To trust or not to trust ICT? Empirical model of relation between career readiness, trust, and distrust

In o ma ion Managemen 221 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 To us o no o us ICT? Empi ical model o ela ion be ween ca ee eadiness, us , and dis us Elzbie a Kowalczyk1, Dagma a Lewicka2, Pawel Zajac3 1 Poznan Uni e si y o Economics and Business, Depa men o O ganiza ion and Managemen Theo y, Poland, ORCID: 0000-0003-4611-2246, [email p o ec ed]; 2 AGH Uni e si y o K akow, Facul y o Managemen , Poland, ORCID: 0000-0002-6955-7371, [email p o ec ed]; 3 AGH Uni e si y o K akow, Facul y o Managemen , Poland, ORCID: 0000-0003-4343-3458, [email p o ec ed]. Abs ac : In his s udy, he au ho s ocus on wo issues: he in luence o echnology us and dis us on ca ee eadiness and he iden i ica ion o hese us and dis us ac o s de e mined by he esponden ’s gende . To achie e his goal, he au ho s collec ed da a using he su ey me hod. The s udy was conduc ed among 871 Polish uni e si y s uden s aged 18 o 25. S uc u al equa ion modeling was used o show po en ial causal dependencies be ween a iables. The s udy p o ides aluable insigh in o esea ch on us and dis us in echnology. Th ee g oups o ac o s in luencing ca ee eadiness we e iden i ied: ca alys s (ICT us , human-ICT compe i ion), inhibi o s (digi al illi e acy, ha m ul ICT) and neu als (ICT scep icism, digi al anxie y). Va iables in he ca ee inhibi o ca ego y a e no signi ican o he male esponden s. The model used in he s udy indica es highe eadiness among women in he dedica ion dimension, lowe eadiness in he engagemen dimension, and no gende di e ence in he sac i ice dimension. The di e en ial ole o gende is con i med in he con ex o ca ee eadiness. Limi a ions o his ype o esea ch a e ela ed o he di icul y o eaching he app op ia e esea ch sample, and hus i s ep esen a i eness. In his case, hanks o a la ge esea ch sample, i was possible o cap u e he ela ionships ha allow o a be e unde s anding o Gene a ion Z. Keywo ds: In o ma ion and communica ion echnologies, digi aliza ion, Gene a ion Z, SEM. JEL Classi ica ion: I23, M53. APA S yle Ci a ion: Kowalczyk, E., Lewicka, D., & Zajac, P. (2024). To us o no o us ICT? Empi ical model o ela ion be ween ca ee eadiness, us , and dis us . E&M Economics and Managemen , 27(2), 221–239. h ps://doi.o g/10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 In oduc ion The dynamic de elopmen o in o ma ion and communica ion echnology (ICT), going hand in hand wi h he inc easing dependence o hu- mans on echnology, is inc easing in e es among esea che s in bo h us and dis us in his con- ex (McKnigh e al., 2020; Wong e al., 2023). The issues o us and dis us a e inc eas- ingly becoming he ocus o he sub-discipline o echnology managemen , whe e humans a e pa o a socio- echnical sys em (Lank on e al., 2015; McKnigh e al., 2011). In his sys em, us and dis us ela e o he ela ionship be- ween humans and echnology (Liu e al., 2017; Tha che e al., 2013). These ela ionships a e cha ac e ized by isk and dependency. The use o echnology in ol es isks aken by echnology use s. Risks a e compounded by use s’ lack o knowledge and unce ain y ega ding he con- sequences o echnology use. On he o he hand, an inc easing le el o dependence on echnol- ogy can be obse ed (Ejdys, 2018). In o ma ion Managemen 222 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 ICT con ibu es o dynamic changes in soci- e y in all aspec s o li e, including he wo kplace, lea ning, and e e yday li e. These in luences a e inc easingly el a all le els o educa ion, pa icula ly in highe educa ion ins i u ions. As ICT enables an inc easing deg ee o cus- omiza ion o lea ning and eaching o indi- idual s uden s, i is wo h asking whe he and how us /dis us in ICT echnology in luences s uden s’ ca ee eadiness. T us , on he one hand, helps decision-making by educing unce ain y abou he consequences o in e ac- ions and, on he o he hand, enhances he de- si e o es ablish and main ain a ela ionship wi h a us ed pe son o objec . The e o e, acco d- ing o he li e a u e, i has been assumed ha ICT us posi i ely in luences he ca ee eadi- ness o young adul s, which is a p e equisi e o a success ul ansi ion om he educa ion ma ke o he labou ma ke . As cu en esea ch indica es, e e y e- la ionship is also accompanied by a ce ain le el o dis us . De ining dis us in gene al and wi h ega d o echnology in pa icula is a di - icul challenge. So a , esea ch on dis us in ela ion o echnology is a an ini ial s age (Bewsell, 2012). Howe e , he emo ional pe - spec i e o dis us is wo h in es