New evidence for the Late Iron Age in the Posočje region, Slovenia
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77STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVII/2, 77–97 New evidence for the Late Iron Age in the Posočje region, Slovenia Boštjan Laharnar ABSTRACT Several archaeological sites from the Late Iron Age have recently been discovered in Posočje, aregion along the upper and middle reaches of the River Soča/Isonzo (NW Slovenija, NE fringes of Italy), which compel us to re -examine the Latenisation of the region. Supra -regional La Tène forms began to appear in the material culture at the end of the Early Iron Age, in the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC.This was followed by amarked decrease in habitation remains, a‘hundred -year crisis’ with very little archaeological evidence available for the time between the initial decades of the 3rd and the mid-2nd century BC.The picture then changed again with the rise of the Late Iron Age Idrija group, as most of the sites connected with this group date between 150/130 BC and the Augustan period. This is also the period of the first ancient literary sources mentioning the wider area, which inspire ever newer attempts at ethnic identifications of the population living there. The sources reveal that the Romans appear to have associated the area with the Carni. KEYWORDS Slovenia; Posočje region; Late Iron Age; Idrija group; archaeological sites; material culture; Carni. EARLY IRON AGE IN POSOČJE Posočje is aregion (cf. Fig. 15) along the middle and upper reaches of the Soča River (Isonzo in Italian) and its tributaries, where settlement, already in the Early Iron Age, was concentrated along the natural routes connecting the hinterland of the northern Adriatic with the Friuli Plain and the Alps. The Early Iron Age (8th–4th centuries BC) of the region is defined as the Posočje or Sveta Lucija group. Its central site is at Most na Soči (formerly Sveta Lucija / Santa Lucia), at the confluence of the rivers Soča and Idrijca, where over 7000 flat cremation graves have been excavated since the 1880s(Teržan– Lo Schiavo– Trampuž -Orel 1984; 1985; Mlinar 2020). The associated settlement, naturally well -protected and partly artificially fortified, was investigated between 1971 and 1984, revealing the remains of 39 houses (Svoljšak– Dular 2016; Dular– Tecco Hvala 2018). In the last few decades, new research has been carried out at Most na Soči, but also at other sites in Posočje and detected new settlement, burial and cult sites, as well as stray finds that significantly advanced the knowledge on the settlement pattern in the Early Iron Age (Teržan 2022, 347–396; Mlinar– Tecco Hvala 2022, 397–469). LATE IRON AGE IN POSOČJE Towards the end of the 4th century BC, anew cultural phenomenon emerged in Posočje, labelled the Idrija group. The onset of the new, Late Iron Age seems to have been accompanied by the process of Latenisation and apopulation decline. The former can be observed in the emergence of anew material culture, the latter in the smaller number of sites, especially
78 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVII/2 from the 3rd and first half of the 2nd century BC.As regards new forms of objects, two find contexts are particularly telling: one is the find of at least seven horse skeletons buried together with horse equipment, weapons, tools and jewellery at the site of Bizjakova hiša in Kobarid (Fig.1). The finds predominantly consist of La Tène culture forms of the LT B2 phase of the central European chronology: iron swords in their scabbards (e.g. upper right on Fig.1: sword in ascabbard decorated with apair of stylized animals), iron bivalve shield bosses, iron belt chains, abronze brooch of the Münsingen type and ahollow bronze bracelet with figural and geometric decoration (Mlinar– Gerbec 2011, cat. nos. 1–5, 15–21, 27, 37, 38). The archaeozoological analysis showed that the horses most likely belonged to the western type of riding horses (Toškan 2011, 44–50). The artefacts, on the other hand, also included items in the Hallstatt culture tradition such as different iron spearheads, abronze ribbed armlet with overlapping ends, abronze knobbed bracelet, bronze buttons, and abronze strap distributor (Mlinar– Gerbec 2011, cat. nos. 7–14, 39–40, 45–46). The authors interpret the find as the remnants of acult act dating to around 300 BC, perhaps following abattle between local warriors and newcomers– horsemen with La Tène battle gear (Gerbec– Mlinar 2014, 577–584; Gerbec– Mlinar 2022, 92–94; Teržan 2022, 394–395). Roughly contemporaneous, from the late 4th or early 3rd century BC, is awarrior’sgrave from Srpenica, located only 11 km north of Kobarid (Fig. 2). This grave displays acultural interplay of the traditional and the new, La Tène features. The burial rite perpetuates the Early Iron Age tradition of cremation, while the grave goods consist of supra -regional forms such as an iron bivalve shield boss with an incised La Tène style motif in the ‘crouching form of abackward -looking beast with open mouth, curled back crest and tail’ according to Megaw Fig. 1: Kobarid -Bizjakova hiša. Plan of the site with the horse skeletons and metal finds, the latter including asword in adecorated scabbard (after Mlinar– Gerbec 2011, fig. 14, cat. no. 5).
