No “painting by numbers”. Khuwy’s polychrome wall decoration at Djedkare’s royal cemetery

No “painting by numbers” Khuwy’spolychrome wall decoration at Djedkare’sroyal cemetery Gabriele Pieke ABSTRACT The mastaba of Khuwy at the Djedkare’sroyal cemetery at South Saqqara is one of the earliest attested decorated burial chambers. The very well ‑preserved wall paintings on low relief in the antechamber of the substructure bear testimony to the high standard of this particular form of art already in the Old Kingdom. In combination with the iconographic concept and composition of the chamber, Khuwy’spaintings offer avery rare opportunity for an in ‑depth study of the painting process and the art techniques of this period. Ashort preliminary study has already managed to record some specific painting practices used in the ante‑ chamber. It is evident that the painter(s) responsible for the decoration of the antechamber were particularly interested in rendering details. Their work is characterised by aspecific use of different colours and their shades in combination with skilful execution of painted and drawn details particularly in the depictions of the textures of the represented objects and animals. KEYWORDS Old Kingdom– South Saqqara– Djedkare– mastaba– Khuwy– decorated burial chamber– wall paintings ”ماقرلأاب مسر“ لا ةيكلملا عراكدج ةنابجب ىوخل ةنولملا ةيرادجلا رظانملا ىكيب لايرباغ صخلم ثيح .ةشوقنملا نفدلا تارجح لئاوأ نم ةدحاو ةراقس بونج ىف عراكدجل ةيكلملا ةنابجلاب دجوت ىتلا ىوخ ةبطصم ربتعت ةيماملأا ةرجحلاب زرابلا تحنلا قيرط نع تذفن ىتلاو ،ةديجلا ظفحلا ةجردو ةدوجلا ىلاع ذيفنتلا تاذ ةنولملا اهرظانم دهشت رصع للاخ ةرم لولأ رهظ ىذلاو رباقملا نم صاخلا لاثملا اذهل عيفرلا ىنفلا ىوتسملا ىلع ،ةبطصملا نم ىلفسلا ءانبلا نم لحارمل ةقمعتم ةسارد ءارجلإ ًادج ةردان ةصرف ،اهنيوكتو ىريوصتلا اهموهفم جمد دنع ىوخ رظانم رفوتو .ةميدقلا ةلودلا ةددحملا مسرلا تاسرامم ضعب ليجست ىف ةريصق ةيلوأ ةسارد تحجن لعفلابو .ةرتفلا كلت للاخ ةعبتملا ةينفلا تاينقتلاو مسرلا نيمتهم اوناك ةيماملأا ةرجحلا ةفرخز نع نيلوئسملا )نيماسرلا وأ( ماسرلا نأ حضاولا نمو .ةيماملأا ةرجحلا ىف ةمدختسملا رهاملا ذيفنتلا عم بنج ىلإ ًابنج اهللاظو ةددحم ةفلتخم ناولأ مادختساب مهلمع زيمتي ثيح .ليصافتلا راهظإب صاخ لكشب .ةلثمملا تاناويحلاو رظانملل ةزيمملا تافصلا ريوصت ىف اميس لا ،ليصافتلا مسرو رظانملل ةلادلا تاملكلا ةيرادج رظانم – ةشوقنم نفد ةرجح – ىوخ – ةبطصم – عراكدج – ةراقس بونج – ةميدقلا ةلودلا PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXVI/2021, 23–45 24 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXVI/2021 The tomb of Khuwy, only discovered in 2019, is located in the royal cemetery at South Saqqara in close proximity to the pyramid complex of Djedkare (Megahed– Vymazalová 2019). The wall paintings on raised relief that have survived in the antechamber of the sub‑ structure are among the earliest examples of decorated burial apartments of the Old Kingdom (Kanawati 2010; Megahed– Vymazalová 2019: 42–47). This small rectangular chamber and its wall decoration are in aremarkably good state of preservation, still showing the outstanding quality of the mural paintings (fig. 1). Since the iconographic layout of the antechamber has already been described by the ex‑ cavators in apreliminary report (Megahed– Vymazalová 2019: 42–45), it will not be repeated here in detail. Instead, the following remarks will provide apreliminary classification of the paintings themselves as well as some representative examples of painting practices and the skilful rendering of particular motifs. The observations below are based on thorough photo documentation. Because of the COVID‑19 pandemic in 2020, an autopsy1 of the wall paintings in the tomb was, unfortunately, not possible. Therefore, this analysis can only be considered as apreliminary note and starting point for further in ‑depth studies. INTRODUCTION The wealth of the preserved wall paintings from the Old Kingdom has not yet stimulated any comprehensive research on the technique of mural decoration and related painting prac‑ tices. Only the fragments from the tomb chapel of Atet depicting, among others, the renowned “Meidum geese” (Egyptian Museum, Cairo, CG 1742; Davies 1936: 4–5, Pl. I; Harpur 2001: 77–80) have been discussed in detail and even called the “pinnacle of technical achievement, which was never afterwards surpassed” (Davies 1936: XXII). Nevertheless, most of the other Old Kingdom mural paintings and paintings on relief– despite being numerous– are still insuf‑ ficiently studied. Specifics