iga ing. I has impo an p ac ical alue. I allows a emp s o be e unde s and he ea s, anxie ies and ba ie s o echnology use s and de elop ways o educe hem. ICT is a d i ing o ce o change in he la- bou ma ke , and echnology li e acy is he hi d as es -g owing co e skill (Wo ld Economic Fo um, 2023). The e o e, a i udes owa d ICT, such as us and dis us , a e an essen ial ele- men o ca ee eadiness and acili a e he an- si ion om educa ion and aining o he labou ma ke . The cu iculum o s uden s in he a ea o ca ee eadiness is based on he imp o e- men o digi al compe encies (Hua e al., 2022; Newell & Ul ich, 2022). People e e o digi al compe encies o achie e goals ha a e impo - an o hem in an e ec i e manne , including e ec i e unc ioning in he labou ma ke (Kow- alczyk, 2022). Empi ical esea ch shows ha bo h s uden s and employe s see a ela ionship be ween digi al compe encies and employabil- i y (Pi zada & Khan, 2013). The EU Commis- sion de ined hese compe encies in a eas such as in e ac ing h ough echnologies, sha ing in o ma ion and con en , engaging in online ci i- zenship, collabo a ing h ough digi al channels, ne ique e, and managing digi al iden i y (Fe - a i, 2013). T us ea ed as a i ude (Nguyen, 2022) is necessa y in all men ioned a eas and acco ding o he DigComp epo , a ibu es a e he pa s o he digi al compe ences (Vuo ika i e al., 2022). We assume ha achie ing compe- ence in hese dimensions equi es a balance be ween us and dis us o ICT. In pa icula , we pu a lo o sensi i e in o ma ion (e.g., pe - sonal da a, CV con en , copies o documen s) in he digi al space and, in o de o keep ou ac i i ies sa e, we need o ealis ically assess he ICTs used o e i y he ools used. The e o e, i has been assumed ha ICT us posi i ely in luences he ca ee eadi- ness o young adul s, which is a p e equisi e o a success ul ansi ion om he educa ion ma ke o he labou ma ke . Gi en he lack o esea ch on dis us in his con ex , he ques ions aised a e whe he and how ICT dis us can be a eason o ca ee exclusion and a ba ie o en y in o he la- bou ma ke and whe he and how gende de e mines speci ic pa e ns o he impac o ICT us and dis us on ca ee eadiness. This esea ch is pa o an inc easingly popula end ela ed o elici ing alue-added ICT use beha iou s aimed a inc easing p oduc i i y and lea ning ou comes. The es o he pape is s uc u ed as ol- lows. The pape begins by p esen ing he issue o ca ee eadiness. Nex , he pape del es in o a ious s udies ela ed o us in ICT and dis us in ICT. I hen conside s gende issues in ela ion o ca ee eadiness, ICT and us . The pape hen explains he me hodology, p es- en s he esea ch esul s, discusses esea ch limi a ions, and p o ides concluding ema ks on he indings. 1. Theo e ical backg ound 1.1 Ca ee eadiness E en be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, he wo k- ing en i onmen was e y di icul o g adua es en e ing he labou ma ke due o he eno mous echnological a iabili y, u bulence, ou sou c- ing p ac ices and emo e wo k (Mahmud e al., 2022; Sholikah, 2021). In he pos -pandemic pe iod, as a esul o , among o he hings, a eal su ge in echnological changes, his p oblem is e en g ea e . Resea ch has shown ha in o - de o inc ease employabili y and he chances o a success ul ca ee , i is impo an du - ing one’s educa ion o acqui e ans e able In o ma ion Managemen 223 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 compe encies, which include c i ical hinking, p oblem-sol ing, nego ia ion and decision making (Mahmud e al., 2022). Digi al compe- encies play an ins umen al ole wi h espec o he ones men ioned abo e, bu , impo an ly, hey a e also ans e able (Kowalczyk, 2022). In addi ion, quali a i e esea ch conduc ed in F ance shows ha a con ex ual ac o in he o m o digi al ans o ma ion has an impac on he in a- and in e -o ganiza ional ans e - abili y o public sec o employees’ ca ee s (Culié e al., 2021). The pe sonal need o con inuous de elopmen has al eady become a s anda d in p o essional unc ioning, and employe s and aining companies inc easingly p epa e hei p oposals o aining in digi al o ma ; hus, i is di icul o lea n, ain, and de elop wi h- ou digi al compe encies hese days. Al hough young people o en ha e ex ensi e expe ience in using echnology, his expe ience o en does no ans e o he a ea o educa ion (Co in e al., 2020). In he pandemic pe iod especially highligh ed ha , digi al li e acy sho ages e- sul ed in digi al exclusion om he labou ma - ke , and his was due o en o ced echnological changes which became i mly es ablished in he wo ld o wo k: om job sea ching, h ough pe o ming and imp o ing