Investigating the determinants and effects of prestige sensitivity in fashion retailing

Marketing and Trade 183 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 Investigating the determinants and effects of prestige sensitivity in fashion retailing Ivan-Damir Anic1, Ivana Kursan Milakovic2, Mirela Mihic3 1 The Institute of Economics, Zagreb, Department for Innovation, Business Economics and Economic Sectors, Croatia, ORCID: 0000-0003-0179-6410, [email protected]; 2 University of Split, Faculty of Economics, Business and Tourism, Marketing Department, Croatia, ORCID: 0000-0003-3843-8908, [email protected]; 3 University of Split, Faculty of Economics, Business and Tourism, Marketing Department, Croatia, ORCID: 0000-0002-5768-2431, [email protected]. Abstract: Targeting the prestige fashion segment enables fashion retailers to continue growing while facing a challenging environment. To attract prestige-sensitive consumers, it is important to understand their buying motivations and responses to retail actions. Thus, this paper examines the motivational predictors and effects of prestige sensitivity in fashion retailing, using the symbolic self-completion theory as a framework. It also explores the moderating role of fashion innovativeness. The data collected from shoppers of apparel products (N = 289) in Croatia were analyzed using structural equation modelling (SEM). The results show that recognition enhancement, sexual attraction, and recreation shopping motivations, which help enhance individuals’ self-identity in society, drive prestige sensitivity. At the same time, fashion innovativeness significantly moderates the relationship between recreation motive and prestige sensitivity. Prestige-seeking consumers positively respond to mannequin displays, spend more time shopping, and focus more on symbolic apparel attributes while shopping. This study contributes to the self-completion theory applied in fashion retailing by developing and testing the model that links prestige sensitivity with shopping motivations, fashion innovativeness, the selection of apparel attributes, response to visual merchandising, and time expenditure. The findings provide recommendations for marketers on how to develop fashion products/prestige brands in line with the expectations of prestige-seeking shoppers, target this market segment more efficiently, and increase the effectiveness of marketing efforts. Keywords: Fashion retailing, prestige sensitivity, symbolic self-completion theory, shopping motivations, shopping behavior. JEL Classification: M31, M37. APA Style Citation: Anic, I.-D., Milakovic, I. K., & Mihic, M. (2024). Investigating the determinants and effects of prestige sensitivity in fashion retailing. E&M Economics and Management, 27(2), 183–200. https://doi.org/10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 Introduction Luxury apparel is a growing market segment, contributing to the manufacturing and retailing industries (Statista, 2024) since there are consumers who like to show their wealth by paying higher prices for luxury clothing brands (Maran et al., 2021). Luxury fashion brands known for their high quality, luxury, and upper-class status allow retailers to charge premium prices and increase profitability and loyalty, even in crisis, as these brands can create a sense of prestige, making consumers more inclined to continue purchasing them (Ajitha & Sivakumar, 2019; Deeter-Schmelz et al., 2000; Jain, 2020; Lai & Prendergast, 2019; Lichtenstein et al., 1993; Nyadzayo et al., 2020; Roy et al., Marketing and Trade 184 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 2018). in light of recent economic uncertainty, luxury fashion brands are particularly resilient (Riili & Bezze, 2022). However, attracting and retaining prestige-sensitive consumers is challenging because of their distinct preferences and high expectations (Mayasari & Wiadi, 2021). Intense competition, economic fluctuations, and the growth of online sales of luxurious brands that accelerated during the COVID-19 crisis (Beauloye, 2023) challenge sale revenues and loyalty to physical fashion stores. However, physical stores still play an important role in the luxury brand market, offering a unique advantage that is missing online, including human-led personal service, in-person experience, and interaction with the retail store and product (Beauloye, 2022). Prestige sensitivity, i.e., a consumer tendency to buy high-priced apparel brands, has been considered a major concept for understanding prestige buying behavior (Lichtenstein et al., 1993). Previous research has acknowledged that personality traits (Casidy, 2012a,b; Mulyanegara, 2011), fashion consciousness (Casidy, 2012a,b; Casidy et al., 2015). social belonging (Sung, 2019), but also some motivational factors, including the need for uniqueness, the desire to have unique goods, attain a symbolic marker of group membership, hedonic motivations, and the need for perfectionism and materialism (Lai & Prendergast, 2019; Vigneron & Johnson, 1999) drive prestige sensitivity. Furthermore, existing literature indicates that prestige-sensitive consumers have distinct shopping behaviors, emphasizing the need to acquire symbols and a prestigious self-image (Montgomery et al., 2016). Most existing studies have focused on Western cultures, while values, attitudes, and acceptance of prestige fashion products differ in non-Western cultures (Ajitha & Sivakumar, 2019; Jain, 2020; Li et al., 2012; Roy et al., 2018; Shukla, 2012). In this context, what motivates shoppers to buy prestige products and how this personality trait drives retail outcomes in different settings are less clear. To address a gap in the literature, we apply the framework proposed by Chen-Yu and Seock (2002) and Shchudro (2011) to examine which shopping motivations related to making purchasing decisions in the store predict prestige sensitivity, considering fashion innovativeness as a moderator. We also investigate how prestige sensitivity is related to several under-researched retail outcomes, i.e., consumer response to in-store stimuli, selection of apparel attributes, and shopping time expenditure inside the fashion store. This research is based on symbolic self-completion theory, which postulates that individuals are committed to using material possessions (i.e., prestigious brands) as socially recognized symbols strongly related to what they perceive as the ideal self to protect their self-identity and communicating it to others to be accepted in the society (Braun & Wicklund 1989; Deeter-Schmelz et al., 2000; Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1981, 1982). The data were collected from adult shoppers of fashion products in Croatia in retail stores that sell prestigious fashion brands. Our paper contributes to the literature on prestige sensitivity within symbolic self-completion theory in three ways. First, we provide additional insights into shopping motivations that drive prestige sensitivity. Although several motives were proposed to affect prestige sensitivity, ranging from different psychological factors, needs, and desires, such as hedonism and self-expression (Mayasari & Wiadi, 2021), there is limited understanding of fashion consumption (Lee & Huang, 2020) and impact of shopping motivations. We apply the framework of shopping motivations proposed by Chen-Yu and Seock (2002) and Shchudro (2011), which include motivations that drive consumers to engage in shopping activities and make purchasing decisions, such as sexual attraction, recreation, conformity, recognition, enhancement, fashion expression, fashion and aesthetic expression, and out-of-need, which has not been researched yet. Second, our study provides new knowledge about the effects of prestige sensitivity on consumer purchasing behavior inside the store, which includes apparel selection criteria, consumers’ response to visual merchandising stimuli, and time spent shopping, which have not been researched. Consumers have different expectations regarding fashion products and make purchases based on features such as price, quality, and brand (Hopfer & Istook, 2016). However, it is less clear which apparel attributes prestige-seeking consumers consider necessary in their decision-making process. We also seek to determine how prestige sensitivity is related to visual merchandising stimuli, as compared to the previous research that has Marketing and Trade 185 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 examined the effects of visual merchandising as an independent variable on emotions, consumers’ attitudes, and impulse buying behavior as dependent variables (Ha & Lennon, 2010; Jain et al., 2014). Since visual merchandising plays a pivotal role in consumer in-store responses (Anić et al., 2018), exploring its relationship with prestige sensitivity will bring novelty. Finally, we examine the impact of prestige sensitivity on time spent shopping, which is insufficiently researched in the literature (Hornik, 2021). The third contribution of our study lies in providing new knowledge about the moderating effect of fashion innovativeness in the relationships between shopping motivations and prestige sensitivity, which has not been researched yet. By incorporating fashion innovativeness in the model as a moderator, we account for a key predictor of innovation adoption, which is crucial for success (Goldsmith & Hofacker, 1991). The findings help fashion retailers targeting Croatia develop apparel products in line with consumers’ expectations and increase the effectiveness of brand appeals, in-store stimuli, and advertising while targeting the prestige market segment more efficiently. 