Radiation hazard assessment from NORM-added paint products in Malaysia

Original article Radiation hazard assessment from NORM-added paint products in Malaysia N.Z.H. Abu Hanifah a , S. Hashim a,b, ⇑ , Halmat J. Hassan a,c , M.R.F Abdul Hadi d , M.S.M. Sanusi a , D.A. Bradley e,f , R. García-Tenorio g,h , R.M. Tahar i a Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310 UTM, Skudai, Malaysia b Ibnu Sina Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research (ISISIR), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310 UTM, Skudai, Malaysia c Department of Physics, College of Education, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimani 46001, Kurdistan, Iraq d School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Gelugor, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia e School of Engineering and Technology, Sunway University, 47500 Selangor, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia f Department of Physics, University of Surrey, GU2 7XH Guilford, United Kingdom g Department of Applied Physics II, ETSA, University of Seville, Seville, Spain h Centro Nacional de Aceleradores, CNA, University of Seville-J.Andalucía-CSIC, Seville, Spain i Atomic Energy Licensing Board, Jalan Dengkil, Batu 24, Dengkil 43000, Selangor, Malaysia article info Article history: Received 21 August 2021 Revised 23 November 2021 Accepted 18 January 2022 Available online 25 January 2022 Keywords: Consumer products Ion paint GMC simulation Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) Regulations abstract Introduction: Across the globe, radioactive consumer products are widely marketed for daily use. Objectives: The present study investigated commercially available ion paint, and the evaluations were using gamma ( c )-ray spectroscopy and Geant4 Monte Carlo (GMC) simulations. Methods: An assessment of a radiological risk arising from using such products in the painting of living areas is conducted when Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (TENORM) was observed, with a daily inhalation exposure dose being of particular concern. Organ doses were simulated using adult mathematical Medical Internal Radiation Dose 5 (MIRD5)-type phantoms, incorporating dose conversion factors (DCFs). Results: Results showed that a product sample code of IP04 contained the highest activity, i.e., 4449 ± 530, 31888 ± 2175, and 2963 ± 405 Bq kg 1 , for 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K, respectively. Contrarily, NP18 recorded the lowest, i.e., 16 ± 2 and 30 ± 5, Bq kg 1 of 238 U and 232 Th, respectively. The IP04 paint offered the most significant concentrations, with mean percentages of 0.026, 0.81, and 0.06 for 238 U, 232 Th, and 212 Pb, respectively. Its use in a designated Room 1 had resulted in an annual effective dose of 1.53 mSv y 1 , assuming an exposure for a period of 8 h day 1 . Conclusion: In brief, using these ion paints could result in amounts that exceed the annual public dose limit of 1 mSv. Ó2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 1. Introduction All life on earth is subjected to continuous streams of radiation as a result of natural sources. Terrestrial NORM is the primary source of ionising radiation exposure from such sources (Joel et al., 2018). Additionally, public members may also be exposed to unexpected sources resulting from disturbed environments, typically caused by anthropogenic activities. Increased levels of NORM are found in the residue/waste streams of the extractive industries. Several consumer products contain NORM, which is of current interest. While increased NORM levels are typically unintentional by-products of industrial processes, the addition to consumer products is deliberate. Although unproven, the industries claim that radiation emanations provide health and aesthetic benefits. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulate the control of NORM-added radioactive consumer products, including their distribution (Yoo et al., 2015). Natural radioactivity is most comhttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101850 1018-3647/Ó2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). ⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310 UTM, Skudai, Malaysia. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Hashim). Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University. Production and hosting by Elsevier Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 101850 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of King Saud University – Science journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com monly derived from a mixture of uranium-238 ( 238 U), thorium-232 ( 232 Th), and potassium-40 ( 40 K) (UNSCEAR, 2000, 1988). These radionuclides can be found significantly in everything, from daily food to building materials (Chae et al., 2016; Malain and Kanchana, 2019). The extractive industries, such as the waste stream of the upstream oil and gas industry, ore mining, milling, and waste, have altered the natural concentration of radionuclides and associated activity (ARPANSA, 2008). While some refer to this as TENORM, it is more commonly referred to as NORM (Chen, 2015; Cooper, 2005; Health Canada, 2011). NORM can also be found in some consumer products where radionuclide molecules are bound to specific minerals during the manufacturing process. One example is zircon, which contains trace amounts of Th and U. The half-lives of decay products can range from sub-seconds to thousands of years, such as radium-226 ( 226 Ra) from 238 U, which has a half-life of 1600 years. Meanwhile, radium-228 ( 228 Ra) from Th are the primary sources of radiation from natural surroundings (Hesty and Anri, 2018; Setlow, 2002). Various sources of information on NORM have been published by national and international organisations, most notably the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). However, there is relatively little information available for consumer products. According to Japanese guidelines, U, Th, and titanium (Ti) ores, as well as zircon, monazite, and bastnasite, are the raw materials of NORM used in consumer products. A more comprehensive account of the actual materials used by the industry, on the other hand, is not publicised (Furuta et al., 2011). It is also unclear how much radioactivity is added to each consumer product. Therefore, this issue will be partly investigated in the current study of a particular paint product. Depending on the dose of radiation, radiation exposure can cause radiation-damaged to the tissue or organ. In addition, radiation can impair the functioning of tissue or organ beyond a certain threshold. It also can produce acute effects such as hair loss, skin reddening, radiation burns or acute syndrome. These effects are more severe at higher doses and higher dose rates. For instance, the dose threshold for acute radiation syndrome is about 1 Sv (1000 mSv) (Cullom and Bateman, 2010). Exposure to ionising radiation at moderate and high doses has been linked to increased cancer risk in epidemiological studies. Childhood exposure, in particular, raises the risk of leukaemia, breast cancer, and thyroid cancer than exposure at other ages. These cancers, which are one of the most commonly caused by radiation, have a complicated age dependency that follows the change in background rate (AAP, 1998). For instance, prolonged use of products incorporated with radioactive substances will increase the cancer risk to the consumer due to the products. For this study, several so-called ion paints (NORM-added) produced locally in Malaysia were obtained online and through local market purchases, with a lack of radioactivity information given in the products. When used, these radioactive consumer products will expose users to both internal and external radiation. Surprisingly, these paints are available to the general public, with potential applications in residential housing (Yoo et al., 2018, 2015). According to the ion paint manufacturers, these products are made of tourmaline powder, volcanic materials, and/or other minerals. The purveyors and manufacturers claimed that the negative ion technology used has health benefits such as improving circulation and flexibility and the ability to detoxify and boost energy levels, which could lead to cancer prevention (Pabroa et al., 2011). They also claimed that this technology could maintain health, improve energy balance, and improve emotional well-being (Mubarak et al., 2016). Ion paints contain U and Th, which are concentrated in their activity (Yoo et al., 2018). As the risks have recently been identified, NORM has increasingly become subject to monitoring and regulation (Lee et al., 2016). According to the IAEA’s safety guide ‘‘Radiation Safety for Consumer Products,” the use of such items must first be justified due to the lack of scientific evidence that such paints provide any health benefits to the general public (IAEA, 2014a, 2016). Recently, in Malaysian law, an ‘‘Assessment and licencing of a consumer product containing radioactive material” has been enacted to limit public radiation exposure from NORM-added consumer products (AELB, 2016). In other countries, such legislation was preceded by control measures, such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) guidelines for TENORM regulation (EPA, 2000). Despite such isolated actions, globally harmonised regulations in respect of the control of the radioactive content consumer products have yet to be established (Yoo et al., 2016). Furthermore, there are currently no procedures yet for monitoring exposure in terms of effective dose from the use of