one’s wo k, o ecei - ing emune a ion o i . Un o una ely, in Poland, Romania, Bulga ia, Slo akia, Hunga y and Cy- p us, he isk o digi al exclusion in 2020 was 10% highe han in o he EU coun ies. Se e al easons o he digi al exclusion o employees a e obse ed in en e p ises, he main ones be- ing mo i a ional ba ie s (42%) and men al ba - ie s (38%) (bo h ac o s being men ioned join ly in 18% o cases), wi h o he esponses including digi al illi e acy (30%), ma e ial ba i- e s (18%), and no ba ie s (13%) (Laco a e al., 2022). While i is ue ha young people s udy- ing a uni e si ies in Poland a e mo e digi ally compe en compa ed o he es o socie y, hei le el o abo e-basic o e all digi al skills is com- pa able o ha possessed by 55–64 yea s-old esiden s o he Ne he lands, which has a lead- ing posi ion in Eu ope in e ms o digi al li e acy (Eu os a , 2023a). Ca ee eadiness is de ined as use ul e- sou ces in e ms o labou ma ke adap a ion and willingness o unde ake asks and change s a us (Sampson e al., 2013). Resea ch shows ha ca ee eadiness is connec ed wi h ca ee ma u i y, socioeconomic s a us, and one’s psychological locus o con ol (Sholikah, 2021). Ca ee eadiness is also dependen on he abil- i y o make he igh decisions, which a ec ca- ee de elopmen as well as a ange o amily, economic, ma ke , and social condi ions. Along wi h ca ee eadiness comes inc eased insigh and adequa e assessmen o one’s abili ies, in- e es s, and skills. Ca ee eadiness is os e ed by a highe le el o co e sel -e alua ion and ewe pe cei ed ba ie s, and i helps a pe son ob ain knowledge abou he labou ma ke and adjus hei educa ional choices acco d- ingly (Sampson e al., 2013); on he o he hand, a lowe le el o ca ee eadiness means a lowe le el o occupa ional knowledge (Hi schi, 2011). Acco ding o esea ch conduc ed in eigh OECD coun ies, inancial ad an age, which is ega ded as a measu e o ca ee success, is in luenced by he ollowing (OECD, 2021a):  Thinking abou he u u e, which consis s o ca ee ce ain y ( he abili y o name an expec ed occupa ion in adul hood); ca ee ambi ion ( he expec a ion o wo k- ing in a p o essional o manage ial ole; ca ee alignmen ( he educa ional plans o a s uden can ypically be ega ded as app op ia e o en y o hei occupa ional expec a ion); and ins umen al mo i a ion owa ds school (a s uden is able o d aw a connec ion be ween he educa ion hey a e engaged in and a po en ial u u e in wo k). In all he abo e-men ioned as- pec s, he e is a s a is ically signi ican co - ela ion wi h in e ne esea ch;  Explo ing he u u e ( h ough ca ee con- e sa ions wi h eache s; suppo om amily membe s and iends; engaging wi h people in wo k h ough ca ee alks o job ai s; wo kplace isi s o job shadowing; ap- plica ion and in e iew skills de elopmen ac i i ies; occupa ionally- ocused sho p o- g ammes);  Expe iencing he u u e, e.g., h ough pa - ime wo k (up o 10–15 hou s pe week) and olun ee ing). Shaping ca ee eadiness begins in he ea - ly s ages o educa ion and is designed o a- milia ize young people wi h he equi emen s o he wo ld o wo k and suppo hem in explo - ing and expe iencing hei chosen occupa ions. Al hough he wo ld o wo k is inc easingly digi al (including, e.g., emo e wo k, online e- c ui men and selec ion, online eam communi- ca ion, online sea ching and con en c ea ion) and equi es ICT li e acy, i is also inhe en ly In o ma ion Managemen 224 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 connec ed wi h unc ioning in he eal wo ld (OECD, 2021b). I mus be emphasized ha li e acy in using digi al ools enhances people’s ca ee s, bu i does no ans e hei unc ioning o an au onomous, i ual en i onmen . In o de o imp o e ca ee eadiness e- la ed o s uden s’ digi al li e acy, cu icula a e being de eloped, such as a Flo ida Uni e - si y, based on de eloping oppo uni ies wi hin iden i ied a eas o a i icial in elligence li e acy ega dless o s uden discipline. P epa ing g adua es o add ess digi al challenges based on digi al echnologies, including a i icial in el- ligence (AI), suppo s he de elopmen o hei p o essional po en ial and ensu es as e ad- ap a ion o he challenges o he 21s cen u y wo kplace (Sou hwo h e al., 2023). The e a e nume ous examples o using AI in e e yday li e – om sel -d i ing ca s o sma homes and oice assis an s (Ng e al., 2021). Fo ex- ample, abou 66,000 Alexa skills a e a ailable in he US, bu only 33% o consume s hink hey a e al eady using a ious AI pla o ms. I is es ima ed ha 85 million jobs wo ldwide could po en ially be eplaced by AI and o he au oma- ion echnologies by 2025, and in elligen obo s could eplace 