such as painting supplies, the work processes applied, the use of pigments or specific painting practices in non ‑royal funerary chapels are much less explored than the evidence of New Kingdom wall paintings at Thebes (for an overview, see Davies 2001; Madden– Tavier 2018). Only very few publications on Old Kingdom tomb decoration discuss the topic of artistic production while also including wall paintings (Williams 1932; Smith 1949, 263–272; Harpur 2001: 159–177). Even with regard to the numerous decorated burial chambers of the late Fifth and early Sixth Dynasty, their wall decorations were mainly studied in terms of iconography and the related chronological implications (Bolshakov 1997: 112–120; Dawood 2005; Kanawati 2010; El ‑Tayeb 2014).2 Against this background, the newly discovered tomb of Khuwy with its well ‑preserved and striking paintings in bright colours offers exceptional prospects for abetter understanding of painting practices of the Old Kingdom. Ancient Egyptian wall paintings on flat or textured ground are generally made using the secco technique; there are only very few known examples of buono fresco, such as certain floor paintings from Amarna (Franken 2015: 42–43). The well ‑documented Theban paintings were mostly created through the successive application of multiple layers of material, mainly 1 As named by Winckelmann, referring to an examination of the original artwork, not based on studying any photography or drawing (Kunze 1999: 12). 2 Arare “technical” study of the mural painting was executed in the burial chamber of Mereruka (Shoeib– Aboelala– Mansy 2017). 25GABRIELE PIEKE several coats of plaster and athin stucco primer (Madden– Tavier 2018: 120–124). Another traditional image carrier is the mud plaster made of the mouna chaff mix (Madden– Tavier 2018: 121), although it produces amuch less smooth and sophisticated painting ground, hence leading to somewhat inferior quality in details. At Saqqara, the mouna plaster is well attested from the Old to the New Kingdom.3 However, most decorated burial chambers and the Old Kingdom cult chapels document adifferent painting technique directly on bedrock or cur‑ tained blocks and not on plaster or mouna layers. In the tomb of Khuwy, the painting ground 3 For the Old Kingdom, cf. e.g. the examples in Smith (1949: 245–246). Amore recent discovery at Abusir South is the tomb of Hemshezemtet (AS 82, Dulíková 2019). For the New Kingdom, see the overview by Martin (2001), complemented by the later discovered Eighteenth Dynasty vaulted chapels of Meryneith (Raven– Walsem 2014: 130–135, 139–149). Fig. 1 The painted antechamber of the tomb of Khuwy with a view of the south wall (photo Djedkare Project, S. Vannini) 26 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXVI/2021 in the antechamber is constituted of fine limestone casing. These blocks were first decorated by the sculptors in low relief of striking quality in their carved details. Following this first work process, the reliefs were completely coated with polychrome paint layers, most likely by adifferent group of artists (Williams 1932: 20; Kanawati– Woods 2009: 27; Pieke 2011: 216). Asection of the east wall has almost entirely lost its colour coating and consequently exposes all details of sculptural work (fig. 2). It is worth mentioning all the tiny parts and miniatures defined by relief cut. The time‑ ‑consuming stone carving was executed in full awareness that shortly afterwards, the brushed‑ ‑on polychrome layers would conceal the better parts of the haptic outlines. Because of the subsequent painting process, the main emphasis of the carved motifs was put on their outer forms, with most parts of the engraved inner details being later invisible. Instead, the paint‑ er(s) defined new and often different interior contours by colours and brush strokes. This twofold work effort directly underlines the significance of these images at several levels– not only concerning their meaning (content) and intended purpose for the afterlife. Obviously, they were also important in terms of pure material quality and artistic value, even if both might be completely invisible for any beholder. Fig. 2 A detail of the east wall with visible details of relief cut due to the loss of polychrome layers (photo Djedkare Project, S. Vannini) 27GABRIELE PIEKE GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PAINTING PROCESS Based on current research findings, Khuwy’sartisans