TENORM-added products. Radiation risk assessment for NORM-added consumer products is essential; for instance, ICRP has stating that certain exposures should be deemed unjustified without further analysis unless there are exceptional circumstances (ICRP, 2007). Therefore, the current study is intended to investigate the activity of the long-lived radionuclides 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K through ion paints sampling, quantifying the possible radiation hazard from the usage. The dose from the exposure to the human was also simulated using GMC. In this regard, exposure was analysed using the MIRD5 mathematical male and female phantoms, with DCFs and organ dose evaluated, focusing on assessing external exposure radiation dose. 2. Methodology 2.1. Sampling The tourmaline powder and zirconium (Zr), which contain U and Th, are advertised as ingredients in ion paint products (Lee et al., 2016). In the present study, 20 different wall paint samples were purchased online. All the packaging or labels of the products contain no evidence of any radioactivity. We have designated the products as either ion or conventional paint, as follows: ten ion paint samples (code IP01 to IP10), ten normal paint samples (code NP11 to NP20). 2.2. Instrumentation and calibration Each sample was transferred into a 500 mL Marinelli beaker before counted by an HPGe detector for a period of 20 h. A single geometrical configuration is maintained for all of the paint samples. The c emissions were measured directly with an ORTEC GEM Series P-type coaxial HPGe spectrometer (GEM20-76-LB-CSMPCFG-SV-LB-76; 1.8 keV FWHM at 1332 keV with 33% relative efficiency), which provides high-performance c -spectroscopy over the energy range of 40 keV to several MeV. Besides Mobius cooling system, the system also employs high-resolution spectroscopy software (VISION version 8) for spectral analysis. The spectra were calibrated using a 500 mL standard multinuclides source, which provided a wide range of photon energy emissions from radionuclides distributed in a liquid matrix ( 210 Pb, 241 Am, 109 Cd, 57 Co, 123m Te, 51 Cr, 113 Sn, 85 Sr, 137 Cs, 88 Y, and 60 Co). All of the c emissions have energies greater than 200 keV, thus are unaffected by potential differences in densities between the normal liquid and the paint samples examined in the current study. Under current measurement conditions, the 238 U series had counting efficiencies of 0.64% for 214 Bi (609.3 keV) and 1.1% for 214 Pb (351.8 keV). For 232 Th series, they were 1.24% for 228 Ac (338.2 keV), 0.6% for 212 Bi (727 keV), 1.52% for 212 Pb (238.4 keV), N.Z.H. Abu Hanifah, S. Hashim, H.J. Hassan et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 101850 2 0.71% for 208 Tl (583 keV), and 0.16% for 208 Tl (2614 keV). Meanwhile, the counting efficiency for 40 K is 0.2% at 1460 keV (AlSewaidan, 2019; Alshahri, 2017). Except 40 K, all the c lines consist of a high branching ratio (Clouvas et al., 2000). The radionuclide activities in the paint samples were evaluated in secular equilibrium, with the emission lines of the relatively short-lived decay products adequately considered. The results for 232 Th were calculated using an average of 212 Pb (238 keV), 228 Ac (338 keV and 911 keV), 212 Bi (727 keV), and 208 Tl (583 keV and 2614 keV) emissions, while the activities for 238 U were calculated using an average of 214 Pb (295 keV and 351.8 keV) and 214 Bi (727 keV) (609 keV and 1764 keV). An example of spectrum for IP04 are shown in Fig. 1. The specific activity concentration for each radionuclide, A(Bq kg 1 ) is calculated by using Eq. (1) (AlSewaidan, 2019): A¼C pwt e ð1Þ where Cis the counting rate of gamma rays (counts per second), pis the absolute transition probability of gamma-decay, wis the mass of the sample (kg), tis time (second), and eis the detector efficiency for the specific gamma ray. 2.3. Sample analysis A Cartesian Geometry Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (ED-XRF) spectrometer was applied for elemental analysis of the paint samples (model; NEX CG-CG1240). XRF provides a nondestructive method of determining actual content, including consumer products (Jurado-López et al., 2006; Ngo et al., 2018; Perring et al., 2017). All samples were prepared in liquid form. Four ion paint samples and two normal paint samples were analysed using XRF (Pabroa et al., 2011). 