30% o he human wo k o ce globally by 2030 (Nick, 2023). An In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o Occupa ions s udy conduc ed in he US and Canada on egula ed occupa ions shows ha hose wi h a u u e (e.g., medical ca e, e e ina y ca e, IT suppo ) a e signi ican ly less h ea ened by au oma ion han hose in decline (e.g., business, inance and insu ance; anspo and ade; sales, o - ice suppo and adminis a ion; p oduc ion), whe e his h ea is signi ican (Mann e al., 2020). I is he e o e impe a i e ha he p epa- a ion o candida es o a ca ee in he la e occupa ions should include he abili y o wo k wi h machines and ICT li e acy. I is necessa y o use AI in he cu iculum, which should be suppo ed by enabling AI in di e en a eas; helping s uden s o know and unde s and AI; showing how o use and apply AI; c ea ing and e alua ing AI; and emphasizing AI- ela ed e hi- cal issues (Sou hwo h e al., 2023). 1.2 T us and dis us in ICT The concep o us is di icul o de ine, as i is a iously unde s ood wi hin he scien i ic disci- plines explo ing i , i.e., psychology, sociology, economics, managemen , poli ical science and o he s (Lewicka & Zak zewska-Bielawska, 2020). Mos esea ch conside s us in in- e pe sonal ela ionships, whe e one pa y is he us o and he o he he us ee. Howe e , i is wo h no ing ha us ela es o a speci ic con ex , e.g., o ganiza ional o online, and has a speci ic scope (Ja enpaa e al., 2004). A pa y o a us ela ionship is mos o en a pe son, bu i can also be an ins i u ion, an in elligen de ice, an objec ha pe o ms a unc ion, o a echnol- ogy (Lewicka e al., 2017). O pa icula in e - es seem o be conside a ions o us ela ed o he eme gence o humanoid obo s, which a e gi en a mechanical iden i y (Rakowska, 2021). The concep o us is shi ing o an expand- ing g oup o objec s, wi h he assump ion ha a leas one pa y o his ela ionship is human. Ob iously, his si ua ion aises many ques ions and conce ns. The main one conce ns he ques- ion o whe he and o wha ex en he ca ego y o us can be applied o he ela ionship be- ween a human being and a ma e ial objec . O h- e ques ions conce n he an eceden s o us , i s ypes and i s consequences. Technology us is a pa icula ype o us in which an indi idual as a use places us in echnology (Xu e al., 2014). P e ious de ini- ions o echnological us emphasize he ol- lowing aspec s o he ela ionship be ween humans and echnology (Lee & See, 2004): i) he expec a ion o help in achie ing goals, i.e., usabili y o echnology; ii) he an icipa- ion o eliabili y p edic abili y; he expec a ion o e ec i eness and e iciency o de ices om he pe spec i e o he c ea o s o he echnol- ogy; and iii) a pa icula ype o ela ionship cha ac e ized by unce ain y and ulne abili y. Resea ch indica es ha he use ’s le el o us in echnology in luences he s a egy o i s use (Baghe i & Jamieson, 2004). A lack o us in he echnology p ecludes i s ull use, which can lead o a dec ease in p oduc i i y and a ailu e o exploi oppo uni ies. The ocus o echnology us is on he con ex o ICT. This is because people ely on hem o an unp ec- eden ed deg ee and he digi al en i onmen is highly unce ain and isky. In e es ing esea ch con ex s ela ed o ou esea ch a e: us in on- line communica ion (Benlian & Hess, 2011), us in go e nmen websi es (Teo e al., 2008), us in so wa e (Lank on e al., 2014), cloud se ices ( an de We e al., 2019), cha box se ice (Balak ishnan & Dwi edi, 2021). A us cons uc comp ising h ee dimen- sions is mos used o examine echnological In o ma ion Managemen 225 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 us (Lank on e al., 2014): i) unc ionali y, he deg ee o which an indi idual belie es ha a sys em o i s componen s ha e he necessa y unc ions o accomplish speci ic asks o goals; ii) eliabili y, he deg ee o which he indi idual belie es ha he echnology will con inuously pe o m co ec ly, consis en ly and lawlessly; and iii) help ulness, he deg ee o which he in- di idual belie es ha he echnology will p o ide adequa e and esponsi e assis ance. I should be no ed ha hese dimensions a ose om he adap a ion by analogy o he gen- e ally accep ed dimensions o in e pe sonal us , i.e., compe ence, bene olence and in eg i y o he pu pose o us in echnology. We canno a ibu e compe ence o ICT, bu only o unc- ionali ies ha help people o achie e hei goals. Technical sys ems can show hei eliabili y by p o iding unc ionali y acco ding o designed capabili ies, consis en ly and con inuously. Technology canno show bene olence, bu i can espond o he needs and expec a- ions o use s and hus p o ide suppo and assis ance o hem. T us in