and artists followed the established methods employed in Old Kingdom relief and painting (Smith 1949: 244–272; Bussmann 2000). Generally speaking, the techniques of the guidelines and preliminary drawings are well ‑known as the starting point of tomb decoration and well ‑attested in several Old Kingdom monuments (Williams 1932: 3–15; Wenzel 2007; Kanawati– Woods 2009: 34–36). They are mainly used for the overall definition of the themes and motifs as well as the number, position and size of the registers, figures, etc. The sketches in red and/or black ink primarily serve as the basis for the sculptor’swork.4 As far as Khuwy’santechamber is concerned, after the process of relief decoration on all four walls was completed, the painter(s)5 took the work over and applied polychromy on the previously defined ground. Painting on asculptured wall does not require the classical sketches in red or black ink because all motifs and their interior details are already marked in relief in the stone. Nevertheless, given the lighting conditions in Khuwy’sunderground chamber, the painter(s) would have needed good lamps clearly to distinguish the contours defined in the few ‑millimetre high relief. Based on photographic material alone, it is impossible to verify or disprove whether any kind of supporting prelim‑ inary drawing lines or outlines of the motifs were used for the painting process.6 Although such awork procedure is known from other tombs (Smith 1949: 244, 253; Robins 2008: 23) and even from Khuwy’s, only very few spots indicate some red preparatory drawing under the paint layers, such as some of the papyrus stems as part of the palace façade decoration on the west wall. On the other hand, in this particular case, the precise details were not defined in relief. Future studies will shed more light on the precise work process of the painters and their guiding systems. However, it should be noted that the shapes of the painted objects do not always correspond to the definition of the underlying relief. In several cases, the haptic forms are only overpainted by background colour or quite different iconography. These alter‑ ations of the original composition underline the skills of the painter(s) and– at least to some degree– their creative freedom in details. Indeed, the artist(s) were not obliged to “paint by numbers” (to apply colours to the forms already carved in relief), as attested on north, south and west walls. Some of these modifications in polychromy might be interpreted as the painter’ssloppiness or laziness, particularly when lotus flowers on top of several vessels or vegetables under atable were not rendered in colours but only overpainted in background 4 Compare e.g. the contemporary Saqqara mastaba of Manofer (LS 17; Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung, Berlin ÄM 1108; Zorn– Bisping ‑Isermann 2011: 111, Abb. 80) and the rock ‑cut chapel of Neferherenptah at the Unas causeway (Harpur– Scremin 2017: e.g. 25, 40, 47, 72, 108, 180–181, 198–199, 200–201, 204). Concerning Khuwy’stomb, red and black preliminary drawings are still visible in some areas where the polychromy is lost or has not been applied at all, like e.g. on the east wall under the upper black and white frieze. 5 The “handwriting” of different artists can only be evaluated by the above ‑mentioned autopsy. It is necessary to take various factors into account, including techniques of painting, the rendering of details, the colour scheme, the beholder’sperspective, the right‑ or left ‑handedness of the painter, personal tricks, and general variations. 6 This seems to be indicated by the base of the offering table at the north wall, but it still needs ver‑ ification. 28 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXVI/2021 grey (fig. 3). On the south wall, the individual items in two offering stands have been widely altered, and the painted sailing boats in the registers underneath do not entirely follow the outlines of the underlying haptic forms either. Furthermore, cases of added hieroglyphic signs or short texts missing in relief may indi‑ cate the literacy of the painter(s).7 Concerning the painting practice, in the current state of knowledge, it is very likely that aprimer was used before the application of polychrome paint layers to prevent the valuable paint from being absorbed by the stone, but this can only be clar‑ ified by future in ‑situ investigations. Some edges of the motifs, for