2.3.1. Monte Carlo (MC) simulation and evaluation of annual effective dose (AED) The equivalent organ doses and AED from daily exposure to the painted walls of a hypothetical residential room have been estimated using the GMC radiation transport code (version 10.06 patch 3, Physics list: Geant4 electromagnetic (EM) physics (G4EmStandardPhysics option4)) (El Bakkali and El Bardouni, 2017). A MIRD5 mathematical male and female phantoms were also used in the study, with the male version shown in Fig. 2 (Lee et al., 2016; Olsher and Van Riper, 2005; Snyder et al., 1974). The male phantom was 178 cm and weighed 76 kg, while the female was 174 cm and 70 kg. Except for the skeleton and lungs, all organs were soft tissue material. The MIRD soft tissue density was 0.9869 g cm 3 , the MIRD skeleton was 1.4862 g cm 3 , and the MIRD lung material was 0.2958 g cm 3 . The ion paint products were simulated for fictitious bedrooms with 24.31 kg and 13.52 kg of paint on the walls for Room 1 and Room 2, respectively. The room dimensions used in the simulation are from Malaysia’s National Housing Standards Guidelines. The minimum size for a master bedroom (Room 1) is 3.5 m3.2 m, while a smaller room, Room 2, is 2.0 m3.3 m. Both rooms are standing at 2.8 m in height, as shown in Fig. 3 (CIDB, 2019). Fig. 2 depicts the simulated environment of Room 1 for the reference phantoms, which were standing at one of three distances from the walls: 20 cm, 50 cm, and in the centre of the room. 2.4. Data analysis The organ equivalent and average effective doses associated with the exposures have been assessed by first measuring the activity of 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K in the ion paint samples. DCFs calculated by GMC simulation were also used, taking into account the various tissue weighting factors. The radiological protection quanFig. 1. Example spectra obtained from an IP04 ion paint sample. N.Z.H. Abu Hanifah, S. Hashim, H.J. Hassan et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 101850 3 tity effective dose, E eff (Sv) is calculated using the following parameters as shown in Eq. (2)(Yoo et al., 2015): E eff ¼ R w T R w R D T;R ¼ R w T H T ð2Þ whereby w T is the tissue weighting factor summing to unity (IAEA, 2012, 2014b; ICRP, 2007; Mubarak et al., 2016), w R is the radiation weighting factor (for c radiation, unity), D T;R (Gy) is the mean absorbed dose of c radiation in an organ or tissue (T) (ICRP, 2007), and H T (Sv) is the equivalent dose of an organ or tissue. The H T ;can be derived using the DCFs obtained from the simulation (Eq.3)(Hassan et al., 2021): H T ¼DCF Atð3Þ where DCF is the dose coefficient factor from Monte Carlo simulation, Ais the activity concentration of the paint product and t, time exposed to the wall paint. The dose equivalent from exposure to the ion paint samples was also measured using a calibrated IdentiFinder 2, FLIR Survey Meter. The exposure dose rates (in Sv h 1 ) were recorded three times for each product, and the average was calculated, which was quoted along with the standard deviation. Finally, the radionuclides contained in the ion paint samples were identified. 3. Results and discussions 3.1. Activity concentration of 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K in samples Analysis of activity concentration for 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K were conducted for 20 samples of paint and calculated using Eq. (1). Table 1 shows the data for the radioactivity in the wall paints, which shown ion paint IP04 had the highest activity, with values of 4449 ± 530, 31888 ± 2175, and 2963 ± 405 Bq kg 1 , from 238 U, Fig. 2. MIRD human phantoms for painted walls, as used in GMC simulation; (a) standing position 20 cm from the wall; (b) standing position 50 cm from the wall; (c) standing position in the centre of the room. Fig. 3. Standard recommended minimum dimension for bedrooms in Malaysia: (a) master bedroom (Room 1) and (b) Room 2. Source: CIDB (CIDB, 2019). N.Z.H. Abu Hanifah, S. Hashim, H.J. Hassan et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 101850 4 232 Th, and 40 K, respectively. There were significant differences in radioactivity content among the ion paints. The variation of 238 U series activity was found to be between 1687 ± 264 and 4449 ± 528 Bq kg 1 , while the 232 Th series activity was between 15649 ± 1064 and 31888 ± 2175 Bq kg 1 . The variation of 40 K was found to be between 1418 ± 223 and 2963 ± 405 Bq kg 1 . Surprisingly, normal paint samples showed the least amount of activity, to the point where they could be safely considered nonradioactive from a legal standpoint. Meanwhile, all of the ion paint products contain the U and Th amount that exceeds the exemption limit of 1000 Bq kg 1 (IAEA, 2014a). Four ion paint samples and two normal paint samples were analysed for elemental content using an ED-XRF spectrometer (Table 2). The six tested samples are primarily composed of Si, Ca, and Ti, and rare earth elements (REEs). Results showed that - NORM (U, Th and K) were found in the four ion paint samples, while in the two normal paint samples, only K has been found. In comparison to normal paint, no P was detected in any ion paint sample. It was also discovered that the rare earth element cerium (Ce) was found in IP04 and europium (Eu) in IP06 at concentrations of 0.09% and 0.26%, respectively. For safety reasons, it appears that the white material Ti has been used in place of lead. As a result, a trace amount of lead element was discovered in all six samples tested. IP04 had the highest concentrations of U, Th, and Pb, with 0.026%, 0.81%, and 0.06%, respectively. U and Th concentrations (and activities) in IP04 were 260 ppm (3211 Bq kg 1 ), and 8100 ppm (32886 Bq kg 1 ), respectively. The results for IP04, as shown in Tables 1 and 2, are consistent. 