is to assist marine protected area managers and local stakeholders in determining their progress along the Management Continuum (Ofori, and Attuquayefio, 2012). It is a straightforward, succinct self-assessment tool designed to assist managers in determining where they are productive and where they need to improve. Because it is designed to be completed by MPA employees and other stakeholders, it can be a valuable team building activity (Staub and Hatziolos, 2004b). 5 Protected areas: a large space for preserving the wildlife 117  Shared governance: protected areas under multi-stakeholder authority The governance and its quality are determinants keys of the capacity or inability of the protected area to play its role. If governance is weak, even if we put in place the best management strategies, results will be poor or non-existent. 5.7.1. State governance The State has the legality to create or not create a protected area and to manage it on its own, but the legitimacy to do so is not necessarily recognized by local populations. Technical capacity refers to the mastery of the human and financial resources needed to apply the authority. At the time of colonization in Francophone Africa, and to date, the most widespread governance of protected areas in Africa has been through the state form, since the first protected areas created were under the tutelage and authority of the government. Few protected areas were created after independence (Dahou et al, 2004). State governance is preponderant in Africa. It is exclusively ensured by the public authority directly or by delegated services such as the water and forest service or national parks, with relatively autonomous services have been created to give more flexibility such as offices, agencies or autonomous public establishments, however, the presence of the State takes over in the majority of cases (Paavola, 2004). State governance is weakened by poaching, encroachment and cattle raving.Governance encompasses both formal organizations and regimes with enforceable powers, as well as informal arrangements that individuals and institutions have consented to or believe are in their best interests (Battistella et al., 2012). There is no single model for managing protected areas. Rather, it is a multifaceted term that is dependent on a variety of site-specific elements, such as:  Ensuring land tenure, which is a necessity for the success of any sort of land and natural resource governance  Taking into account the range of stakeholders, their goals, interests, and concerns  The protected area's distinctive context: environmental, economical, institutional, and political (Franks, 2018). The governance of protected areas in the subregion has changed dramatically since 1990. Although centralized public governance remains the dominant form, it has undergone tremendous evolution. Most nations handled protected areas through a ministerial agency in 1990. IKRAME SELKANI 118 Figure 32 : Distribution of Central African protected areas by governance category in 2020 Source: Central African Forest Observatory 5.7.2. Private governance The degraded state of the infrastructures, the fall in visitor numbers, the unavailability of public financial resources for the renewal of equipment, pressure from donors, etc., are among others the flaws in state governance and this has led to calling more and more on private actors who are able to mobilize economic and financial funds and in urgent cases (Machado et al., 2020). The emergence of private protected areas marks an important evolution in the strategies of conservation organizations by diversifying and increasing the number of protected areas. Privately governed protected areas are more present in English-speaking Africa. The 'Social Assessment for Protected and Conserved Areas' technique has aided in improving the quality of information collected as well as community ownership of the process by those who want to be in charge of their own fate. The collaboration between all actors, conservation services, and local citizens is especially beneficial for sharing costs and benefits, distributing information, and generating debate and shared reflection. Private governance means any governance that is not provided by government, indigenous peoples or community groups, nor is it governance shared by these different actors (Lockwood, 2010). Private governance of protected areas may therefore include ownership and management by an individual or group of individuals, by NGOs, by companies set up by private property groups in order to manage private protected areas together. It can also be carried out by owners engaged in for-profit management, such as ecotourism businesses. It can be done by research entities such as universities, or by religious entities, which is rare, but it does exist (Graham et al, 2003) Private governance in the strict sense is more present in English-speaking Africa, in Kenya for example. However, in the French-speaking part of Africa, protected areas are governed by modes of governance coordinated with the State or local communities. One of the essential qualities of private management is their expertise and their ability to mobilize significant financial resources quickly (Jolivet, 2011). 5.7.3. Community Governance Given the difficulties of extending state protected areas by authoritarian means, this has offered great opportunities for the establishment of community protected areas, a process References 219 Clutterbuck, D. (2004). Making the most of Informal Mentoring. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal. Coates, D. (2016). Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (2011–2020) and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. The Wetland Book I: Structure and Function, Management, and Methods; Finlayson, CM, Everard, M., Irvine, K., McInnes, RJ, Middleton, BA, van Dam, AA, Davidson, NC, Eds, 493-499. Cobbinah, P. B. (2015). Contextualising the meaning of ecotourism. Tourism Management Perspectives, 16, 179-189. Coccossis, H., & Mexa, A. (2017). Tourism carrying capacity: Methodological considerations. In The Challenge of Tourism Carrying Capacity Assessment (pp. 71-106). Routledge. Cock, M. J., van Lenteren, J. C., Brodeur, J., Barratt, B. I., Bigler, F., Bolckmans, K., ... & Parra, J. R. P. (2010). Do new access and benefit sharing procedures under the convention on biological diversity threaten the future of biological control?. BioControl, 55(2), 199-218. Coffey, A., Holbrook, B., & Atkinson, P. (1996). Qualitative data analysis: Technologies and Conca, K., & Dabelko, G. D. (Eds.). (2002). Environmental peacemaking. Woodrow Wilson Center Press. Concepción, E. D. (2021). Urban sprawl into Natura 2000 network over Europe. Conservation Biology, 35(4), 1063-1072. Conner, D., Colasanti, K., Ross, R. B., & Smalley, S. B. (2010). Locally grown foods and farmers markets: Consumer attitudes and behaviors. Sustainability, 2(3), 742-756. Conner, M. and J. Pokora (2007). Coaching & Mentoring at Work: Developing Effective Practice. New York, McGraw Hill. Connor, M., & Pokora, J. (2012). Coaching and mentoring at work: Developing effective practice: Developing effective practice. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). IKRAME SELKANI 220 Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) Convention on Biological Diversity. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, Canada Cook, C. N., Carter, R. B., & Hockings, M. (2014). Measuring the accuracy of management effectiveness evaluations of protected areas. Journal of environmental management, 139, 164171. Cooper, R., Junginger, S., & Lockwood, T. (2009). Design thinking and design management: A research and practice perspective. Design Management Review, 20(2), 46-55. Correia, M., Timóteo, S., Rodríguez‐Echeverría, S., Mazars‐Simon, A., & Heleno, R. (2017). Refaunation and the reinstatement of the seed‐dispersal function in Gorongosa National Park. Conservation Biology, 31(1), 76-85. Cortner, H. J. (2000). Making science relevant to environmental policy. Environmental Science & Policy, 3(1), 21-30. Coste, S., Comolet-Tirman, J., Grech, G., Poncet, L., & Siblet, J. P. (2010). Stratégie Nationale de Création d’Aires Protégées Première phase d’étude–Volet Biodiversité. Service du Patrimoine Naturel, MNHN, Paris. Council, O. E. (2000). European Landscape Convention adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 19 July 2000 and opened for signature by its Member States in Florence on 20 October 2000. Courrau, J. (1999). Monitoring protected area management in Central America: a regional approach. Parks, 9(2), 56-60. Covin JG, Slevin DP (1991) A conceptual model of entrepreneurship as firm behaviour. Entrep Theory Pract 16(1):7–24 Covin TJ (1999) Profiling preference for employment in family-owned firms. Family Bus Rev 7(3):287–296 Craig J, Lindsay NJ (2002) Incorporating the family dynamic into the entrepreneurship process. J Small Bus Enterp Dev 9(4):416–430 References 221 Craig J, Moores K (2006) A 10-year longitudinal investigation of strategy, systems, and environment on innovation in family firms. Family Bus Rev 19(1):1–10 Creswell J. and Maietta R. (2002). Qualitative Data Analysis Software. In: Miller, D.C. and Salkind, CRP, S. S. (1979). Convention on the Conservation of Migratory species of Wild Animals. da Silva, M. X., Paviolo, A., Tambosi, L. R., & Pardini, R. (2018). Effectiveness of Protected Areas for biodiversity conservation: Mammal occupancy patterns in the Iguaçu National Park, Brazil. Journal for nature conservation, 41, 51-62. Daft R.L. (1978). “A dual core of organizational innovation”, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 21, n° 2, p. 193-210. Dahou, T., Weigel, J. Y., Mohamed Ould Saleck, A., Da Silva, A. S., Mbaye, M., & Noël, J. F. (2004). La gouvernance des aires marines protégées: leçons ouest-africaines. VertigO-la revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement, 5(3). D'Aloia, C. C., Naujokaitis-Lewis, I., Blackford, C., Chu, C., Curtis, J. M., Darling, E., ... & Fortin, M. J. (2019). Coupled networks of permanent protected areas and dynamic conservation areas for biodiversity conservation under climate change. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 7, 27. Damanpour F (1987) The adoption of technological, administrative, and ancillary innovations: impact of organisational factors. J Manag 13(4):675–688 Damanpour F (1991) Organizational innovation: a meta-analysis of effects of determinants and moderators. Acad Manag J 34(3):555–590 Damanpour F, Evan WM (1984) Organizational innovation and performance: the problem of “Organizational Lag”. Adm Sci Q 29(3):392–409 Damanpour F, Szabat KA, Evan WM (1989) The relationship between types of innovation and organizational performance. J Manag Stud 26(6):587–601 IKRAME SELKANI 222 Damanpour F. (1987). “The adoption of technological, administrative, and ancillary innovations: impact of organizational factors”, Journal of Management, vol. 13, n° 4, p. 675-688. Damanpour F. (1988). “Innovation type, radicalness, and the adoption process”, Communication Research, vol. 15, n° 15, p. 545-565. Damanpour F., Aravind D. (2012). “Managerial innovation: conceptions, processes, and antecedents”, Management and Organization Review, vol. 8, n° 2, p. 423-454. Damanpour F., Evan W.M. (1984). “Organizational innovation and performance: the problem of ‘organizational lag’”, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 29, n° 3, p. 392-409. Damanpour, F. (1988). Innovation type, radicalness, and the adoption process. Communication research, 15(5), 545-567. Damanpour, F., & Aravind, D. (2012). Managerial innovation: Conceptions, processes, and antecedents. Management and organization review, 8(2), 423-454. Damanpour, F., & Aravind, D. (2012). Organizational structure and innovation revisited: From organic to ambidextrous structure. In Handbook of organizational creativity (pp. 483513). Academic Press. Damanpour, F., & Evan, W. M. (1984). Organizational innovation and performance: the problem of" organizational lag". Administrative science quarterly, 392-409. Danielsen, F., Balete, D. S., Poulsen, M. K., Enghoff, M., Nozawa, C. M., & Jensen, A. E. (2000). A simple system for monitoring biodiversity in protected areas of a developing country. Biodiversity & Conservation, 9(12), 1671-1705. Daskin, J. H., Stalmans, M., & Pringle, R. M. (2016). Ecological legacies of civil war: 35‐year increase in savanna tree cover following wholesale large‐mammal declines. Journal of Ecology, 104(1), 79-89. Dasmann, R. F. (1984). The relationship between protected areas and indigenous peoples. National parks, conservation and development: The role of protected areas in sustaining society, 118-123. References 223 David A. (1996). « Structure et dynamique des innovations managériales », Cinquième Conférence de l’Association Internationale de Management Stratégique, Lille, 12-15 mai. David, A. (1996). Structure et dynamique des innovations managériales. Ecole des mines. Davidson, N. C. (2018). Ramsar convention on wetlands: scope and implementation. In The Wetland Book I:: Structure and function, management, and methods (pp. 451-458). Springer. Davidson, N., & Coates, D. (2011). The Ramsar Convention and Synergies for Operationalizing the Convention on Biological Diversity's Ecosystem Approach for Wetlands Conservation and Wise Use. J. Int'l Wildlife L. & Pol'y, 14, 199. Dawson, P. M. (1994). Organizational change: A processual approach. Paul Chapman Publishing. Day, J., Dudley, N., Hockings, M., Holmes, G., Laffoley, D. D. A., Stolton, S., & Wells, S. M. (2012). Guidelines for applying the IUCN protected area management categories to marine protected areas. IUCN. De Brentani U, Kleinschmidt EJ (2004) Corporate culture and commitment: impact on performance of international new product development programs. J Prod Innov Manage 21(5):309–333 Dearnley, C. (2005). A reflection on the use of semi-structured interviews. Nurse researcher, 13(1). Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 18(1), 105. Deci, E. L., Connell, J. P., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Self-determination in a work organization. Journal of applied psychology, 74(4), 580. Déjeant-Pons, M. (2006). The European landscape convention. Landscape Research, 31(4), 363-384. IKRAME SELKANI 224 Del Monte‐Luna, P., Brook, B. W., Zetina‐Rejón, M. J., & Cruz‐Escalona, V. H. (2004). The carrying capacity of ecosystems. Global ecology and biogeography, 13(6), 485-495. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1998). Strategies of qualitative inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Deverre, C., Fortier, A., Alphandéry, P., & Lefèbvre, C. (2007). la construction du réseau Natura 2000, en France. Paris, La documentation française. Dhondt, A. A. (1988). Carrying capacity: a confusing concept. ACTA OECOL.(OECOL. GEN.)