example the three vessels on the left in the bottom register in the northern part of west wall, seem to indicate awhite 7 On south and north walls, at the lower end of the first column of Khuwy’stitles, ashort stroke (Grimal– Hallof– van der Plas 2000: Z1) was added to complete the title Xntyw ‑S. Apparently, these corrections were made in alater stage of the decoration process, as indicated by the missing principal outline for the small sign at least on the south wall. On the east wall, the tomb owner’stitles and/or names have been added only in paint in front of the two first offering bearers at the southern edge. Fig. 3 A detail of the south wall with partly overpainted motifs in grey background colour (photo Djedkare Project, S. Vannini) 29GABRIELE PIEKE underlayer. It is well documented that for much later Theban wall paintings, a“pictorial coat” on plaster (Laboury– Tavier 2010: 97; Madden– Tavier 2018: 123–124) was normally applied as astarting ground for the painters. Nevertheless, it should be noted that this technique is likewise attested in several Old Kingdom tombs, such as the almost contemporary cult chapel of Per ‑Neb (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 13.183.3). In this tomb, afine stucco layer, the so ‑called white wash of calcined gypsum, was used as the painting ground on limestone relief (Smith 1949: 244, 252–253; Robins 2008: 23). According to Caroline R. Williams (1932: 21), this procedure is typical of tombs of the late Fifth Dynasty. Also Hermann Junker noted this very technique for achapel at Giza; he also reports another mastaba, where the colour coat‑ ing was applied directly to the stone (Junker 1913: 170; Williams 1932: 21). The investigation of the mural paintings in the burial chamber the Vizier Mereruka revealed the use of alight pink wash to cover up the red preliminary drawings (Mereruka: Shoeib– Aboelala– Mansy 2017: 3–4). Regarding the brushed ‑on paint, previous studies mention that red pigments can be laid on the bare stone, while green can be painted on alayer of gypsum of considerable thickness (Williams 1932: 21). However, these different techniques of colour application, specifically the use of abottom layer for certain colours, are different from the widely used priming. The use of aprime coat should be better understood as apainting technique for specific pigments utilized either to increase their adhesion or to highlight them by an undertone. In Khuwy’stomb, it is evident that awhite underlayer is used for yellow items, such as the “golden” vessels as part of the offering stocks on the north and south walls. This special treatment of certain colours might be some personal procedures of different painters. The paint was generally applied with anumber of different brushes and tools. Hardly any of them have survived from the Old Kingdom.8 More information is available only from later periods, most of all the various finds from New Kingdom tombs at Thebes (Robins 2008: 25–26; Andreu ‑Lanoë [ed.] 2013: 144–147, cat. no. 16–21; Madden– Tavier 2018: 133–134, figs. 5 and 6). In any case, the paintings in Khuwy’santechamber clearly testify to the use of anumber of different tools from rather thick brushes for large ‑area application to small reeds used for delicate miniatures or tiny outlines. This is very well visible in the offering stocks in the up‑ per eastern parts of the north and south wall and above the doorways in the west wall. These areas have the lines drawn in different widths and the paint applied to alarger area, like the background grey or yellow, black or reddish ‑brown vessels; compare the upper eastern parts of the north and south wall and above the doorways in the west wall. THE USE OF COLOURS AND LINES In all forms of painting, colour plays acentral role. The ancient Egyptians used polychromy not only for aesthetic reasons but also for the specific meaning of individual colours and their connotations.9 In addition, pigments also have an economic value because of some of 8 Possibly only the so ‑called brush from Sedment at the Petrie Museum, London (UC31373) but its precise use is not clear. 9 Still relevant: Brunner ‑Traut (1977: 117–128); for ageneral and more recent discussion: Thavapalan– Warburton (eds.) (2019); including an update on ancient Egyptians terms: Schenkel (2019). 