3.2. Equivalent dose analysis The measured energy distribution from the use of the MIRD5 mathematical phantom code was applied as the probability distribution in the generation of the source on the Rooms 1 and 2 wall surfaces. Fig. 4 depicts the IP04 results for 28 organs/tissue, with the organ equivalent dose calculated using Eq. (3) based on the location of the MIRD5 male and female phantoms. The male and female phantoms were used in two different room simulations (Rooms 1 and 2), each with three various standing positions. Fig. 4 (a-c) depicts phantom standing positions from Room 1, whereas (d-f) depicts the standing position in Room 2. The maximum organ/tissue equivalent dose was observed in Room 1 at 20 cm from the wall, while the minimum organ equivalent dose was observed in Room 2. The superficial organs/tissues, such as the lung, breast, rib cage, thymus, leg bone, and thyroid, were among the most exposed organs compared to deep organs. For example, in case (a), the most significant organ equivalent dose for IP04 was found to be to the lung, at 1.25 and 1.31 mSv y 1 for the male and female phantoms, respectively. The current GMC simulations are the only other known work on such material, apart from the previous study reported here (Yoo et al., 2015). 3.3. Annual effective dose analysis By averaging the effective doses for the male and female phantoms using Eq. (2), the AED was calculated. It was assumed that a receptor would remain in the room for 8 h per day (UNSCEAR, 2000). In Room 1, with the phantom 20 cm from the wall, IP04 was associated with the most significant annual effective dose, at 1.51 mSv y 1 , whereas NP15 recorded the least yearly effective dose of 0.006 mSv y 1 (Table 3). These findings implied that the former has a yearly effective dose more significant than the annual dose limit of 1 mSv y 1 for public members (IAEA, 2016, 2014a). The effective dose was also discovered to be four times higher than that found in the centre of the same room. Table 1 Radioactivity (in Bq kg 1) of 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K in the wall paint. Sample 238 U 232 Th 40 K Ion Paint IP01 2380 ± 280 24001 ± 1722 2178 ± 202 IP02 2087 ± 327 15648 ± 1069 1426 ± 207 IP03 1677 ± 264 16787 ± 1129 1418 ± 223 IP04 4449 ± 528 31888 ± 2175 2963 ± 405 IP05 1929 ± 248 18768 ± 1217 1749 ± 256 IP06 2239 ± 323 16044 ± 1097 1484 ± 246 IP07 2289 ± 324 16119 ± 1017 1508 ± 250 IP08 2419 ± 337 17158 ± 1205 1530 ± 245 IP09 2138 ± 258 21096 ± 1469 1923 ± 269 IP10 2549 ± 313 18152 ± 1270 1600 ± 231 Normal Paint NP11 39 ± 5 67 ± 4 327 ± 47 NP12 37 ± 4 62 ± 3 298 ± 44 NP13 47 ± 5 81 ± 6 366 ± 65 NP14 82 ± 4 91 ± 9 233 ± 41 NP15 68 ± 4 67 ± 7 189 ± 27 NP16 24 ± 3 40 ± 3 2605 ± 468 NP17 29 ± 3 211 ± 25 2443 ± 439 NP18 16 ± 2 30 ± 5 1834 ± 272 NP19 24 ± 2 38 ± 6 2293 ± 411 NP20 48 ± 8 87 ± 7 149 ± 21 Table 2 Elemental composition of the wall paint (ND: Non-Detectable, indicating below minimum detectable levels). Element Samples (in % concentration) IP04 IP06 IP08 IP09 NP14 NP17 Mg 0.97 0.79 0.85 0.81 0.64 0.11 Al 1.12 0.65 0.4 0.88 0.75 1.3 Si 2.41 1.93 1.86 1.63 1.67 2.53 P ND ND ND ND 0.17 0.10 S 0.65 0.31 0.51 0.98 0.43 0.81 Ca 7.28 12.7 12.8 6.79 8.97 3.15 K 0.11 0.15 0.12 0.164 0.22 0.31 Ti 12.2 10.9 11.1 8.84 11.9 14.2 Ac ND ND ND ND ND 0.06 Sr 0.04 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.03 0.01 Zr 0.41 0.39 0.45 0.37 0.11 0.06 U 0.026 0.022 0.019 0.017 ND ND Pb 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 Ce 0.09 ND ND ND ND ND Th 0.81 0.46 0.44 0.53 ND ND Eu ND 0.26 ND ND ND ND Ba 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.06 ND ND N.Z.H. Abu Hanifah, S. Hashim, H.J. Hassan et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 101850 5 Furthermore, standing 20 cm from the wall in Room 1 was assessed to give 25% greater exposure than standing in Room 2 at the same distance. The AED was much lower than the limit set for a public member when one of the ten normal paint samples was used. The alpha emissions were absorbed mainly by the wall paint, with adequate air exchange posing no significant health risk. c radiation, on the other hand, was profoundly penetrating, affecting large areas of tissue and organs. Here, it is worth noting that the internal dose was not