1. Theoretical framework Our paper is based on the symbolic self-completion theory, which postulates that individuals use material possessions as socially recognized symbols related to what they perceive as the ideal self to protect their self-identity and communicate it to others (Braun & Wicklund 1989; Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1981, 1982). When questioned, individuals substantiate their definition of themselves and clarify and protect their identity. Key concepts in this theory are a commitment to goals, symbols of completeness, and social reality (Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1981). Goal commitment refers to personal identities or self-definitions; the symbols of completeness include material and non-material possessions used as means for identity attainment, while the social reality is created if symbols are recognized by others (Montgomery et al., 2016; Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1981). Symbolic consumption is closely related to prestige buying behavior, as prestigesensitive individuals are likely to buy luxury brands to signal their desired level of social standing to others (Montgomery et al., 2016). Prestige sensitivity, a key concept in prestige fashion shopping behavior, is defined as “favorable perceptions of the price cue based on feelings of prominence and status that higher prices signal to other people about the purchaser” (Lichtenstein et al., 1993, p. 236). This concept refers to consumers’ tendency to buy high-priced and expensive product brands because they bring them joy and good feelings and because they think others will notice them, as these products signal success and wealth to others and can improve social standing (Ajitha & Sivakumar, 2019; Lai & Prendergast, 2019; Li et al., 2012; Montgomery et al., 2016). Fashion can express self-image, role, and position towards others (Miller et al., 1993), while clothing is generally used to communicate and express social information (McCracken & Roth, 1989). Thus, fashion retailing serves well for applying self-completion theory to examine prestige sensitivity (e.g., Cassidy, 2012a,b; Deeter-Schmelz et al., 2000; Montgomery et al., 2016). Luxury products enable consumers to satisfy their psychological and functional needs (Nyadzayo et al., 2020) and gain the attention of others as a form of social communication (Li et al., 2012). They can enhance self-esteem and improve one’s standing in the social hierarchy (Deeter-Schmelz et al., 2000; Montgomery et al., 2016; Phau & Leng, 2008; Roy et al., 2018; Shukla, 2010). Prestige brands give consumers a sense of uniqueness (Ajitha & Sivakumar, 2019) and materialism (Montgomery et al., 2016) and help them fulfill hedonic needs (Epuran et al., 2015). In an international context, acquiring status is the major motive behind buying prestige brands, while differences exist in price quality, hedonism, and materialism (Mayasari & Wiadi, 2021; Shukla, 2012). According to some professional insights, self-expression is a vital badge of the new luxury paradigm (Beauloye, 2023). As motivations for acquiring prestige brands vary across countries, there is a need for further research in different environments. Furthermore, past research indicates that prestige-sensitive consumers have distinct shopping patterns. Some papers suggest that they tend to buy fewer store brands (Bao & Mandrik, 2004) and seek to acquire symbols to emphasize a prestigious self-image (Montgomery et al., 2016). Luxury shoppers are brand-consistent and channel-agnostic and can assess and pick a shopping channel depending on convenience or innovations (Riili & Bezze, 2022). Despite some existing studies Marketing and Trade 186 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 examining prestige aspects, we still do not know how prestige shoppers respond to various elements of in-store stimuli and how this personal trait relates to store time expenditure. 