30 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXVI/2021 their costly components (Warburton 2019; Blom ‑Böer 2019). Polychrome wall decoration thus showed the high social status of the patron who ordered the decoration of the tomb. The pigments in Khuwy’santechamber seem to follow the traditional conventions of Egyp‑ tian paintings (Jaksch 1985; Lee– Quirke 2000; Zatorska 2010: 213–215; Madden– Tavier 2018: 125–132). They comprise all common basic and pure pigments such as black, white, the natural earth colours red and yellow, as well as the special pigments green and blue. In addition to the primary colours, also mixed variants were employed, leading to awide range of beautiful nuances, which can be found on all four walls. Agood example of the shades and various tints are the earth colours, which oscillate from red to brown, and from orange to yellow or ochre. Variations of colours are very well visible also for green, where the different ratios of mixing make it possible to vary the tone from very bright to arich, darker one. The use of various colour intensities even for the same motif might be explained by adifferent pot at hand for the artist(s), who were painting one area of the wall at atime. This is well reflected in the different tones of green for the main titles of the tomb owner on the north and south walls (Megahed– Vymazalová 2019: pl. 1). In the latter area, these hieroglyphs have alighter tone of green in comparison with the darker colour directly to the left of the inscription for some of the vegetables in the offering stock. There are also different tints of blue attested, just like the green pigment, which can appear rather coarse. Some of the colours used are very thick, while others are rather liquid in certain spots, which is partly directly associated with the pigments. Particularly Egyptian green and blue are regularly rather grainy and have adiffer‑ ent texture from the other pigments. This documents the process of painting in work zones. There are even small areas where colours dropped from the brush as can be seen on several spots on the west wall (fig. 4). For instance in the north part of the west wall, along drop of green paint is running over the beige ‑brown loaves of bread under the first offering stand in the middle of this upper register with offering stocks. Furthermore, rather liquid colours can be observed at the top strip of the palace façades, where the upper layer of light green is running down and produces various drips. The application and layering of colours are generally rather flexible processes, adapted for each situation within amonument and prevailing working conditions (Smith 1949: 254–255). Also in Khuwy’schamber, diverse chronological order for colour application is attested, seem ‑ ingly adapted to the respective conditions and needs in that specific area of the wall. As far as the current state of knowledge makes it possible to understand the evidence, the techniques and chronology of the paintings were flexible, with the principal contours and inner details being the last steps, as also attested in many other monuments. Following the overall principles of decoration, the dado of the chamber is painted with monochrome colour stripes in black, yellow, and dark red, which is typical in non ‑royal tombs of the period. This colour scheme for the bottom parts is even applied to the west wall and the lower part of two large palace ‑façade false doors (Wiebach 1981: 16; Jánosi 2000: 460–461), which are only divided from each other by along vertical text column. The elaborated colourful pattern of the palace façades starts only above this black band. In addition, all picture surfaces are framed to the left and right by the so ‑called Farbleiter in combination with achain ‑like pattern in the corners (Vandier 1964: 44 fig. 12). In the areas above both doorways to the burial chamber as part of the west wall, this traditional colour band delimits the picture plane at the bottom. The upper edges on all four walls are defined by aspecial black and white zigzag 31GABRIELE PIEKE pattern (Vandier 1964: 41–42, fig. 9),10 which is also known from other monuments and might represent avery stylised blossom motif. As it is common in the Old Kingdom, the background of the image is formed by agrey surface (Davies 1936: XXIII; Smith 1949: 255). This particular layer demonstrates an uneven colour application and renders information about the paint process and several work zones of the painter. For example on the north wall there are dif‑ ferent shades of grey visible