included in the current assessment. The dose equivalent was also determined for the ten ion paint samples, yielding AED of more than 1 mSv y 1 . A calibrated IdentiFinder 2, FLIR survey metre was used for this, recording dose rates in Sv h 1 and identifying the radionuclides contained within the paint samples (Table 4). IP04 presented the most effective dose Fig. 4. Organ equivalent dose (in mSv y 1 ) for 28 organs/tissue using the MIRD5 mathematical male and female phantoms in standing position, for Room 1; (a) 20 cm from the wall; (b) 50 cm from the wall; (c) in the centre of the room. Room 2; (d) 20 cm from the wall; (e) 50 cm from the wall; (f) in the centre of the room. N.Z.H. Abu Hanifah, S. Hashim, H.J. Hassan et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 101850 6 equivalent, at 0.571 ± 0.07 mSv h 1 . Assuming daily exposure time of 8 h, the annual dose reached 1.67 mSv y 1 , which is comparable to the GMC results. The use of radioactive materials in consumer products is typically regulated in developed countries. ‘‘Evaluation of EPA’s guideline for TENORM” is an example from the United States (EPA, 2000). While Malaysia’s Atomic Energy Licencing Board (AELB) has published consumer product guidelines titled ‘‘LEM/TEK/69” (AELB, 2016), there is still a need for safe control in the use of NORM-added consumer products. Unjustified exposures, as described in ICRP-103 (ICRP, 2007), can be applied to various consumer products. Suppose the benefits of using a consumer product to which NORM has been added cannot be demonstrated to outweigh the risks. In that case, a ban is required (EURATOM, 2013; Furuta, 2011), as appears to be the case for the currently investigated ion paint products. Consequently, a strong recommendation is made to prohibit the marketing and distribution of ion paint products in Malaysia. 4. Conclusions This study investigated the radioactivity of 20 ion and normal paint products using an HPGe detector. All ion paint samples showed much greater activity compared with normal paint samples. Paint code IP04 indicated the highest level of radioactivity of 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K. A simulation implementing the GMC method was used to identify the organ equivalent and AED. Our finding revealed that using ion paint for the walls of modestsized residential rooms can result in an AED of up to 1.5 mSv y 1 , exceeding the annual dose limit of 1 mSv y 1 recommended by the IAEA for public exposure. The addition of radioactive materials in the ion paint products is claimed to enhance the supposed functionality of the product, albeit with practically no consideration given to the health risks posed to consumers. In Malaysia, ion paint products are available for public purchase without any information being provided indicating that the product contains NORM-added media. It is important to review the concentration of radioactivity in the paint products to better evaluate the risk of harm from their use. Ion paint products exceeding the recommended exemption levels without further justification should be subject to control, currently with an absence of conclusive studies showing advantages outweighing risks. With potential for internal and external radiation exposures, prolonged use of such consumer products should be a matter of concern. In this view, as ion paint products surpass the exemption dose limit and are unable to demonstrate the benefits over risks, we strongly recommend that AELB, as the regulatory body for Malaysia, prohibit the importation or sale of these ion paint products. Funding This work was supported by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) of Malaysia through Kumpulan Wang Amanah (KWA) Majlis Sains dan Penyelidikan Kebangsaan (MSPK) (R.J130000.7317.4B658 and R.J130000.7317.4B659). The authors gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia through Industry-International Incentive Grant (No. 03 M18). We acknowledge the cooperation with the project partners, i.e., International Atomic Energy Agency and Atomic Energy Licensing Board, Malaysia, for expert mission and procurement support through the IAEA TC programme (MAL9018: Strengthening the Regulatory Infrastructure for Radiation and Nuclear Safety). Table 3 AED (in mSv) associated with standing position using the twenty investigated paints. Sample Room 1 Room 2 20 cm from the wall 50 cm from the wall Centre of the room 20 cm from the wall 50 cm from the wall Centre of the room Ion Paint IP01 1.124 0.582 0.241 0.714 0.531 0.221 IP02 0.735 0.381 0.161 0.462 0.335 0.148 IP03 0.794 0.431 0.171 0.514 0.391 0.163 IP04 1.513 0.824 0.341 0.964 0.732 0.321 IP05 0.871 0.473 0.182 0.563 0.421 0.172 IP06 0.781 0.421 0.163 0.507 0.381 0.154 IP07 0.763 0.392 0.159 0.487 0.362 0.149 IP08 0.803 0.431 0.178 0.515 0.396 0.165 IP09 0.981 