2. Developing hypotheses 2.1 Clothing shopping motivations and prestige sensitivity To examine which shopping motivations drive prestige sensitivity, we employ the framework proposed by Chen-Yu and Seock (2002) and Shchudro (2011), which includes several shopping motivations related to recognition, enhancement, aesthetic expression, sexual attraction, and recreation shopping motivations, arguing their relevance for the prestige-seeking behavior in a fashion retailing context. Although no study has examined the relationship between recognition enhancement and prestige sensitivity, some indirect findings suggest the potential association. Namely, recognition enhancement motivation refers to selecting a distinctive style of unusual clothes and buying well-known brands that can display an individual’s personality (Shchudro, 2011). The self-completion theory postulates that individuals buy products with symbolic qualities that communicate prestigious identification to others to enhance their identity or self-image (Deeter-Schmelz et al., 2000). In addition, prestige sensitivity is associated with physical and achievement concerns (Netemeyer et al., 1995), while clothing is seen as one of the easiest ways of broadcasting one’s self-image to others (Millan & Mittal, 2017). Moreover, a need to express individuality is related to a strong desire to display status through uniqueness. At the same time, possessing prestigious luxury brands can enrich consumers’ sense of self (De Kerviler & Rodriguez, 2019) and empower expressions of individual identity (Beauloye, 2023). Hence, H1: Recognition enhancement motivation is positively associated with prestige sensitivity. A shopping motivation related to aesthetic expression refers to concerns with beauty, finding clothes that look the best, and showing that the individual is outstandingly well-dressed. Current literature has not explored the connection between aesthetic expression and prestige sensitivity. However, some indirect findings indicate the potential association. Since individuals with high prestige sensitivity are influenced by other people’s opinions (Casidy & Wymer, 2018), we expect them to strive to achieve societal approval by buying clothes that will improve their appearance. In addition, public self-image drives high-prestige brand purchase behavior (Sung et al., 2019), indicating the motive to achieve a good-looking appearance. Hence, H2: Aesthetic expression motivation is positively associated with prestige sensitivity. Motivation related to sexual attraction refers to buying clothes that are attractive to other people. Previous studies indicate that individuals often use clothes to show sexual interest and intent (Lennon et al., 2017) and stimulate sexual consciousness and attraction. They might want to wear clothes that appeal to the other gender (Shchudro, 2011) and arouse other people’s interest (Chen-Yu & Seock, 2002). Lai and Prendergast (2019) suggest that luxurious brands might signal a woman’s beauty and perceived social standing. Furthermore, status consumption closely related to prestige shopping is the central motivating force of fashion innovativeness related to sexual attractiveness (Anić et al., 2018). However, the connection between sexual attraction motivation and prestige-seeking consumers is less clear. Still, it might be important because sexuality is central to building individuals’ self-identity. Thus, H3: Sexual attraction motivation is positively associated with prestige sensitivity. Recreation motivation refers to seeking entertainment, fun, and joy in shopping (Shchudro, 2011). The hedonic motivation, closely related to recreation motivation, has often been researched in fashion retailing. It referred to personal gratification, entertainment, fun, pleasure, novelty, and rewards-seeking shopping (Hausman, 2000; Michon et al., 2015) and was shown to be associated with the purchases of expensive products, i.e., the consumption motivated by self-image, but also with careful and economically oriented shopping (Epuran et al., 2015), making the impact of recreation shopping motivation on prestige shopping even more complex. The literature further suggests that hedonic motivation stems from emotional arousal and symbols that convey the image associated with purchases of expensive products (Epuran et al., 2015). Finally, self-directed pleasure and personal fulfillment are seen as determinants of the value of new luxury consumption (Atkinson & Kang, 2022). Marketing and Trade 187 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 Thus, H4: Recreation motivation is positively associated with prestige sensitivity. 2.2 Prestige sensitivity and the selection of apparel attributes Consumers evaluate apparel products using several attributes when making purchasing decisions. Literature acknowledges different classifications of evaluation criteria. One classification relates to symbolic and functional apparel attributes (Abraham-Murali & Littrell, 1995). Symbolic attributes provide additional value to the product (Miller et al., 1993). In fashion retailing, they include the trendiness, image, country of origin, brand name, fashionability, sexual attractiveness, and uniqueness of clothing, and aim at fulfilling the needs for self-enhancement, role position, and ego (Hopfer & Istook, 2016; Lee & Nguyen, 2017). Some previous studies suggest that prestige-seeking consumers tend to purchase brands that emphasize symbolic attributes of the product to express their identity and increase their selfimage (Mulyanegara, 2011; Phau & Leng, 2008). Thus, prestige-seeking consumers might highly value these attributes. On the other hand, functional attributes such as fit, quality, ease of care, comfort, and fiber content motivate consumers to search for products that solve externally generated consumption needs (Hopfer & Istook, 2016; Lee & Nguyen, 2017) might also be important for prestige-seeking consumers. Namely, fit and quality seem to be related to the purchase of foreign brands (Lee & Nguyen, 2017) preferred by prestige shoppers. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed: H5: Prestige sensitivity is positively associated with functional apparel attributes. H6: Prestige sensitivity is positively associated with symbolic apparel attributes. 2.3 Prestige sensitivity and consumers’ response to visual merchandising Visual merchandising, which includes interior displays, store layouts, mannequin displays, atmospherics, light, music, scents, colors, and signage, is used by fashion retailers to create an enjoyable shopping experience to attract and motivate consumers to shop. The theory suggests that consumers are more likely to make impulsive purchases when they are exposed to visual merchandising, which affects the individuals’ perceptions and emotions and leads to approach behavior and purchase (Ha & Lennon, 2010; Jain et al., 2014). The more the customers enjoy the shopping experience, the more they will be engaged in browsing and the higher the number of impulsive purchases (Jain et al., 2014). Atkinson and Kang (2022) also indicate that intrinsic experiential value drives customers’ intention to engage with a new luxury brand. However, it is not clear how prestige-seeking consumers respond to instore stimuli. Considering that consumers high on prestige are hedonic-oriented and fashionconscious and are more willing to engage in new experiences (Casidy, 2012a; Epuran et al., 2015), we assume they might be more likely to respond to visual merchandising stimuli. Hence, H7: Prestige sensitivity is positively associated with consumer response to visual merchandising. 2.4 Prestige sensitivity and time spent shopping Some evidence indicates that prestige sensitivity might be related to time expenditure in retail stores. Previous studies suggest that time expenditure is influenced positively by emotions (Lucia-Palacios et al., 2016; Stoel et al., 2004), recreation, self-gratification, rewardseeking motivations, and learning about new trends (Hornik, 2021; McDonald, 1994). While hedonic motivations positively affect time expenditure, utilitarian motives are negatively associated with time. There is also a notion that many shoppers today are under time pressure and tend to shop quickly and efficiently (Hornik, 2021), which makes the predictions more difficult. Since prestige-sensitive consumers are hedonic-oriented (Epuran et al., 2015) and are more excitable and emotional, we assume that prestige orientation might stimulate them to spend more time in the store shopping to find the brands that will emphasize a prestigious self-image. Hence, H8: Prestige sensitivity is positively related to time spent shopping. 2.5 The moderating role of fashion innovativeness Fashion innovativeness describes consumers’ interest in new products and their tendency to learn about them and be the first to buy them (Goldsmith & Hofacker, 1991). Fashion innovators are more brand-sensitive, more interested in fashion brands (Beaudoin et al., 2003), less price-sensitive (Goldsmith et al., Marketing and Trade 188 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 2005), and tend to compete for status (Lertwannawit & Mandhachitara, 2012; Rogers, 1995), and thus this trait might enhance the effect of shopping motivations on prestige sensitivity. Furthermore, the need for uniqueness is related to fashion innovativeness (Saricam & Erdumlu, 2016; Workman & Caldwell, 2007), which might enhance the impact of recognition enhancement and aesthetic expression motivations on prestige sensitivity. In addition, Anić et al. (2018) suggest that fashion innovativeness is associated with hedonic, recreation, and sexual attraction motivations. Hence, H9: Fashion innovativeness positively mo derates the effect of recognition enhancement motivation (H9a), aesthetic expression motivation (H9b), sexual attraction motivation (H9c), and recreation motivation (H9d) on prestige sensitivity. The research model is presented in Fig. 1. 