., 9(4), 337-346. Di Toma P, Montanari S (2010) The definitional dilemma in family business research: outlines of an ongoing debate. Int J Entrep Ventur 2(3/4):262–275 Dillon, B. (2004). The use of the categories in national and international legislation and policy. Dilthey, W. (1992). OEuvres: Critique de la raison historique: Introduction aux sciences de l'esprit et autres textes. DiVincenzo, T. (2006). Managers stay in charge and out front. Occupational Outlook Quarterly. DiVincenzo, T. (2006). Project managers stay in charge and out front. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 50(2), 19-25. documents: Using support of the computer program NUD*IST 4. Forum: Qualitative Social Dolan, L. A. (2003). Management style and staff nurse satisfaction. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing, 22(2), 97. Donckels R, Fröhlich E (1991) Are family businesses really different? European experiences from STRATOS. Family Bus Rev 4(2):149–160 Dosi G, Nelson RR, Winter SG (2000) The nature and dynamics of organizational capabilities. Oxford University Press, New York References 225 Dougherty D, Hardy C (1996) Sustained product innovation in large, mature organizations: overcoming innovation-to-organization problems. Acad Manag J 39(5):1120–1154 Dowhaniuk, N., Hartter, J., Ryan, S. J., Palace, M. W., & Congalton, R. G. (2018). The impact of industrial oil development on a protected area landscape: demographic and social change at Murchison Falls Conservation Area, Uganda. Population and Environment, 39(3), 197-218. Doyle, M. (2002). From change novice to change expert. Personnel Review. Doz YL, Kosonen M (2010) Embedding strategic agility: a leadership agenda for accelerating business model renewal. Long Range Plan 43(2/3):370–382 Drever, E. (1995). Using Semi-Structured Interviews in Small-Scale Research. A Teacher's Guide. Drisko, J.W. (1998) “Using Qualitative Data Analysis Software: Merits and Hazards”. Computers in Drisko, J.W. (2004). “Qualitative Data Analysis Software: A User's Appraisal”. In D. Padgett (Ed.). Drucker, P. F. (1954). The Practice of Management, 1954. Col-47. Drucker, P. F. (1976). What results should you expect? A users' guide to MBO. Public Administration Review, 36(1), 12-19. Drumm, A., & Moore, A. (2002). Ecotourism Development. An Introduction to Ecotourism Planning. The Nature Conservancy. Arlington, Virginia, USA. Du, W., Penabaz-Wiley, S. M., Njeru, A. M., & Kinoshita, I. (2015). Models and approaches for integrating protected areas with their surroundings: a review of the literature. Sustainability, 7(7), 8151-8177. IKRAME SELKANI 226 Dubouloz, S. (2013). Les barrières à l’innovation organisationnelle: Le cas du Lean Management. Management international/International Management/Gestiòn Internacional, 17(4), 121-144. Dubouloz, S. (2014). Innovation organisationnelle et pratiques de mobilisation des RH. Revue française de gestion, (1), 59-85. Dubouloz, S., & Bocquet, R. (2013). Innovation organisationnelle. Revue française de gestion, (6), 129-147. Duckworth, J. W., Batters, G., Belant, J. L., Bennett, E. L., Brunner, J., Burton, J., ... & Hedges, S. (2012). Why South-East Asia should be the world’s priority for averting imminent species extinctions, and a call to join a developing cross-institutional programme to tackle this urgent issue. SAPI EN. S. Surveys and Perspectives Integrating Environment and Society, (5.2). Dudley N (2008) Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Dudley, N. (2008). Lignes directrices pour l'application des catégories de gestion aux aires protégées. IUCN. Dudley, N. (Ed.). (2008). Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. Iucn. Dudley, N. (Ed.). (2008). Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. Iucn. Dudley, N., Maldonado, O., & Stolton, S. (2007). Conservation Action Planning. Dulloo, M. E., Hunter, D., & Borelli, T. (2010). Ex situ and in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity: major advances and research needs. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca, 38(2), 123-135. Dunn, E. J., & Moga, P. J. (2010). Patient misidentification in laboratory medicine: a qualitative analysis of 227 root cause analysis reports in the Veterans Health Administration. Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine, 134(2), 244-255. References 227 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Eder, W.; Patzak, M. Geoparks—Geological attractions: A tool for public education, recreation and sustainable economic development. Episodes 2004, 27, 162–164 Edquist, C. (2001). The Systems of Innovation Approach and Innovation Policy: An account of the state of the art. In DRUID conference, Aalborg (pp. 12-15). Edquist, C., Hommen, L., & McKelvey, M. D. (2001). Innovation and employment: Process versus product innovation. Edward Elgar Publishing. Eisenhardt, K. M., & Graebner, M. E. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. Academy of management journal, 50(1), 25-32. El Bassiti, L., & Ajhoun, R. (2013). Toward an innovation management framework: A lifecycle model with an idea management focus. International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, 4(6), 551. El Bassiti, L., & Ajhoun, R. (2013). Toward an innovation management framework: A lifecycle model with an idea management focus. International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, 4(6), 551. Elliott, H. (1974). Second World Conference on National Parks; proceedings of a conference held at Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks, USA-Published for National Parks Centennial Commission of the United States of America. Embratur (1999) Institutional Programmes. On WWW at www.embratur.gov.br. Accessed 17.11.99. Emery, Y. (2005). La gestion par les résultats dans les organisations publiques: de l'idée aux défis de la réalisation. Télescope, 12(3), 1-11. Enrique Serrano et Juan José González-Trueba, « Assessment of geomorphosites in natural protected areas: the Picos de Europa National Park (Spain) », Géomorphologie : relief, processus, environnement, vol. 11 - n° 3 | 2005, 197-208. IKRAME SELKANI 228 Ervin, J. (2003). Rapid assessment of protected area management effectiveness in four countries. BioScience, 53(9), 833-841. Ervin, J. (2003). Rapid assessment of protected area management effectiveness in four countries. BioScience, 53(9), 833-841. Eskola, J., & Suoranta, J. (2003). Johdatus laadulliseen tutkimukseen. 6. painos. Vastapaino. Tampere. Finnish; Introduction to Qualitative Research. 6th Edition. Vastapaino. Tampere. Esselman, R. (2007). Conservation action planning: introduction. The nature conservancy. Ettlie, J. E.; Bridges, W. P.; O’Keefe, R. D. (1984). Organization strategy and structural differences for radical versus incremental innovation. Management science, 30, 6, p. 682–695. Europarc Federation (eds.) 2009. Living Parks, 100 Years of National Parks in Europe, Oekom Verlag, Munchen Evan W.M. (1966). “Organizational lag”, Human Organization, vol. 25, n° 1, p. 51-53 Fabricius, C., Koch, E., & Magome, H. (2001). Towards strengthening collaborative ecosystem management: lessons from environmental conflict and political change in southern Africa. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 31(4), 831-844. Fagerberg J (2003) Schumpeter and the revival of evolutionary economics: an appraisal of the literature. J Evol Econ 13(2):125–159 Fahrig, L., Arroyo-Rodríguez, V., Bennett, J. R., Boucher-Lalonde, V., Cazetta, E., Currie, D. J., ... & Watling, J. I. (2019). Is habitat fragmentation bad for biodiversity?. Biological Conservation, 230, 179-186. Fayol, H. (1916). Administration industrielle et générale-Prévoyance. Organisation, Commandement, Coordination, Contrôle. Fayol, H. (1916). General and Industrial Management, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Inc., New York, USA. Fayol, H. (1918). Administration industrielle et générale (Vol. 2). Dunod et Pinat. References 235 Habbershon TG, Williams M, MacMillan I (2003) A Unified systems perspective of family firm performance. J Bus Ventur 18(4):451–465 Hage, J. T. (1999). Organizational innovation and organizational change. Annual review of sociology, 25(1), 597-622. Hagerman, S. M., & Pelai, R. (2016). “As far as possible and as appropriate”: implementing the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Conservation Letters, 9(6), 469-478. Hair JF, Black B, Babin B, Anderson RE, Tatham RL (2010) Multivariate data analysis, 7th edn. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall Hakala H (2011) Strategic orientations in management literature: three approaches to understanding the interaction between market, technology, entrepreneurial and learning orientations. Int J Manag Rev, in press, doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2010.00292.x Halls, A. (1997). Wetlands, biodiversity and the Ramsar convention: the role of the convention on wetlands in the conservation and wise use of biodiversity. In Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland (Vol. 13). Hamel G. (2006). “The why, what and how of management innovation”, Harvard Business Review, vol. 84, n° 2, p. 72-84 Hamel G. (2009). “Management Innovation”, Leadership Excellence, vol. 26, n° 5, p. 5. Hamel, G. (2009). Management innovation-this is now a do-or-die management matter. Executive excellence, 26(5), 5. Hamidi, S., & Benabdeljlil, N. (2015). Managerial and Technological Innovations: Any Relationship?. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 181, 286-292. Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 803-820). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hannah, L. (2008). Protected areas and climate change. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1134(1), 201-212. IKRAME SELKANI 236 Hannan MT, Freeman J (1984) Structural inertia and organizational change. Am Sociol Rev 49(2):149–164 Harmon, D. (2004, June). Intangible values of protected areas: what are they? Why do they matter?. In The George Wright Forum (Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 9-22). George Wright Society. Harrison, D., & Hitchcock, M. (Eds.). (2005). The politics of world heritage: Negotiating tourism and conservation. Channel View Publications. Harrison, F. L. (1981). Advanced project management. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Hassi, L., & Laakso, M. (2011, June). Design thinking in the management discourse: Defining the elements of the concept. In 18th International Product Development Management Conference, IPDMC (pp. 1-14). Hatchuel A., Weil B. (1992). L’expert et le système, Economica, Paris. Havard, L. (2013). Gouvernance des aires protégées marines et côtières. L'exemple du golfe de Californie (Basse Californie Sud, Mexique): acteurs et territoires (Doctoral dissertation). Hayhurst, A., Saylor, C., & Stuenkel, D. (2005). Work environmental factors and retention of nurses. Journal of nursing care quality, 20(3), 283-288. Hazlewood, P., Kulshrestha, G., & McNeill, C. (2004). Linking biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. The Millennium development Goals and conservation–Managing Nature’s Wealth for Society’s Health. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Henderson, R. (1993). Underinvestment and incompetence as responses to radical innovation: Evidence from the photolithographic alignment equipment industry. The RAND Journal of Economics, 248–270. Henderson, R. M., & Clark, K. B. (1990). Architectural innovation: The reconfiguration of existing product technologies and the failure of established firms. Administrative science quarterly, 9-30. Hennerkes B-H (2004) Die Familie und ihr Unternehmen. Frankfurt Campus References 237 Heppes, J. B., & McFadden, E. J. (1987). The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora: improving the prospects for preserving our biological heritage. BU Int'l LJ, 5, 229. Hersey, P. & Blanchard, R.H. (1993). Management of organizational behavior: Utilizing human resources (6th ed). Englewood Cliffs: N.J.-Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1969). Life cycle theory of leadership. Training and Development Journal, 23 (5), 26-34. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1988). Management of organizational behavior: Utilizing human resource. (5th ed.), (p. 289). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (2006). Leader effectiveness and adaptability description (LEAD). Binghamton, NY: Center for Leadership Studies. Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. and Johnson, D.E. (1996), Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, 7th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. H., & Johnson, D. E. (2007). Management of organizational behavior (Vol. 9). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice hall. Hershey, P., Blanchard, K. H., & Johnson, D. (1977). Management of organizational behavior. Prentiss Hall, England Cleft, NJ, 236-244. Hershey, P., Blanchard, K. H., & Johnson, D. (1977). Management of organizational behavior. Prentiss Hall, England Cleft, NJ, 236-244. Hetzer, W. (1965). Environment, tourism, culture. Links. Links July: 1, 3, 1965. Heylings, P., & Cruz, F. (1998, June). Common property, conflict and participatory management in the Galapagos Islands. In Proceedings of the International Association for the Study of Common Property (IASCP) Conference 1998. Hockings, M. (2003). Systems for assessing the effectiveness of management in protected areas. BioScience, 53(9), 823-832. IKRAME SELKANI 238 Hockings, M., Hardcastle, J., Woodley, S., Sandwith, T., Wildson, J., Bammert, M., ... & Leverington, F. (2019). The IUCN Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas: Setting the standard for effective area-based conservation. Parks, 25(25.2), 57-66. Hockings, M., Stolton, S., & Dudley, N. (2004). Management effectiveness: assessing management of protected areas?. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 6(2), 157-174. Hockings, M., Stolton, S., Leverington, F., Dudley, N., & Courrau, J. (2008). Évaluation de l’efficacité: Un cadre pour l’évaluation de l’efficacité de la gestion des aires protégées 2ème édition. Gland, Suisse: UICN. Hodge, B. J. (2002). Organization theory: a strategic approach. Pearson Education. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Poloczanska, E. S., Skirving, W., & Dove, S. (2017). Coral Reef Ecosystems under Climate Change and Ocean Acidification. Front Mar Sci. 2017; 4 (158). Hoffmann, M., Brooks, T. M., Da Fonseca, G. A. B., Gascon, C., Hawkins, A. F. A., James, R. E., ... & Silva, J. M. C. (2008). Conservation planning and the IUCN Red List. Endangered Species Research, 6(2), 113-125. Hohmann, C. (2010). Guide pratique des 5S et du management visuel: pour les managers et les encadrants. Editions Eyrolles. Holdgate, M., & Phillips, A. (1999). Protected areas in context. In Integrated protected area management (pp. 1-24). Springer, Boston, MA. Holt, T. J., & Schell, B. H. (2011). Corporate hacking and technology-driven crime: Social dynamics and implications. Business Science Reference. Honey, M. (2008). Ecotourism and sustainable development: Who owns paradise?. Island Press. http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/1/1/4.html Huczynski, A. A. (1993). Explaining the succession of management fads. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 4(2), 443-463. Human Services, 15(1), 1-19. References 239 Humphries, M. S. (2013). DDT residue contamination in sediments from Lake Sibaya in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: Implications for conservation in a World Heritage Site. Chemosphere, 93(8), 1494-1499. Huntley, B. J., Beja, P., Pinto, P. V., Russo, V., Veríssimo, L., & Morais, M. (2019). Biodiversity conservation: history, protected areas and hotspots. In Biodiversity of Angola (pp. 495-512). Springer, Cham. Hutton, J., & Dickson, B. (Eds.). (2000). Endangered species, threatened convention: the past, present and future of CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. London, UK:: Earthscan. Hyland, P. W.; Mellor, R.; Sloan, T. (2007). Performance measurement and continuous improvement: are they linked to manufacturing strategy? International Journal of Technology Management, Vol. 37, nº. 3-4, pp. 237-246. Ibrahimi L., 2004. Contribution à l’étude de la fréquentation récréative du circuit écotouristique du Cèdre Gouraud en vue de son aménagement, province d’Ifrane, Maroc. Index, M. T. (2004). Convention on biological diversity. Science, 279, 860-863. International Union for Conservation of Nature, & World Wildlife Fund. (1980). World conservation strategy: Living resource conservation for sustainable development. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Ipara, H. I., Akonga, J. J., & Akama, J. S. (2005). The tenure factor in wildlife conservation. International journal of environmental studies, 62(6), 643-653. IPBES. 2019. Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Bonn: IPBES Secretariat. Iskakov, N., & Medeu, A. (2007). Kazakhstan: Nature. Economy. Ecology. Almaty [in Russian]. IKRAME SELKANI 240 Islami, X., Mulolli, E., & Mustafa, N. (2018). Using Management by Objectives as a performance appraisal tool for employee satisfaction. Future Business Journal, 4(1), 94-108. IUCN 1998. 1997 United Nations List of Protected Areas. Cambridge, U.K., and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. IUCN 1998. From islands to networks—Report on the mid-term expert meeting, Albany, Australia, November 1997. Unpublished report IUCN. 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. Cambridge, U.K., and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. IUCN. 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. Cambridge, U.K., and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Jafari, J. (2001). The scientification of tourism. Hosts and guests revisited: Tourism issues of the 21st century, 28-41. Jansen JJP, Van Den Bosch FAJ, Volberda HW (2006) Exploratory innovation, exploitative innovation, and performance: effects of organizational antecedents and environmental moderators. J Manag 52(11):1661–1674 Jansen, E., Christensen, J. H., Dokken, T., Nisancioglu, K. H., Vinther, B. M., Capron, E., ... & Stendel, M. (2020). Past perspectives on the present era of abrupt Arctic climate change. Nature Climate Change, 10(8), 714-721. Jansen, H. (2010). The logic of qualitative survey research and its position in the field of social research methods. In Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research (Vol. 11, No. 2). Janssoone, D. (2003). La boîte à idées, une richesse pour l'entreprise. EMS, Éd. Management & société. Jaouen A. et Le Roy F. (2013). L’innovation Managériale, Dunod, Paris Jaouen A. et Le Roy F. (2013). L’innovation Managériale, Dunod, Paris References 241 Jeanrenaud, S. (2002). People-oriented approaches in global conservation: is the leopard changing its spots?. Iied. Jenkins, C. N., & Joppa, L. (2009). Expansion of the global terrestrial protected area system. Biological conservation, 142(10), 2166-2174. Jessop, B. (2005). Fordism and post-Fordism: a critical reformulation (pp. 54-74). Routledge. Jha, S. (2005). Can Natural World Heritage Sites promote development and social harmony?. Biodiversity & Conservation, 14(4), 981-991. Johansson‐Sköldberg, U., Woodilla, J., & Çetinkaya, M. (2013). Design thinking: past, present and possible futures. Creativity and innovation management, 22(2), 121-146. John Wiley & Sons. Johnson MW, Christensen CM, Kagerman H (2008) Reinventing your business model. Harvard Bus Rev 86(12):51–59 Jolivet, F. (1998). Management par projet: communiquer et après?. Communication et organisation, (13). Jolivet, S. (2011). Barbara Lausche, Guidelines for protected areas legislation, IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper n° 81, 2011. Revue juridique de l'Environnement, 36(4), 659-660. Jones, C. (2008). History of geoparks. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 300(1), 273-277. Jones, M. (2007). The European Landscape Convention and the question of public participation. Landscape research, 32(5), 613-633. Jones, M., Howard, P., Olwig, K. R., Primdahl, J. R., & Sarlöv Herlin, I. (2007). Multiple interfaces of the European landscape convention. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift-Norwegian Journal of Geography, 61(4), 207-216. IKRAME SELKANI 242 Joppa, L. N., & Pfaff, A. (2011). Global protected area impacts. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 278(1712), 1633-1638. Joppa, L. N., O'Connor, B., Visconti, P., Smith, C., Geldmann, J., Hoffmann, M., ... & Burgess, N. D. (2016). Filling in biodiversity threat gaps. Science, 352(6284), 416-418. Journal], 3(2). Retrieved July 16, 2002 from http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/202/2Jovičić, D., & Dragin, A. (2008). The assessment of carrying capacity: a crucial tool for managing tourism effects in tourist destinations. Turizam, (12), 4-11. Juffe‐Bignoli, D., Harrison, I., Butchart, S. H., Flitcroft, R., Hermoso, V., Jonas, H., ... & Dalton, J. (2016). Achieving Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 to improve the performance of protected areas and conserve freshwater biodiversity. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 26, 133-151. Jurado Rota, J., Pérez Albert, M. Y., & Serrano Gine, D. (2019). Visitor monitoring in protected areas: an approach to Natura 2000 sites using Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI). Geografisk Tidsskrift-Danish Journal of Geography, 119(1), 69-83. Jurdana, D. S., & Zmijanovic, L. (2014). The effect of tourism seasonality on protected areas. In Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management in Opatija. Biennial International Congress. Tourism & Hospitality Industry (p. 131). University of Rijeka, Faculty of Tourism & Hospitality Management. Kabanoff, B. (1987). Predictive validity of the MODE conflict instrument. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(1), 160. Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of management journal, 33(4), 692-724. Kanuk L, Berenson C (1975) Mail surveys and response rates: a literature review. J Mark Res 12(4):440–453 Keenleyside, K., Dudley, N., Cairns, S., Hall, C. M., & Stolton, S. (2012). Ecological Restoration for Protected Areas. Principles, Guidelines and Best Practices. Gland: Iucn. References 243 Kellert, S. R., Mehta, J. N., Ebbin, S. A., & Lichtenfeld, L. L. (2000). Community natural resource management: promise, rhetoric, and reality. Society & Natural Resources, 13(8), 705-715. Kelley, T., & Littman, J. (2006). The Ten Faces of Innovation: Strategies for Heightening Creativit. ondon: Profile Books. Kepe, T. (2001). Tourism, protected areas and development in South Africa: views of visitors to Mkambati Nature Reserve. South African Journal of Wildlife Research-24-month delayed open access, 31(3), 155-159. Kiéma, S., & Fournier, A. (2007). Utilisation de trois aires protégées par l’élevage extensif dans l’ouest du Burkina Faso. Quelles aires protégées pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest, 498-506. Kimberly J.R. (1981). “Managerial innovation”, Handbook of organizational design, Nystrom P.C. et Starbuck W.H., vol. 1, Oxford University Press, New York, p. 84-104 Kimberly JR, Evanisko MJ (1981) Organizational innovation: the influence of individual, organizational, and contextual factors on hospital adoption of technological and administrative innovations. Acad Manag J 24(4):689–713 Kimberly, J. R. (1981). Managerial innovation,[in:] Nystrom PC and Starbuck WH (Ed), Hand Book of Organization Design. Kimberly, J. R. (1981). Managerial innovation. Handbook of organizational design, 1(84), 104. Kimberly, J. R. (1981). Managerial innovation. Handbook of organizational design, 1(84), 104. Kimberly, J. R. (1981). Managerial innovation” in Nystrom, PC and Starbuck, WH (Eds), Hand Book of Organization Design. IKRAME SELKANI 244 Kimberly, J. R., & Evanisko, M. J. (1981). Organizational innovation: The influence of individual, organizational, and contextual factors on hospital adoption of technological and administrative innovations. Academy of management journal, 24(4), 689-713. Kimmel, D. C., & Weiner, I. B. (1995). Adolescence: A developmental transition. John Wiley & Sons Incorporated. King N, Anderson N (2002) Managing innovation and change–a critical guide for organizations, 2 edn. Thomson, London Kirillova, K., Fu, X., Lehto, X., & Cai, L. (2014). What makes a destination beautiful? Dimensions of tourist aesthetic judgment. Tourism Management, 42, 282-293. Klein S (2004) Familienunternehmen: theoretische und empirische Grundlagen. Wiesbaden, Gabler Klein SB (2000) Family business in Germany: significance and structure. Family Bus Rev 13(3):157–182 Ko, M. S. (2019). Green Forest Businesses as a Method to Improve Communities in Unesco’s East Usambara Biosphere Reserve in Tanzania (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina). Koberg CS, Uhlenbruck N, Sarason Y (1996) Facilitators of organizational innovation: the role of life-cycle stage. J Bus Ventur 11(2):133–149 Köck, G., Arnberger, A., & Möller, L. (2020). Agenda 2030 und Lima-Aktionsplan– Anpassung der Biosphere Reserves für die Zukunft. In Biosphäre 4.0 (pp. 61-83). Springer Spektrum, Berlin, Heidelberg. Kramer, P., Atis, M., Schill, S., Williams, S., Freid, E., Moore, G., ... & Grizzle, R. (2016). Baseline Ecological Inventory for Three Bays National Park, Haiti. Report to the InterAmerican Development Bank. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington County, Virginia, USA. Krathwohl, D. R. (1998). Methods of educational research and social science research: An integrated approach. References 251 Lorenz E, Wilkinson F (2003) Organisational change, human resource management and innovative performance: comparative perspectives. Cambridge J Econ 27(2):239–241 Lu, D. J., Kao, C. W., & Chao, C. L. (2012). Evaluating the management effectiveness of five protected areas in Taiwan using WWF’s RAPPAM. Environmental Management, 50(2), 272282. Lü, Y., Chen, L., Fu, B., & Liu, S. (2003). A framework for evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas: the case of Wolong Biosphere Reserve. Landscape and Urban Planning, 63(4), 213-223. Lubatkin MH, Ling Y, Schulze WS (2007) An organizational justice-based view of selfcontrol and agency costs in family firms. J Manag Stud 44(6):955–971 Lundqvist, L. J. (2000). Capacity-building or social construction? Explaining Sweden’s shift towards ecological modernisation. Geoforum, 31(1), 21-32. Lundqvist, L. J. (2004). Sweden and ecological governance: Straddling the fence. Manchester University Press. Lutzker, M. A. (1982). Max Weber and the analysis of modern bureaucratic organization: Notes toward a theory of appraisal. The American Archivist, 45(2), 119-130. Lynch, L. M. (2007). The adoption and diffusion of organizational innovation: evidence for the US economy (No. w13156). National Bureau of Economic Research. Lyster, S. (1989). The convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals (The Bonn convention). Nat. Resources J., 29, 979. Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parentchild interaction. In P.H. Mussen (Ed.). Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1–101). New York: Wiley. Mace, G. M., Norris, K., & Fitter, A. H. (2012). Biodiversity and ecosystem services: a multilayered relationship. Trends in ecology & evolution, 27(1), 19-26. IKRAME SELKANI 252 Machado, M., Carlos, E. F., & Clauzet, M. (2020). Environmental funds to support protected areas: Lessons from Brazilian experiences. Parks, 26, 47. Mahmoud-Jouini, S. B., Midler, C., & Silberzahn, P. (2016). Contributions of design thinking to project management in an innovation context. Project Management Journal, 47(2), 144156. MALLARACH, J.M., MORRISON , J., K OTHARI, A., SARMIENTO , F., ATAURI, J.-A. & WISHITEMI, B. (2008) In defence of protected landscapes: a reply to some criticisms of category V protected areas and suggestions for improvement. In Defining Protected Areas: An International Conference in Almeria, Spain (eds N. Dudley & S. Stolton), pp. 30–36. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Mandl I (2008) Overview of family business relevant issues. Final Report, project on behalf of the European Commission, Vienna, Austrian Institute for SME Research March, J. G. (1963). A behavioral theory of the firm. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 2(4), 169-187. Marchese, M. C., & Muchinsky, P. M. (2003). Concept Charts for Study and Review for Muchinsky's" Psychology Applied to Work". Wadsworth/Thomson. Margules, C. R., & Pressey, R. L. (2000). Systematic conservation planning. Nature, 405(6783), 243-253. Marin-Garcia, J. A., Aznar-Mas, L. E., & González-Ladrón-de-Guevara, F. (2011). Innovation types and talent management for innovation. WPOM-Working Papers on Operations Management, 2(2), 25-31. Marion, J. L., & Reid, S. E. (2007). Minimising visitor impacts to protected areas: The efficacy of low impact education programmes. Journal of sustainable tourism, 15(1), 5-27. Mariotto, F. L., Zanni, P. P., & Moraes, G. H. S. (2014). What is the use of a single-case study in management research?. Revista de Administração de Empresas, 54(4), 358-369. Marra, P. P., Hunter, D., & Perrault, A. M. (2011). Migratory connectivity and the conservation of migratory animals. Environmental Law, 317-354. References 253 Martin, R., & Martin, R. L. (2009). The design of business: Why design thinking is the next competitive advantage. Harvard Business Press. Martin, T. G., Chadès, I., Arcese, P., Marra, P. P., Possingham, H. P., & Norris, D. R. (2007). Optimal conservation of migratory species. PloS one, 2(8), e751. Martino, D. (2005). Unleashing the wild: response to Locke and Dearden's ‘rethinking protected area categories’. Environmental Conservation, 32(3), 195-196. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological review, 50(4), 370. Masum, K. M., Al Mamun, A., Rahman, Z. M. M., Rahman, M. M., Newaz, M. S., & Redowan, M. (2013). Ecotourism carrying capacity and the potentiality of the Safari Park of Bangladesh. Journal of forest and environmental science, 29(4), 292-299. Mathieson, A., & Wall, G. (1982). Tourism, economic, physical and social impacts. Longman. Matthews, G. V. T. (1993). The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: its history and development. Gland: Ramsar Convention Bureau. Mauvais, G., & du Papaco, C. (2014). Nouvelles des Aires Protégées en Afrique. Maxwell, J. A. (1996). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: McCormick, K. (1994). Can ecotourism save the rainforests. Rainforest Action Network, 63. McGregor, D. (1960). Theory X and theory Y. Organization theory, 358(374), 5. McGregor, D. (1969). La dimension humaine de l'entreprise. McGregor, D., & Cutcher-Gershenfeld, J. (1960). The human side of enterprise (Vol. 21, pp. 166-171). New York: McGraw-Hill. McGregor, D.M. (1957), “The human side of enterprise”, The Management Review, Vol. 46 No. 11, pp. 22-8. IKRAME SELKANI 254 McIntyre, G. (1993). Sustainable tourism development: guide for local planners. World Tourism Organization (WTO). McKechnie, L. E. (2008). Participant observation. The Sage Encyclopaedia of Qualitative Research Methods. London: Sage Publications Ltd, 598-9. McNeely, J. A. (2005). Building broader support for protected areas. Friends for Life: New partners in support of protected areas, 1-10. McNeely, J. A. (2021). Nature and COVID-19: The pandemic, the environment, and the way ahead. Ambio, 1-15. McNeely, J. A., Redford, K. H., & Carter, A. S. (2005). A taxonomy of support: how and why new constituencies are supporting protected areas. Friends for Life: New Partners in Support of Protected Areas, 11-20. Megginson, D. and D. Clutterbuck (2005). Making Coaching Work – Creating a coaching culture. London, CIPD. Megginson, D. and D. Clutterbuck (2005). Techniques for Coaching and Mentoring. Oxford, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Meinel C, Leifer L (2015) Introduction—design thinking is mainly about building innovators. In: Plattner H, Meinel C, Leifer L (eds) Design thinking research: building innovators. Springer, Cham, pp 1–14 Ménard C. (1995). « La nature de l’innovation organisationnelle », Revue d’Économie Industrielle, Hors-série, p. 173-192. Merriam, S. B. (2001). Qualitative research and case study applications in education (2nd ed.). San Merton, R., Fiske, M., & Kendall, P. (1990). The focused interview: a manual of problems and procedures. NY: Free Press. Meskell, L. (2013). UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention at 40: Challenging the economic and political order of international heritage conservation. Current anthropology, 54(4), 483494. References 255 Metais-Wiersch, E., & Autissier, D. (2016). La transformation digitale des entreprises: les bonnes pratiques. Editions Eyrolles. Michallet, I. (2000). La protection des espèces migratrices en droit international et en droit communautaire (Doctoral dissertation, Lyon 3). Midler, C. (1986). La logique de la mode managériale (No. hal-00278147). Mihoub, J. B., Gimenez, O., Pilard, P., & Sarrazin, F. (2010). Challenging conservation of migratory species: Sahelian rainfalls drive first-year survival of the vulnerable Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. Biological Conservation, 143(4), 839-847. Miles, M. B., & Hueberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd Miller D (1983) The correlates of entrepreneurship in three types of firms. Manage Sci 29(7):770–791 Miller D, Friesen PH (1983) Innovation in conservative and entrepreneurial firms: two models of strategic momentum. Strateg Manag J 3(1):1–25 Miller, C. (2010). The Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850–1920, http://lcweb2. loc. gov/ammem/amrvhtml/conshome. html. Created and maintained by the Library of Congress. Reviewed May–June 2009. Miller, R. M., Rodríguez, J. P., Aniskowicz-fowler, T., Bambaradeniya, C., Boles, R., Eaton, M. A., ... & Pollock, C. (2007). National threatened species listing based on IUCN criteria and regional guidelines: current status and future perspectives. Conservation biology, 21(3), 684696. Miller, R. M., Rodríguez, J. P., Aniskowicz-Fowler, T., Bambaradeniya, C., Boles, R., Eaton, M. A., ... & Pollock, C. (2006). Extinction risk and conservation priorities. Science, 313(5786), 441-441. IKRAME SELKANI 256 Miller, R.M., (2013).— Threatened species: Classification systems and their applications. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 7: 191-211. Mishra, U., & Dhar, D. W. (2004). Biodiversity and biological degradation of soil. Resonance, 9(1), 26-33. Mitchell, B. (1979). Geography and resource analysis. Moallemi, E. A., Malekpour, S., Hadjikakou, M., Raven, R., Szetey, K., Moghadam, M. M., ... & Bryan, B. A. (2019). Local Agenda 2030 for sustainable development. The Lancet Planetary Health, 3(6), e240-e241. Mogelgaard, K. (2004). Helping people, saving biodiversity (Doctoral dissertation). Mol M.J., Birkinshaw J. (2006). “Against the flow: reaping the reward of management innovation”, European Business Forum, issue 27, winter Mol M.J., Birkinshaw J. (2008). Giant steps in management: creating innovations that change the way we work, Prentice Hall, London. Mol M.J., Birkinshaw J. (2009). “The sources of management innovation: when frms introduce new management practices”, Journal of Business Research, vol. 62, n° 12, p. 1269-1280 Mol, M. J., & Birkinshaw, J. (2009). The sources of management innovation: When firms introduce new management practices. Journal of business research, 62(12), 1269-1280. Moore, S. A., & Weiler, B. (2009). Tourism–protected area partnerships: stoking the fires of innovation. Morck R, Strangeland DA, Yeung B (2000) Inherited wealth, corporate control, and economic growth: the Canadian disease. In: Morck R (ed) Concentrated corporate ownership. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 319–369 Morgan, D. L. (1996). Focus groups as qualitative research (Vol. 16). Sage publications. Morgan, D. L., & Kreuger, R. A. (1993). When to use focus groups and why in Morgan DL (Ed.) Successful Focus Groups. References 257 Morris MH (1998) Entrepreneurial intensity. Quorum, Westport Morse, J. M., & Richards, L. (2002). Readme first. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Moscardo, G., & Benckendorff, P. (2015). Education for Sustainability in Tourism. SpingerVerlag: Berlin. Heidelberg. Moss, A., Jensen, E., & Gusset, M. (2015). Evaluating the contribution of zoos and aquariums to Aichi Biodiversity Target 1. Conservation biology, 29(2), 537-544. Mucchielli, A. (2015). L’Identité individuelle et les contextualisations de soi. Le Philosophoire, (1), 101-114. Muchinsky, P. M. (2006). Psychology applied to work: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology. Cengage Learning. Mugisha, A. R. (2002). Evaluation of community-based conservation approaches: management of protected areas in Uganda (Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida). Muhar, A., Arnberger, A., & Brandenburg, C. (2002). Methods for visitor monitoring in recreational and protected areas: An overview. Monitoring and Management of Visitor Flows in Recreational and Protected Areas. Institut for Landscape Architecture & Landscape Management Bodenkultur University Vienna, 2001, 1-6. Muir-Leresche, K., & Nelson, R. (2000, April). Private property rights to wildlife: the southern African experiment. ICER. Müller-Böker, U., & Kollmair, M. (2000). Livelihood strategies and local perceptions of a new nature conservation project in Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 20(4), 324331. Murphree, M. W. (1994). The Role and Institutions in Community-Based Conservation. In D. Western & M. Wright (Eds.), Natural Connections: Perspectives in the Community-Based Conservation (pp. 403– 427). Washington: Island Press IKRAME SELKANI 258 Murphree, M. W. (2009). The strategic pillars of communal natural resource management: benefit, empowerment and conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation, 18(10), 2551-2562. Murray, G., & King, L. (2012). First Nations values in protected area governance: Tla-o-quiaht tribal parks and Pacific Rim National Park Reserve. Human Ecology, 40(3), 385-395. Myers, B. (2019). Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel. Key Thinkers in Individual Differences: Ideas on Personality and Intelligence. Myers, I. B. (1962). Manual: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto. Myers, I. B., & Myers, P. B. (2010). Gifts differing: Understanding personality type. Nicholas Brealey. Myers, I. B., McCaulley, M. H., & Most, R. (1985). Manual, a guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs type indicator. consulting psychologists press. N. J. (Eds) Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement, 6th Edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Naldi L, Nordquist M, Sjoeberg K, Wiklund J (2007) Entrepreneurial orientation, risk taking and performance in family firms. Family Bus Rev 20(1):33–47 Naranjo-Valencia JC, Jiménez-Jiménez D, Sanz-Valle R (2011) Innovation or imitation? The role of organizational culture. Manag Decis 49(1):55–72 Nassè, T. B. (2020). Religious beliefs, consumption and inter-religious differences and similarities: is syncretism in consumption a new religious dynamics?. International Journal of Management & Entrepreneurship Research, 2(2), 59-73. Natusch, D. J., & Lyons, J. A. (2012). Exploited for pets: the harvest and trade of amphibians and reptiles from Indonesian New Guinea. Biodiversity and Conservation, 21(11), 2899-2911. Naughton-Treves, L., Holland, M. B., & Brandon, K. (2005). The role of protected areas in conserving biodiversity and sustaining local livelihoods. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., 30, 219-252. References 259 Navid, D. (1989). The international law of migratory species: the Ramsar Convention. Nat. Resources J., 29, 1001. Nelson RR, Winter SG (1982) An evolutionary theory of economic change. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Nelson, A., & Chomitz, K. M. (2011). Effectiveness of strict vs. multiple use protected areas in reducing tropical forest fires: a global analysis using matching methods. PloS one, 6(8), e22722. Nelson, F., & Agrawal, A. (2008). Patronage or participation? Community‐based natural resource management reform in sub‐Saharan Africa. Development and change, 39(4), 557585. Nenković-Riznić, M., Ristić, V., Milijić, S., & Maksin, M. (2016). Integration of strategic environmental assessment and environmental social impact assessment into strategic territorial planning: Lessons learned from two cases of tourism destinations in protected areas. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 25(3), 1353-1366. Nepal, R. C. (2005). Integrated conservation and development projects-A case study of Annapurna Conservation Area Project. Nepal, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway. Neuenschwander, P., Sinsin, B., & Goergen, G. (2011). Protection de la Nature en Afrique de l’Ouest: Une Liste Rouge pour le Bénin nature conservation in West Africa: Red list for Benin. Ibadan: IITA. Newby R, Watson J, Woodliff D (2003) SME survey methodology: response rates, data quality, and cost effectiveness. Entrep Theory Pract 28(2):163–172 Newmark, W. D., & Hough, J. L. (2000). Conserving Wildlife in Africa: Integrated Conservation and Development Projects and Beyond: Because multiple factors hinder integrated conservation and development projects in Africa from achieving their objectives, IKRAME SELKANI 260 alternative and complementary approaches for promoting wildlife conservation must be actively explored. BioScience, 50(7), 585-592. Ngono, B. N., Assene, M. N., & Nzali, A. K. (2021). La personnalité perçue des marques des eaux minérales en milieu estudiantin au Cameroun: une approche combinatoire. Revue Africaine de Management, 6(3). Nguinguiri, J. C. (2003). Gouvernance des aires protégées: l’importance des" normes pratiques" de régulation de la gestion locale pour la faisabilité des réformes dans le Bassin du Congo. Bulletin de l'APAD, (26). Nicholas, J., Simpson, V., Mould, A., Eames, J. C., Gray, T. N., Sinclair, R., ... & Billingsley, A. (2016). Will the recent changes in protected area management and the creation of five new protected areas improve biodiversity conservation in Cambodia. Cambodian Journal of Natural History, 1. Nonaka, I., & Johansson, J. K. (1985). Japanese management: what about the “hard” skills?. Academy of Management Review, 10(2), 181-191. Nonaka, I., & Konno, N. (1998). The concept of “Ba”: Building a foundation for knowledge creation. California management review, 40(3), 40-54. Nonaka, I., Kagono, T., & Sakamoto, S. (1983). Evolutionary strategy and structure: a new perspective on Japanese management. In Discussion Paper No. 111. Institute of Business Research, Hitotsubashi University. Noss, R. F. (1992). The Wildlands Project: land conservation strategy. Wild earth, 1(9), e25. Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. (2007). Guidelines for the establishment and management of marine protected areas for cetaceans. Contract RAC/SPA, (03), 29. Novelli, M., & Scarth, A. (2007). Tourism in protected areas: Integrating conservation and community development in Liwonde National Park (Malawi). Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 4(1), 47-73. References 267 Richards, L. (1999a). Data Alive!: The thinking behind NVivo. Qualitative Health Research, 9(3), Richards, L. (1999b). Using NVivo in qualitative research (2nd ed.). Victoria, Australia: Qualitative Richards, L. (2002, February). Introducing NVivo: A workshop handbook (Rev. ed.). Doncaster, Richards, T. (2002). An intellectual history of NUD*IST and NVivo. International Journal of Social Rickards T (1985) Stimulating innovation: a systems view. Frances Pinter, London Ries, E. (2012). Lean startup: adoptez l'innovation continue. Pearson. Robbins, S. P., & Barnwell, N. (1998). Organization Theory: Concepts and Cases (3rd ed.). Australia: Prentice Hall. Robbins, S. P., & Barnwell, N. (2006). Organisation theory: Concepts and cases. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Education Australia. Roca, A. L., Georgiadis, N., Pecon-Slattery, J., & O'Brien, S. J. (2001). Genetic evidence for two species of elephant in Africa. Science, 293(5534), 1473-1477. Rodrigues, A. S., Pilgrim, J. D., Lamoreux, J. F., Hoffmann, M., & Brooks, T. M. (2006). The value of the IUCN Red List for conservation. Trends in ecology & evolution, 21(2), 71-76. Roe, D., Nelson, F., & Sandbrook, C. (Eds.). (2009). Community management of natural resources in Africa: Impacts, experiences and future directions (No. 18). IIED. Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations Free Pr. Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations: modifications of a model for telecommunications. In Die diffusion von innovationen in der telekommunikation (pp. 25-38). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. [Document text truncated for crawler view.]