79BOŠTJAN LAHARNAR (Fig. 2:3 and Fig. 3) and an intentionally bent iron spearhead of aclassic form (Fig. 2:4) in addition to traditional items such as aCertosa brooch of Teržan’stype Xg (Fig. 2:1) and an iron shaft -hole axe (Fig. 2:2) (Laharnar– Mlinar 2019, 645–658). The contexts from Kobarid and Srpenica support both the hypothesis of araid by groups armed with La Tène -type weapons from the more northerly Alpine areas and that of La Tène weapons, costumes and funerary customs being introduced to the local population (Laharnar– Mlinar 2019, 655–656; Gerbec– Mlinar 2022, 93). What is more difficult to explain is the significant population decline that ensues and is evidenced in the near absence of archaeological sites from the later 3rd and the first half of the 2nd century BC (Mlinar 2020, 152–153). So far, the only context sufficiently reliably dated to LT C1–C2 is apit with iron military equipment that was unearthed in the cemetery at Čadrg -Laze. The equipment consists of adeliberately damaged sword of aMiddle La Tène construction recovered separately from its scabbard, an iron chain belt with flat links, aspearhead, spear butt, and aband shield boss. The earliest find from the pit is abronze Certosa brooch of Type Xg according to Teržan (Mlinar– Turk 2016, cat. nos. 39–45). Fig. 2: Srpenica -Lanišča. Grave goods: 1– bronze Certosa brooch; 2– iron shaft -hole axe; 3–4– iron bivalve shield boss; 5– iron spearhead (from Laharnar– Mlinar 2019, fig. 3).
80 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVII/2 The situation in the following period, from the mid-2nd century BC to the beginning of the Augustan period, in LT D1 and LT D2 of the central European chronology, is completely different. It is the period to which most of the archaeological sites that define the Late Iron Age Idrija group date. The best known is the eponymous site– the cemetery at Idrija pri Bači (Szombathy 1901; Guštin 1991). Characteristic of the graves at Idrija pri Bači and other contemporary, but smaller cemeteries are pieces of costume such as the local variants of bronze and silver brooches (Fig. 4:2, 5:1–3, 5:6–7), twisted bronze and silver torcs with three knots (Fig. 4:3, 5:9) and Late Republican bronze vessels imported from Italy (Fig. 5:13). Also characteristic, is the custom of placing farming and other tools in graves (Fig. 4:6–13, 5:10–12) (Guštin 1991; Božič 2007; Mlinar 2020, pl. 20, 21:8–11). Two new sites with Late La Tène graves and stray finds have recently been found that bring important new evidence on the settlement in Posočje in the final phase of the Iron Age. The first is located at Podbela in the valley of the River Nadiža (Natisone in Italian), where unauthorised metal -detectorists came across objects from the Early and Late Iron Ages. The ensuing investigations, conducted by the Centre for Preventive Archaeology of the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia, documented acremation grave of two individuals with numerous goods dating to LT D1 (jewellery, weapons, tools, pottery, and bronze Fig. 3: Srpenica -Lanišča. Iron bivalve shield boss decorated in the La Tène style (from Laharnar– Mlinar 2019, fig. 4).
81BOŠTJAN LAHARNAR Fig. 4: Idrija pri Bači. Select grave goods from LT D1 found in Grave 1 (from Guštin 1991, pl. 1–2).
82 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVII/2 Fig. 5: Idrija pri Bači. Select grave goods from LT D1 found in Grave 5 (from Guštin 1991, pl. 6–7).