echnology is also de e mined by indi idual ac o s such as p opensi y o us , gende , and cul u al ac o s. I is also linked o he o ganiza ional con ex wi h which he use o he echnology is associa ed. The o ganiza ional con ex se s he amewo k using he ins i u ional dimen- sions o s uc u al con idence and si ua ional no mali y, which in luence he ex en o us in a gi en echnology (Ejdys, 2018). T us is a posi i e men al s a e ha implies a posi i e expec a ion o a pa ne o objec , which allows one o cope wi h unce ain y abou he su ounding wo ld. I helps o ac o o e- spond o a ious ypes o unce ain si ua ions o e en s. Mos de ini ions o us indica e ha , despi e posi i e expec a ions, he indi idual is awa e o he possible nega i e consequences o us ing. T us is, he e o e, accompanied by dis us . The ques ion o whe he us and dis us a e opposing phenomena in one dimen- sion o whe he hei ela ionship is mo e com- plex has a ac ed he a en ion o esea che s (Cho, 2006). Ini ially, hese ela ionships we e desc ibed as opposing s a es loca ed a wo opposi e ends o a single con inuum. In con- as o us , whe e posi i e conno a ions a e assumed, dis us was unde s ood as a nega- i e expec a ion esul ing om he a ibu ion o nega i e in en ions o a pe son o objec , linked o isk and he possibili y o ha m. Al hough us and dis us a e de ined by schola s in di e en ways, i is cu en ly accep ed ha hey a e ela ed bu dis inc and sepa a e cons uc s. Tha is, lack o us is no necessa ily associa ed wi h high dis us and low dis us wi h high us . Howe e , linking he wo cons uc s implies ha hey in luence each o he o some ex en , e.g., a dec ease in dis- us may ha e posi i e consequences o us , while on he o he hand, a high le el o dis us is likely o be a symp om o low us in he e- la ionship (Lewicka & Zak zewska-Bielawska, 2022). Resea che s leaning owa ds his iew no e ha loss o us is no always associ- a ed wi h he de elopmen o dis us . They emphasize ha dis us can be educed wi hou inducing us and ice e sa (Ullman-Ma gali , 2004). A g owing g oup o esea che s also indica e ha dis us p o ec s indi iduals om he nega i e consequences o ela ionships (Bewsell, 2012). I causes indi iduals o ake p o ec i e measu es and o check he conse- quences o he unc ionali ies o e ed. Dis us e e s o ce ain nega i e expec a ions o hings ha a e ea ed. I can also be de ined as an un- willingness o be ulne able because o an ex- pec ed iola ion (Komiak & Benbasa , 2008). Dis us de ines a si ua ion as one in which we need o p o ec ou sel es and inc ease ou igilance. In his sense, i is a con ol mecha- nism ha signals isk and educes unce ain y (McKnigh & Che any, 2001). In his s a e, one ac o has no eason o us he o he and has many easons o be cau ious and igilan . Dis us can be conside ed as a men al s a e, a belie and eeling, and as a beha iou (Bew- sell, 2012). Based on he dimensions conce ning in e pe sonal dis us ollowing McKnigh and Che any (2001), he dimensions o dis us as a belie can be dis inguished: i) dis us ing belie compe ence/ unc ional belie , based on he belie ha he echnology will no mee ex- pec a ions ega ding i s unc ionali y; ii) dis us - ing belie p edic abili y, based on he belie ha he echnology will no be equally e icien and will no gua an ee he expec ed s anda dized le el o se ice quali y o e ime; and iii) dis- us ing belie bene olence/help ulness based on he belie ha he echnology is no able o sa is y he needs o a gi en use , e.g., he ex- pec ed le el o secu i y, gua an ee o p i acy. In u n, dis us as a beha iou may include beha iou s aimed a educing pe cei ed isks, In o ma ion Managemen 226 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 e.g., wi hd awal o eliance on echnology and, in se e e cases, a oidance o echnology use. The Edelman T us Ba ome e indica es ha al hough us in he echnology sec o emains high, he e is g owing conce n abou he e ec s o apid echnological de elopmen and dynamic change, pa icula ly among people in economically weake coun ies. Annual e- po s indica e ha people a ound he wo ld a e becoming inc easingly dis us ul o he wo ld a ound hem, including ins i u ions. Among he ac o s causing dis us a e many ha a e ela ed o echnology. Many esponden s ex- p ess conce n abou he u u e o wo k. These conce ns a e gene a ed by ac o s ela ed o echnology, au oma ion, he gig economy and he need o e ain om and lea n new skills. Fu he mo e, 73% o global esponden s wo y abou hei da a p i acy, 60% ag ee ha he use o echnology o eplace human wo k- e s will inc ease income inequali y, 65% ea ha echnology will make i impossible o know i wha people a e seeing o hea ing is eal. The abo e da a poin s o he need o inc eased esea ch on dis us o echnology. 