behind and under Khuwy’sfigure, in contrast with the area in front of him. In addition, there is adiscrepancy of the darker grey colours in the two lower registers and the area around the offering table at that wall (Megahed– Vymazalová 2019: pl.1). Apparently, an uppermost layer of grey was painted following the iconographic concept and the composition of the walls, which is indicated by clearly visible brush strokes, following the respective forms (fig. 5). This practice is supported by the tomb owner’sfigures on the north and south walls, where one last layer of grey was brushed on after the red body colour had already been applied.11 The general colour scheme for all motifs follows common artistic conventions of the Old Kingdom, although Khuwy’sartist(s) had the skills to play beautifully with the means of poly‑ chromy and to make the most possible use of small part design. The painting is characterised by the targeted use of colour shades and masterful execution of painted and drawn details. 10 For one of the many examples from Saqqara, see the mastaba of Manofer (LS 17, Ägyptisches Mu‑ seum und Papyrussammlung, Berlin, ÄM 1108; Zorn– Bisping ‑Isermann 2011: 115 Abb. 82). 11 It is also the established technique for the background colours in New Kingdom tombs at Thebes. Fig. 4 The northern part of the west wall among others with liquid green paint running down over two loaves of bread (in the centre of the upper register) (photo Djedkare Project, S. Vannini) 38 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXVI/2021 the targeted use of different painting techniques. Small random blobs and contrasting colour spots, stippling or streaky lines are employed to define different surfaces and consistencies. With regard to the bunch of grapes, it is again only the southern part of the west wall (fig. 8) that displays highly sophisticated structures. Here regularly set dots in dark blue on alighter background even represent the individual grapes. Even the offering stands illustrate more meticulous work on the two picture planes above the doorways in the west wall. They are characterised by careful, fine brushwork; avery detail pattern is particularly evident on one offering stand in the upper register of the southern part (fig. 8). In comparison, the northern section of the west wall (fig. 4) seems slightly less detailed and confirms the observation already mentioned above. In all of these cases, it is evident that the chosen painting practice was meant to show specific textures of items and thereby directly emphasise them. On the offering tables and certain slim vessels represented on the north, south and west walls, black mottling on light grey suggests aparticular type of stone with dark inclusions, such as grey granite or even anorthosite gneiss (figs. 1, 3, 4, 8, 9). The slaughtering scenes and offering bearers in the bottom register of the east wall likewise reflect the exceptional skills of the painter(s). Random blobs and sprayed red ink indicate the blood splashing during the cutting off of the animal’sfront leg (compare also the examples given by Smith 1949: 270–272, figs. 98–101) and some particles falling during the sharpening of aknife (figs. 10, 11), while arbitrary blotches and casual daubs suggest the dorsal hair and bovine skin (figs. 12, 13). Figs. 10 and 11 Details of the slaughtering scenes on the east wall (photo Djedkare Project, S. Vannini) For compositional reasons, the cattle with white and grey skin colour are positioned alternately with the dark ‑coloured cows, which are displayed with an already opened flank, whereas the white ones are not yet fully cut. The liveliness of the image is further enhanced by different colours of the skin spots, which are alternately red and black for the white bovids. In addi‑ tion, the body position of the grey cattle is different. The first animal on the right has its back oriented towards the viewer and has its flank open, while the other has its hind legs tied. Yet again, also in the case of these representations, the very detailed execution of the different figures and the specific use of various techniques of painting and drawing testify to the mas‑ terly skills of the artist(s). 