3. Research methodology This study relies on a telephone survey (CATI). To determine the sample, we used a systematic random sampling technique by picking numbers of individuals from Croatia’s telephone directory of residential and mobile phone numbers, with the target of collecting 300 surveys. The Institute of Economics, Zagreb, with four trained interviewers, collected the data from adult respondents. The interviewers were instructed about the survey and prestige sensitivity questions. They asked the respondents if they were older than 18, briefly described what prestige brands are, provided some examples of prestige fashion brands, and asked if they had been shopping for such prestige brands in the past 12 months. Only individuals who bought at least one prestige brand participated in the survey. The pre-test was carried out on 20 respondents. In total, 337 questionnaires were completed, Fig. 1: Research model Source: own Prestige sensitivity Recognition enhancement Aesthetic expression Sexual attraction Functional apparel attributes Recreation Symbolic apparel attributes Mannequin displays Time spent shopping Fashion innovativeness Shopping motivations H1-H4 H9a-d H5 H6 H7 H8 Marketing and Trade 189 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 out of which 48 were incomplete with missing data, and we excluded those questionnaires from further analysis, as Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) suggested. The final sample included 289 respondents and is representative and proportional to the total population in 21 Croatian counties concerning gender and age (Tab. 1). The questionnaire was designed based on a literature review. We selected the relevant items that other scholars validated in past research. Some of the items were modified to fit the context better based on the suggestions by marketing scholars during the process of pre-testing for face and content validity. Items taken from the literature were translated from English into Croatian and then back to English. We measured prestige sensitivity with five items taken from the sensitivity subscale of the price perception scale developed by Lichtenstein et al. (1993). This original scale measures the tendency to buy prestige products in general. We adopted the original scale to the fashion context to measure individuals’ enjoyment and to feel good and attractive when buying expensive fashion brands. We asked respondents to rate their agreement N% Gender Male 144 49.8 Female 145 50.2 Age (years) 20–29 60 20.8 30–39 60 20.8 40–49 57 19.7 50–59 64 22.1 60–69 48 16.6 Education Primary school or less 11 3.8 Secondary school 152 52.6 College, university or more 126 43.6 Average monthly household income (HRK) Up to 3,000 13 4.5 3,001–4,000 22 7.6 4,001–6,000 46 15.9 6,001–8,000 52 18.0 8,001–10,000 57 19.7 10,001–13,000 55 19.0 13,0001–16,000 30 10.4 16,001–20,000 8 2.8 More than 20,000 6 2.1 Note: *HRK stands for Croatian Kuna; the exchange rate of EUR 1 to HRK is 7.48 (http://www.hnb.hr, 01.01.2021). Source: own Tab. 1: Sample characteristics (N = 289) Marketing and Trade 190 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Shopping motivations included 18 statements. Fifteen statements were taken from Chen-Yu and Seock (2002) and Shchudro (2011), while the authors developed three statements considering relevant consumer behavior theory, i.e., feeling desirable to the opposite sex, showing social standing, and looking the best when buying clothes. The items were rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). We measured fashion innovativeness with the domain-specific innovativeness scale developed by Goldsmith and Hofacker (1991). It includes nine items describing individuals’ interest in new and original fashion items. The scale indicates consumers’ desire to look at new fashion and learn about it and the tendency to be the first to buy new and original fashion products when they appear. We used a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). We asked respondents to indicate the importance of 16 apparel attributes that are relevant for purchasing fashion products, such as quality, price, fit, fashionability, natural fiber content, brand name, appearance, styling, image, and care/maintenance. The items were rated on a Likert scale from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (very important). Measures of consumers’ tendency to respond to visual merchandising, based on Kim (2003), include window displays, mannequin displays, promotional signage, and floor merchandising. We added music and store personnel to the original items. The items were measured using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). We examined the perceived time consumers spend browsing, evaluating merchandise, selecting items, and waiting at a counter to purchase. The respondents were asked how much time, on