1.3 Gende issues wi h ega d o ca ee eadiness, ICT and us Resea che s’ iews on ca ee eadiness be- ween women and men a e no homogenous. The esea ch did no ob ain conclusi e esul s. On he one hand, men mani es highe le els o ca ee eadiness h ough ca ee decision sel -e icacy and con idence in abili ies, while women iden i y mo e wi h hei ca ee iden- i y. Women pe cei e mo e ba ie s and expe- ience mo e ole con lic . On he o he hand, some s udies (including me a-analyses) ha e no shown ha gende is a ac o in luencing ca ee sel -e icacy decisions. This sugges s he indi ec ela ionship be ween gende and ca ee eadiness is media ed o mode a ed by o he ac o s (Pa ie i e al., 2016). Fu he - mo e, ca ee choices, educa ion and ca ee explo a ion a e s ongly ma ked by di ec and indi ec social in luences (Ikonen e al., 2020). Al eady, boys’ ea ly choice o a “ma h ack” based educa ional pa hway co ela es wi h hei g ea e p opensi y o compe e and makes hem mo e p i ileged in hei ca ee pa hway, compa ed o gi ls choosing a “li e a u e ack” (Buse e al., 2012). The esul s o s udies on gende di e ences wi h ega d o ICT li e acy a e inconclusi e, bu in hose based on sel -assessmen , highe compe encies o male s uden s a e o en appa - en (Siddiq & Sche e , 2019). This is pa ly due o men’s o e es ima ion o hei compe encies and he ha she sel -assessmen o women, who addi ionally eel ha he e is a cul u al ac- cep ance o hei lack o compe encies in his a ea (Kowalczyk, 2022). Women a e also cha - ac e ized by a g ea e ea o ICT, which is no , as is he case wi h men, modi ied by expe ience (B oos, 2005). In con as , ex ensi e esea ch based on me a-analysis in which ICT li e acy was measu ed h ough pe o mance-based as- sessmen s showed ha emale s uden s ha e highe le els o i . While his e ec is ela i ely small, i canno be igno ed (Siddiq & Sche e , 2019). Gende di e ences also ela e o he ex- en o sel -exp ession. Women exp ess hem- sel es in digi al media h ough blogs abou hei li es (e.g., s yle, amily), while men w i e mo e abou p o essional o echnical issues. This g ea e endency o women o sel -exp ess may be explained by he ac ha hey (like blogge s and logge s in gene al) end o ha e highe le els o neu o icism and highe (in ela- ion o people in gene al) le els o ex a e sion (Okdie & Rempala, 2020). Also, s e eo ypes play an impo an ole in gende di e ences as hey can help explain bo h beha iou s and decla a ions ela ing o ICT and ca ee choices. Desc ip i e gende s e eo ypes desc ibe wha women like and wha men like, while p esc ip- i e gende s e eo ypes desc ibe wha each gende should like (Heilman & Pa ks-S amm, 2007). I is gende s e eo ypes ha , a leas o some ex en , in luence women’s less e- quen choice o IT ca ee s and hei lowe in e es in echnology (Luxo Poland, 2023), as well as g ea e social accep ance o gaps in hei digi al compe encies (Raluca & Phillips, 2022). Mo eo e , women who escape such s e eo ypes equen ly ha e o ace nega i e social e alua ion. The esul s o s udies on gende di e - ences in us a e also no conclusi e. This is due o he mul iplici y o s udy con ex s and ac o s ha may in luence he esul s, such as social con ex , no ms, socie al s uc u e and gende oles. Expe imen al esea ch on gen- de di e ences in us p o ides mixed esul s (Mukhe jee, 2020). Some indica e ha men a e mo e us ing han women (Wu e al., 2020), while o he s udies (Bellema e & K öge , 2007) ind ha women a e mo e us ing han men. In o ma ion Managemen 227 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 Some s udies poin o ac o s ha demons a e he con ex ualiza ion o gende us , such as social dis ance, payou le el, gende di e si y, o lack he eo in he dyads s udied (Mukhe - jee, 2020). Resea che s in his a ea con i m ha gende con ex is wo h unde aking in us esea ch because o he p ac ical im- plica ions o , among o he hings, social policy educa ion and managemen . 2. Resea ch me hodology Despi e he inc easing impo ance o ICT in e e yday li e and he economy, he s a e o esea ch on us and dis us in ICT is s ill unsa is ac o y. The e o e, he ollowing objec- i es we e se in his s udy: o de e mine he im- pac o us and dis us in ICT on he ca ee eadiness o he s uden s su eyed and o iden- i y gende di e ences in he impac o us and dis us on ca ee eadiness. Th ee esea ch ques ions we e he e o e posed: RQ1: Whe he and how does ICT us in lu- ence ca ee eadiness? RQ2: Whe he and how does ICT dis us in luence ca ee eadiness? RQ3: Is he p esumed ela ionship be ween ICT us and ICT dis us de e mined by gende ? 