83BOŠTJAN LAHARNAR vessels) that was dug into alayer with large amounts of charcoal, broken pottery, and metal objects, as well as glass beads. This layer indicates votive activities that took place either at the time of the burial or also before and after it (Fabecetal. 2021). GRADEC NEAR KRN The second site is at Gradec near Krn, high above the valley of the Soča, on asmall domed foothill below Mount Krn, at an altitude of 931 m.a.s.l. (Fig. 6). Similar to Podbela, the first finds at Gradec near Krn were dug up with the help of ametal detector. The unauthorised enthusiast found jewellery, weapons, tools and vessels from the Early1 and Late Iron Ages (select finds on Fig. 7–11) (Laharnar– Mlinar 2022). To verify the information on the location and on the context of the find, ateam of archaeologists from the Tolmin Museum conducted ageophysical survey in 2018 and trial trenching in the autumn of 2020. The results of the geophysical survey using the magnetic method indicated ahigh probability of buried layers with burnt remains and/or cremation burials. These results were used for the test trenching that revealed the traces of cremation burials from the Early Iron Age already dug up by the metal -detectorist (Laharnar– Mlinar 2022, 559, 560–561, fig. 2, 3, 4), as well as an intact Late La Tène grave (Fig. 12–13) (Laharnar– Mlinar 2022, 559–560, fig. 2, 3, pl. 1–2). This grave held atwice -bent sword (Fig. 12:1), sword scabbard (Fig. 12:2), rings from amilitary belt (Fig. 12:3–5), shield boss (Fig. 12:6), spearhead and spear butt (Fig. 13:1–2), knife (Fig. 13:3) and an axe (Fig. 13:4). The sword is probably the earliest piece of the warrior’sequipment (Fig. 12:1). The oval- -sectioned tang and the blade section that is diamond -shaped in the upper and lenticular in the lower part indicate it is aMiddle La Tène period product (cf. Drnić 2015, 131, pl. 6:3). The evenly sloping shoulders and the blade with aslight groove on either side of the midrib also characterise swords of the Middle La Tène construction (cf. Horvat 2002, 134, 155, fig. 9, pl. 1:3). The two swords from the above -mentioned pit with the Middle La Tène warrior equipment found in Čadrg (Mlinar– Turk 2016, 40, 58, cat. no. 39) and from Grave 4 at Idrija pri Bači (Guštin 1991, 14, pl. 4:2), respectively, also have slanted shoulders. They reflect the introduction of Middle La Tène military equipment in Posočje; Grave 4 at Idrija pri Bači that dates to the Late La Tène phase of LT D1 also marks its function as an heirloom. The latter may hold true of the warrior’soutfit from Gradec as well, as most other items in the grave date to the Late La Tène period. These items include aMokronog -Arquà type shield boss (Fig. 12:6) (Guštin 1991, 56–57, fig. 29:1) characteristic of LT D1 with parallels from sites in Posočje, Carnia and Veneto (IT), Carinthia (AT), Notranjska (SW Slovenia), Dolenjska (SE Slovenia) and recorded examples reaching all the way to Hungary, Slavonia and Srem in the east (Guštin 1991, 58, fig. 30; Righi 2001, 117, fig. 12:33, 14:49–54, 15:57–59, 16:10, 17:65–66, 18:67; Gaspari 2009, 322, fig. 6:6; Dizdar– Potrebica 2014, 361, pl. 2:1; Guštin 2015, 172–174). While the sword and shield boss are supra -regional La Tène forms, the knife with acurved blade (Fig. 13:3) and the winged axe (Fig. 13:4) rather have parallels among local finds. This is particularly true of the knife that resembles two examples from aLT D1 grave at Idrija pri Bači (Fig. 4:5) and from Grad near Reka (Istenič 2023, 117, fig. 4:12). Although the latter is astray find, the other 1 The objects date to the Late Hallstatt period. Particularly important is the find of abronze situla decorated in the situla art style of the late 5th / early 4th century BC (Laharnar– Mlinar 2022, 564–565, pl. 8:1, App. 1).
84 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVII/2 Fig. 6: Gradec near Krn. View of Mount Krn with an arrow marking the location of the site (photo Miha Mlinar, Tolminski muzej).
85BOŠTJAN LAHARNAR Fig. 7: Gradec near Krn. Fragmented iron swords and ascabbard (from Laharnar– Mlinar 2022, pl. 10).
92 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVII/2 eastern Alps (Laharnar 2022, 262–268). The closest site that is relatively well -investigated is at Most na Soči -Repelc, located on the terrace overlooking the confluence of the rivers Soča and Idrijca. The site was excavated in 2000–2002 and revealed burials from the Early Iron Age, Late Iron Age and the Roman period, as well as aroughly 12 m2 large burning place interpreted as either pyre remains (ustrinum) or acult place of the Brandopferplatz type. The up to 30 cm thick layer of burnt remains contained alarge amount of charcoal, burnt stones, cremated human remains, pieces of mostly unburnt animal remains, as well as numerous fragments of artefacts from the Late Hallstatt, Late La Tène and beginning of the Roman period. The finds include bronze brooches (e.g. the Almgren 65 type, cf. Fig. 5:4) and other pieces of jewellery such as fragments of bronze and silver twisted torcs (cf. Fig. 4:3, 5:9) and iron weapons (fragmented sword blade, scabbard chape, pieces of shield bosses, and ashield handgrip) from LT D1 (Mlinar 2020, 58–60, 143–145, pl. 36B–41), i.e. forms contemporary to those unearthed at Gradec near Krn. THE IDRIJA GROUP AND THE CARNI Archaeological evidence demonstrates the Idrija group flourished in the Late La Tène phases of LT D1 and LT D2 (from 150/130 BC to the Augustan period). The 2nd and 1st centuries BC are also atime illuminated through ancient literary and epigraphic sources that provide ahistorical account of the area of Caput Adriae and its hinterland, which includes the Posočje region. These sources mention different peoples, mainly in connection with the campaigns of the Roman army (Šašel 1975–1976, 601–618 = Opera 1992, 432–449; Šašel 1976, 71–90 = Opera 1992, 408–431; Vedaldi Iasbez 1994; Šašel Kos 1997; 2005). The availability of both archaeological evidence and historical sources leads to ever new attempts to correlate the archaeological groups with the peoples related in written sources. The literary sources indicate that the Romans likely saw it as the land of the Carni (Božič 1999, 203; Istenič 2005, 83–84; Istenič 2015, 59). Aware that material culture cannot be used as evidence of the ethnicity of the people inhabiting Posočje in the Late Iron Age (Mlinar 2020, 154; Gerbec– Mlinar 2022, 93), the prevailing view in recent decades has been to associate the region with the Carni. They are believed to have dominated Posočje in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, merging with the local population (Mlinar 2020, 154). Fig. 14: Rome, Fasti triumphales: the triumph of Marcus Aemilius Scaurus over Carni the Gauls (after Zaccaria 2023, fig. 4).