average, they spent in the store shopping for clothing products, coded as (1) less than one hour, (2) 1–3 hours, (3) 4–6 hours, and (4) more than six hours. Before the main data analysis, we checked data for common method bias. To assess common method variance (CMV), we have performed several (ad-hoc and post-hoc) procedures. At the beginning of the survey, respondents were informed that there were no right or wrong questions and that participation was confidential. Then, during data analysis, particularly multi-collinearity check, VIF values achieved the recommended thresholds, i.e., VIF values below 3.3. Further, we have conducted Harman’s single-factor test, and the results indicated that the total variance extracted by one factor was below the suggested threshold of 50%. Hence, all tests performed suggest that CMV does not disrupt our model assumptions, i.e., that our data is free from common method bias. 4. Research results 4.1 Descriptive statistics The data were analyzed in SPSS (v23) and AMOS for descriptive insights and to perform confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Variable Mean Standard deviation Enhancement motivation 2.168 1.078 Aesthetic motivation 2.771 1.140 Sexual attraction motivation 3.107 1.192 Recreation motivation 3.600 1.299 Fashion innovativeness 2.328 0.975 Prestige sensitivity 1.857 1.055 Functional product attributes 4.611 0.554 Symbolic product attributes 2.631 1.095 Mannequin displays 2.226 1.118 Source: own Tab. 2: Descriptive statistics Marketing and Trade 191 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 structural equation modeling (SEM). Descriptive statistics research results (Tab. 2) show that the respondents in the sample were below average prestige-sensitive (M = 1.85) and fashion innovative (M = 2.32), and they scored low on the response to mannequin displays (M = 2.22). Regarding the shopping motivations, the respondents did not score high on buying clothes to enhance their status (M = 2.16) or improve their aesthetic appeal (M = 2.77). However, they scored moderately high on buying clothes for recreation (M = 3.60) and slightly less on buying clothes to be sexually attractive (M = 3.10). Regarding product attributes, respondents valued functional attributes more (M = 4.61) than symbolic attributes (M = 2.63). Most respondents (59.9%) purchased up to five clothing items during 12 months. Unplanned purchases were about 2.7 items on average. Individuals (53.6%) spent between one to three hours in the store, 38.8% less than one hour, and 7.6% more than three hours. 4.2 Confirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA) A confirmatory factor analysis was employed to assess the scales’ reliability, validity, and unidimensionality. The measurement model was created based on the relevant principles (Kline, 2011) using the maximum-likelihood method for parameter estimation. The CFA shows that the measurement model has a good fit (X2/df = 359.329/231 = 1.556, TLI = 0.956, CFI = 0.966, IFI = 0.966, RMSEA = 0.044), which also confirms the unidimensionality of the measures. We excluded several items from the analysis due to low factor loadings, including two items from the prestige sensitivity scale, eight items from shopping motivation, six items from the fashion innovativeness scale, and eleven items from apparel attributes and visual merchandising. The final measurement model relied on high (>0.6) and significant factor loadings. CFA results (Tab. 3) indicate that the measurement scales show the characteristics of reliability and convergent validity. Factor/items Factor loadings Composite reliability (CR) The average variance extracted (AVE) Cronbach alpha Recognition enhancement motivation (ENH) I buy clothes to express who I am 0.874 0.821 0.696 0.817 I buy clothes that show my social standing* 0.793 Aesthetic expression motivation (AES) I spend much time finding the garment that looks best on me 0.772 0.717 0.559 0.716 Looking the best you can is worth the effort* 0.722 Sexual attraction motivation (SAT) I want my clothes to appeal to the other gender sex 0.848 0.897 0.744 0.895 When buying attractive clothes, I feel more desirable to the opposite sex* 0.906 Dressing to appeal to the other gender is important to me 0.831 Recreation motivation (REC) I enjoy shopping for clothes 0.938 0.892 0.737 0.885Shopping for clothes put me in a good mood 0.917 Shopping for clothes is boring (r) 0.701 Tab. 3: CFA results – Part 1 Marketing and Trade 198 2024, volume 27, issue 2, pp. 183–200, DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2024-2-011 of the Academy of Marketing Science, 19(3), 209–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02726497 Goldsmith, R. 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