2.1 Tools Ca ee eadiness was measu ed using he ca- ee eadiness scale de eloped by Bańka (2015), which consis ed o 15 i ems g ouped in o h ee ac o s using ac o analysis. This scale was de eloped in acco dance wi h he con ex ual app oach, and i examines he in ensi y o beha iou s enabling a smoo h ansi ion om he educa ion ma ke o he la- bou ma ke . In o he wo ds, i examines a pe - son’s eadiness o change hei dominan ole om ha o a s uden o ha o an employee. I ems o ming his scale, due o he dynam- ics o changes – gene a ional, echnological, and caused by he pandemic – ha ha e aken place in he labou ma ke ha e been subjec ed o he p incipal componen s ac o me hod which was used o analyze and unco e he unde ly- ing s uc u e o he da a. To in e p e he ac o s ha a e conside ed ele an , an o hogonal a imax o a ion o he loading ma ix was pe - o med, and he i ems we e so ed (Abdi, 2003). All o he i ems o he ca ee eadiness scale we e loaded on o h ee componen s, like in he ea lie e sion o he es (Tab. 1). How- e e , he s uc u e o he ac o s was sligh ly di e en . The ollowing h ee dimensions we e dis inguished: de e mina ion (7 i ems), ela ing o cou age and pe se e ance in pu sui o a ca- ee ; sac i ice (3 i ems), ela ing o willingness o make sac i ices and accep ance o being disc imina ed agains in he labou ma ke ; and engagemen (5 i ems), ela ing o b a e y and pe cei ing he ca ee as he main li e alue. The same me hod was used o analyze is- sues o us and dis us . The s udy was able o ex ac a single componen o ICT us , which includes six i ems ela ed o he dimensions ex- ac ed om he li e a u e e iew (Lank on e al., 2014), i.e., unc ionali y, help ulness, eliabili y, I ems Loadings Communali ies MSA Ca ee eadiness – de e mina ion (Eigen alue 5.452; % o a iance 36.35; C onbach’s alpha 0.862; KMO 0.864; Ba le es sig. 0.000) I know ha he e will always be someone who will know mo e han me, bu I s ill belie e ha i is no wo h pos poning he ca ee o you d eams un il you gain mo e expe ience 0.774 0.621 0.846 I belie e ha e e yone should igh o hei posi ion in he labou ma ke 0.768 0.614 0.891 I belie e ha anyone who wan s hei p o essional ca ee o con inue o de elop should no hesi a e i i is a good ime o ake i up 0.756 0.585 0.897 I ealize ha he e is a lo o compe i ion in he job ma ke , so I belie e i is impo an o ge in ol ed in a ca ee as ea ly as possible 0.754 0.582 0.871 Tab. 1: PCA esul s on ca ee eadiness dimension – Pa 1 In o ma ion Managemen 228 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 help ulness and enjoymen o ICT (e.g., Using ICT makes me ha e mo e ee ime; o ICT is becoming mo e use iendly (in ui i e)). Based on li e a u e sou ces, a scale was c e- a ed o measu e dis us in ICT (Komiak & Ben- basa , 2008; Lewicka & Zak zewska-Bielawska, 2022; McKnigh & Che any, 2001). In he case o ICT dis us , i e componen s we e c ea ed (Tab. 2): ha m ul ICT (e.g., I am a aid ha ICTs can be used o peep a and ea esd op on people); digi al anxie y (e.g., I p e e o limi my use o ICTs o ea o being chea ed/exploi - ed); digi al Illi e acy (e.g., I y o a oid chang- ing communica ion de ices (such as mobile phones, able s) because o he accompanying s ess); human-ICT compe i ion (e.g., I ea ICT will make humans no longe necessa y o ce ain jobs); and ICT scep icism (e.g., The e a e signi ican isks in using ICT). Th ee i ems om ICT dis us ha did no load on he app o- p ia e componen we e emo ed. Responses we e gi en using a 7-poin Like - ype scale, whe e 1 mean s ongly disag ee and 7 mean s ongly ag ee. C onbach’s alpha coe icien was used o assess he eliabili y o he indi idual scales. Thei alues exceeding 0.7 we e conside ed as accep able (Tabe , 2018). Fo he o e all I ems Loadings Communali ies MSA When expanding ca ee oppo uni ies is a s ake, I am eady o inc ease my e o s in he ield o in e es , e en a he expense o my ee ime 0.640 0.596 0.908 The oppo uni y o make a ca ee is an impo an li e goal ha I canno gi e up 0.622 0.606 0.891 My desi e o pu sue a wo hwhile ca ee is so s ong ha he e a e a ew ac o s ha could de e me om his in en ion 0.604 0.605 0.871 Ca ee eadiness – engagemen (Eigen alue 2.482; % o a iance 16.55; C onbach’s alpha 0.804; KMO 0.834; Ba le es sig. 0.000) In o de o mee he condi ions o s a ing and con inuing he ca ee I am in e es ed in, I am eady o wo k o some ime, e en o a e y low sala y 0.757 0.610 0.893 In o de o ealize my ca ee plans, I am eady o pos pone he momen o ge ing ma ied un il my ca ee s abilizes 0.738 0.573 0.889 Fo an a ac i e ca