93BOŠTJAN LAHARNAR Fig. 15: Location of the sites mentioned in the text (map by Nejc Dolinar, ©GURS).
94 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVII/2 Having said that, we still seem to be hasty in correlating archaeological evidence with ancient written sources and the etymological origins of geographical names. Atypical example is the attempts to define the geographical area inhabited by the Carni, where conclusions are often drawn from the above -mentioned evidence even though there is no clear connection between them (Šašel Kos 2005, 413; Guštin 2011, 452–456; Guštin– Grisoni 2022, 145). In Antiquity, the name Carni referred to different groups of people living between Trieste and the Friuli Plain to the foothills of the southeastern Alps and the hinterland of Caput Adriae (Vedaldi Iasbez 1994, 229–239, 407–408; Guštin 2011, 448–450; Guštin– Grisoni 2022, 144). An important find in this regard is the inscription relating the triumph of the Roman consul Marcus Aemilius Scaurus over the Gallic Carni (de Galleis Karneis) in 115 BC, which shows that the Carni were identified as aCeltic people; the date of his triumph coincides with the dating of most of the La Tène finds from Gradec near Krn. The inscription is preserved on one of the stone tablets of Fasti triumphales, an epigraphic monument that lists the victorious Roman army commanders from the foundation of Rome to the Augustan era and was erected in Rome in 12 AD (Fig. 14). Claudio Zaccaria notes that the information on the Gallic Carni is ahistoriographical tradition integrated into alater epigraphic document, hence it is not clear which of the Carni, who are not identified as Celts in any other ancient literary source, the Fasti are referring to (Zaccaria 2023, 129, 131–132). Moreover, it seems likely that the Romans would emphasise the importance of their victory over one of the peoples living in the mountainous southeastern Alps by identifying them as Celts, asynonym for their old and formidable enemy from the north (cf. Williams 2001, 170–179, 210–211). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author acknowledges the financial support from the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency (as apart of the J6-3125 research project). BIBLIOGRAPHY Bolla, M. 2002: Vasellame bronzeo di tombe celtiche. In: A. Aspes (ed.): Preistoria veronese. Contributi e aggiornamenti. Memorie del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona. Sezione Scienze dell’Uomo 5. Verona, 205–207. Bolla, M.– Boube, C.– Guillaumet, J.-P.1991: Les situles. In: M. Feugère– C. Rolley (eds.): La vaisselle tardo ‑républicaine en bronze. Dijon, 7–22. Bolla, M.– Castoldi, M. 2016: Irecipienti di bronzo in Italia settentrionale tra IV e Isecolo a.C. e il caso del territorio veronese [Bronaste posode vseverni Italiji med 4. in 1. stoletjem pr. n. št. in primer veronskega območja]. Arheološki vestnik 67, 121–175. Božič, D. 1999a: Die Erforschung der Latènezeit in Slowenien seit Jahr 1964 [Raziskovanje latenske dobe na Slovenskem po letu 1964]. Arheološki vestnik 50, 189–213. Božič, D. 1999b: Tre insediamenti minori del gruppo protostorico di Idrija pri Bači dell’Isontino. In: S. Santoro Bianchi (ed.): Studio e conservazione degli insediamenti minori romani in area alpina: atti dell’incontro di studi. Studi e Scavi 8. Bologna, 71–79. Božič, D. 2007: The reconstruction and analysis of the Late La Tène hoard of iron tools from Vrhovlje pri Kojskem above the Soča Valley. In: M. Chiabà– P.Maggi– C. Magrini (eds.): Le valli del Natisone e dell’ Isonzo tra Centroeuropa e Adriatico. Studi e ricerche sulla Gallia Cisalpina 20. Roma, 225–235.
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