39GABRIELE PIEKE ABRIEF SUMMARY The paintings in the antechamber of Khuwy’sburial apartment demonstrate extremely so‑ phisticated execution. Only very few paintings of comparable quality have been preserved from the Old Kingdom. Indeed, the artists responsible, the sculptors and painter(s), used their various skills with the greatest effect to highlight the individual motifs represented on the four walls. The painter(s) elaborated and enlivened the composition by means of painting and drawing, the use of colours and tints, as well as the employment of different brushes in order to render various forms of strokes. The painting on raised relief is thus characterised by aspecific use of colours and their shades in combination with skilful execution of painted and drawn details particularly in the depictions of textures, for instance of vessel materials, various offerings and different animal skins. This produced some striking compositions and motifs directly enhanced by the deliberate use of these different painting techniques and arepertoire of brush strokes. All four walls show fine execution of details and asophisticated play with the painted surface structures of the motifs represented, even though the slightly different colour scheme Fig. 12 The southern part of the slaughtering scenes on the east wall (photo Djedkare Project, S.Vannini) Fig. 13 The northern part of the slaughtering scenes on the east wall (photo Djedkare Project, S.Vannini) 40 PRAGUE EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES XXVI/2021 and diverse quality of details on the north wall render information on the painting process itself and indicate acertain chronology or time pressure. It is theoretically possible that the walls were executed by different painters, which is ahypothesis that certainly needs further in ‑depth research. Nevertheless, it can be assumed that anarrow room of this size could have been decorated by one painter alone.14 He would have only needed some assistance in holding the lamp(s) and helping with painting materials or with the scaffolding. Further investigation should focus on the recurrent details of the paintings, which may lead to the identification of the precise number of the painters employed in Khuwy’stomb. The literacy of Khuwy’spainter(s) is indicated by the correct addition of hieroglyphic signs or short texts missing in relief.15 On amore general basis, the quality and care of the work in Khuwy’santechamber show that painting on relief was not regarded as asecondary medium or only as acheap and quick enhancement of careful relief ‑cut decoration. Yvonne Harpur (2001: 168) has raised the question of how come that a“secondary form of art” reached such remarkable standards. Yet this seems to be only our modern projection or akind of misunderstanding of such complex works of art as non ‑royal funerary monuments. It is probably because of the large loss of paint layers in better parts of relief ‑decorated tombs and house decorations and non ‑funerary art not being preserved in their entirety that such an evaluation has even been discussed. Against this background, the tomb of Khuwy offers an almost unique chance to obtain amuch better understanding of paintings on relief and their significance in the Old Kingdom as an independent form of art. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper was written with the support of the Czech Science Foundation grant no. GA18‑ 03708S: Transformation of the Ancient Egyptian Society in the Late Fifth Dynasty According to the Evidence from Djedkare’sPyramid Complex, and the Programme for the Development of Fields of Study at Charles University, no. Q11: Complexity and Resilience: Ancient Egyptian Civilisation in Multidisciplinary and Multicultural Perspective. Iam very grateful to Hana Vymazalová and Mohamed Megahed for including an in ‑depth study of Old Kingdom wall paintings in their research objectives and for inviting me to analyse the tomb paintings of Khuwy as part of their project. 14 So far only the numbers of painters in several New Kingdom tombs at Thebes were thoroughly studied. Our current understanding is mainly based upon evidences at this necropolis and from this very period. It is, however, questionable whether these findings about work organization and painting techniques can be directly transferred to tomb decoration of the Old Kingdom, particularly when dealing with paintings on relief and not on flat stucco ground. For Theban paintings of the New Kingdom e.g.: Beinlich ‑Seeber– Shedid (1987: 139–146); Shedid (1988: 95–102); Bryan (2001); Keller (2001); Laboury– Tavier (2010); Hartwig (ed.) 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