ee , I am eady o pe se e e e en i my lo ed ones do no accep i 0.710 0.566 0.908 Fo an a ac i e ca ee , I am eady o gi e up s abili y o a longe pe iod o ime, such as buying my own apa men 0.710 0.600 0.917 Fo an a ac i e ca ee , I am eady o gi e up social and cul u al en e ainmen o a long ime 0.608 0.384 0.907 Ca ee eadiness – sac i ice (Eigen alue 1.016; % o a iance 6.77; C onbach’s alpha 0.707; KMO 0.671; Ba le es sig. 0.000) I would a he li e wi h he cons an psychological isk o wo k han be s uck in po e y 0.742 0.602 0.924 I am willing o sac i ice my pe sonal and amily li e o a while o gain p ospec s o a wo hwhile ca ee 0.604 0.641 0.912 Fo a good ca ee , I am willing o endu e a ious isks, such as he isk o being ea ed badly a wo k 0.530 0.565 0.890 No e: Ex ac ion me hod – p incipal componen analysis; o a ion me hod – a imax; loadings below 0.53 a e no p e- sen ed; McDonald’s omega 0.873. Sou ce: own Tab. 1: PCA esul s on ca ee eadiness dimension – Pa 2 In o ma ion Managemen 229 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 es , McDonald’s omega coe icien s we e de e mined, i s alue being accep able (Hayes & Cou s, 2020). The Kaise -Meye -Olkin (KMO) es measu es he common a iance be ween he componen s. The KMO alue be ween 0.8 and 1.0 indica es ha he sample is adequa e. KMO alues be ween 0.7 and 0.79 a e a e age, 0.6 and 0.69 a e medium (Sh es- ha, 2021). The Ba le es o sphe ici y checks whe he a iables a e in e co ela ed. When I ems Loadings Communali ies MSA ICT dis us – ha m ul ICT (Eigen alue 7.839; % o a iance 34.08; C onbach’s alpha 0.876; KMO 0.887; Ba le es sig. 0.000) I am conce ned ha ICT is being used o manipula e people 0.829 0.728 0.901 I am conce ned ha ICT can be used o spy and ea esd op on people 0.814 0.719 0.897 ICT con ibu es o addic ion 0.733 0.604 0.935 I am conce ned ha ICT can be used o damage someone’s image 0.708 0.571 0.946 I am conce ned ha ICT is signi ican ly changing he way we li e 0.655 0.655 0.928 ICT dis ac s people om eal p oblems in he wo ld 0.629 0.570 0.958 ICT dis us – digi al anxie y (Eigen alue 2.994; % o a iance 13.02; C onbach’s alpha 0.851; KMO 0.856; Ba le es sig. 0.000) I am a aid my supe io s use ICT o con ol wha I do 0.784 0.671 0.928 I am e y conce ned ha someone is using echnology o spy and ea esd op on e e y hing I do 0.774 0.717 0.913 I am a aid o websi es like Google, Yahoo, and Bing because hey migh allow o he people o hu me 0.725 0.692 0.926 I am a aid ha obo s may ake o e he wo ld 0.679 0.645 0.929 I p e e o limi he use o ICT o ea o being chea ed/used 0.597 0.655 0.945 ICT dis us – digi al illi e acy (Eigen alue 1.656; % o a iance 7.20; C onbach’s alpha 0.793; KMO 0.693; Ba le es sig. 0.000) I y o a oid changing communica ion de ices (such as mobile phone, able ) because o he s ess in ol ed 0.822 0.742 0.888 I eel anxious when I ha e o lea n a new ope a ing sys em on my compu e (e.g., changing om Windows 7 o 8 o Windows 10) 0.816 0.725 0.892 I I need o use he new ICT, I eel anxious ha I will no be able o ul il my asks as planned 0.649 0.632 0.943 ICT dis us – human-ICT compe i ion (Eigen alue 1.095; % o a iance 4.76; C onbach’s alpha 0.806; KMO 0.659; Ba le es sig. 0.000) I ea ha , hanks o he de elopmen o ICT, many people will lose hei jobs 0.836 0.792 0.858 I am a aid ha ICT will make a human no longe necessa y in some p o essions 0.795 0.769 0.861 ICT secu i y is no enough o make me eel sa e using his echnology 0.600 0.639 0.936 Tab. 2: Resul s o PCA on ICT us and dis us dimensions – Pa 1 In o ma ion Managemen 236 2024, olume 27, issue 2, pp. 221–239, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2024-2-013 – e.g., echnophobia and echnophilia, cha - ac e ized by inadequa e esponse o digi al s imuli, digi al well-being o he unc ioning o an o ganiza ion whe e digi al solu ions a e in oduced in pe sonnel managemen . The au ho s also see po en ial in he ap- plica ion o esea ch me hods and p ocedu es in ol ing he use o expe imen s, including hose conduc ed in augmen ed eali y and longi udinal s udies gi ing he possibili y o as- sess he change in us o e ime depending on a se o a iables, e.g., expe ience o use. In he applica ion dimension, esea ch on ICT us and dis us can be used o design new echnological solu ions so ha hey induce he desi ed a i udes owa ds ICT in use s, p epa a ion o p og ammes o p omo e ICT so- lu ions among g oups cha ac e ized by dis us owa ds digi al echnologies o p epa a ion o me hods and wo kshops o b idge he digi al gap and p e en digi al exclusion. 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