0.517 0.212 0.625 0.489 0.201 IP10 0.861 0.464 0.191 0.545 0.421 0.172 Normal Paint NP11 0.0072 0.0045 0.0031 0.0069 0.0038 0.0022 NP12 0.0068 0.0041 0.0029 0.0063 0.0035 0.0021 NP13 0.0087 0.0051 0.0034 0.0081 0.0044 0.0025 NP14 0.0074 0.0048 0.0028 0.0068 0.0041 0.0022 NP15 0.0061 0.0039 0.0023 0.0054 0.0033 0.0017 NP16 0.0464 0.0035 0.0182 0.0371 0.0031 0.0118 NP17 0.0523 0.0321 0.0173 0.0413 0.0267 0.0112 NP18 0.0341 0.0171 0.0113 0.0261 0.0141 0.0082 NP19 0.0452 0.0175 0.0121 0.0336 0.0142 0.0104 NP20 0.0069 0.0043 0.0024 0.0051 0.0033 0.0016 Table 4 Dose rate and annual dose of radioactivity in the wall paint, using survey meter (IdentiFinder 2) portable detector. No. Sample Dose rate (mSv h 1 ) Annual dose (mSv y 1 ) 1 IP01 0.409 ± 0.03 1.194 2 IP02 0.344 ± 0.02 1.004 3 IP03 0.381 ± 0.03 1.112 4 IP04 0.571 ± 0.07 1.667 5 IP05 0.416 ± 0.05 1.214 6 IP06 0.390 ± 0.04 1.138 7 IP07 0.373 ± 0.03 1.089 8 IP08 0.377 ± 0.04 1.100 9 IP09 0.387 ± 0.03 1.130 10 IP10 0.371 ± 0.03 1.083 N.Z.H. Abu Hanifah, S. Hashim, H.J. Hassan et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 101850 7 Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. References AAP, 1998. Risk of ionizing radiation exposure to children: a subject review. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Environmental Health. Pediatrics 101, 717–719. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.101.4.717. AELB, 2016. Assessment and licensing of consumer product containing radioactive material, LEM/TEK/69 Sem.1. URL: http://www.aelb.gov. my/malay/dokumen/panduan/lem-tek/LEM%20TEK%2069%20Sem.1.pdf, Malaysia. Al-Sewaidan, H.A., 2019. Natural radioactivity measurements and dose rate assessment of selected ceramic and cement types used in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. J. King Saud Univ. Sci. 31 (4), 987–992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jksus.2019.04.001. Alshahri, F., 2017. Radioactivity of 226Ra, 232Th, 40K and 137Cs in beach sand and sediment near to desalination plant in eastern Saudi Arabia: Assessment of radiological impacts, Assessment of radiological impacts. J. King Saud Univ. Sci. 29 (2), 174–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2016.08.005. ARPANSA, 2008. Management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM). Chae, J.-S., Kim, T.-H., Kim, H.J., Yun, J.-Y., 2016. Estimation of annual effective dose from ingestion of 40 K and 137 Cs in foods frequently consumed in Korea. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 310, 1069–1075. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-0164891-5. Chen, J., 2015. A discussion on NORM guidelines: proposed revisions needed for practical use. Radiat. Prot. Dosimetry 167, 260–265. https://doi.org/10.1093/ rpd/ncv258. CIDB, 2019. Construction Industry Standard CIS-26: 2019 National Housing Standard. Malaysian Construction Industry Development Board. Clouvas, A., Xanthos, S., Antonopoulos-Domis, M., Silva, J., 2000. Monte carlo calculation of dose rate conversion factors for external exposure to photon emitters in soil-response. Health Phys. 78, 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1097/ 00004032-200003000-00007. Cooper, M.B., 2005. Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in Australian industries-Review of current inventories and future generation. Rep. ERS-006 (EnviroRad Serv. Pty. Ltd.) to Radiat. Heal. Saf. Advis. Counc. Cullom, S.J., Bateman, T.M., 2010. Radiation considerations for cardiac nuclear and computed tomography imaging. In: Clinical Nuclear Cardiology. Elsevier Inc., pp. 149–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-05796-7.00010-2. EL Bakkali, J., EL Bardouni, T., 2017. Validation of Monte Carlo Geant4 code for a 6 MV Varian linac. J. King Saud Univ. Sci. 29 (1), 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jksus.2016.03.003. EPA, 2000. Evaluation of EPA’s Guideline for Technically Enhanced Occurring Radioactive Material (TENORM), EPA 402-R-00-01, Report to Congress. EURATOM, B.S.S., 2013. Council Directive 2013/59 EURATOM of 5 December 2013 Laying Down the Basic Safety Standards for the Protection of the Health of Workers and the General Public against the Dangers Arising from Ionizing Radiation, and Repealing Directives 89/618/Euratom, 90. Furuta, E., 2011. Norm as consumer products: Issue of their being. Radiat. Prot. Dosimetry 146, 178–182. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncr142. Furuta, E., Minowa, H., Nakahara, H., Iwaoka, K., Yonehara, H., 2011. Classification of ores used for the radiation source in NORM as consumer products by PGAA. Proc. Radiochem. 1, 219–225. https://doi.org/10.1524/rcpr.2011.0039. Hassan, H.J., Hashim, S., Abu Hanifah, N.Z.H., Hadi, M.F.R.A., Sanusi, M.S.M., Bradley, D.A., Tenorio, R.G., Tahar, R.M., 2021. The enhanced naturally occurring radioactivity of negative ion clothing and attendant risk. Appl. Sci. 11, 5412. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11125412. Health Canada, 2011. Canadian Guidelines for the Management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials Canadian Guidelines for the Management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM). Hesty, R., Anri, A.R., 2018. Implementation of radiation safety inspection system for intervention based on tenorm safety rules, in: Proceedings of the 2018 National Nuclear Technology Human Resources Seminar. Polytechnic Institute of Nuclear Technology, National Nuclear Energy Agency, Indonesia, p. 528. IAEA, 2016. Radiation Safety for Consumer Products. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. IAEA, 2014A. Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources: International Basic Safety Standards, GSR-Part 3. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. IAEA, 2014B. PET/CT Atlas on Quality Control and Image Artefacts. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. IAEA, 2012. Quality Assurance Programme for Computed Tomography: Diagnostic and Therapy Applications. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. ICRP, 2007. The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP publication 103, Ann ICRP. International Commission on Radiological Protection. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.icrp.2007.10.003. Joel, E.S., Maxwell, O., Adewoyin, O.O., Ehi-Eromosele, C.O., Embong, Z., Oyawoye, F., 2018. Assessment of natural radioactivity in various commercial tiles used for building purposes in Nigeria. MethodsX 5, 8–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. mex.2017.12.002. Jurado-López, A., de Castro, L., Pérez-Morales, R., 2006. Application of energydispersive X-ray fluorescence to jewellery samples determining gold and silver. Gold Bull. 39, 16–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03215528. Lee, H.C., Yoo, D.H., Testa, M., Shin, W.-G., Choi, H.J., Ha, W.-H., Yoo, J., Yoon, S., Min, C.H., 2016. Effective dose evaluation of NORM-added consumer products using Monte Carlo simulations and the ICRP computational human phantoms. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 110, 230–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2016.01.002. Malain, D., Kanchana, P., 2019. Evaluation of radiation safety for ionization chamber smoke detectors containing Am-241. J. Phys.: Conf. Series. IOP Publishing, 012047. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1285/1/012047. Mubarak, F., Soliman, H., Khadra, S.A., 2016. Radiological risk due to quantum pendants. Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 24, 2649–2656. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi. mejsr.2016.24.08.23836. Ngo, T.T., Thomas, S., Stokes, D., Benvenuto, M.A., Roberts-Kirchhoff, E.S., 2018. Analysis of cosmetic mineral eyeshadows and foundations with a handheld Xray fluorescence analyzer, in: Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local Community Learning Experiences. ACS Publications, pp. 89–103. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-20181276.ch007. Olsher, R.H., Van Riper, K.A., 2005. Application of a sitting MIRD phantom for effective dose calculations. Radiat. Prot. Dosimetry 116, 392–395. https://doi. org/10.1093/rpd/nci087. Pabroa, P.C.B., Racho, J.M.D., Bautista, A.T., Sucgang, R.J., Castaneda, S.S., 2011. X-ray Fluorescence in Member States: Philippines Secrets of Scalar Energy Infused Products as Revealed by XRF Spectrometry. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Perring, L., Nicolas, M., Andrey, D., Rime, C.F., Richoz-Payot, J., Dubascoux, S., Poitevin, E., 2017. Development and validation of an ED-XRF method for the fast quantification of mineral elements in dry pet food samples. Food Anal. Methods 10, 1469–1478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-016-0695-z. Setlow, L.W., 2002. US Environmental Protection Agency’s Assessment of Environmental Impacts of TENORM Radiation Sources: The Example of Uranium Mining TENORM Wastes. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Snyder, W.S., Ford, M.R., Warner, G.G., Watson, S.B., 1974. A tabulation of dose equivalent per microcurie-day for source and target organs of an adult for various radionuclides: Part I. Oakridge Natl. Lab. Rep. ORNL-5000. UNSCEAR, 2000. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. United Nations, New York. https://doi.org/10.18356/f48d655d-en. UNSCEAR, 1988. Exposures from natural sources of radiation, in: Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation. Report to the General Assembly, UN, New York. Yoo, D.H., Lee, H.C., Shin, W.-G., Ha, W.-H., Yoo, J.R., Yoon, S.-W., Lee, J., Choi, W.-C., Min, C.H., 2015. Feasibility study for the assessment of the exposed dose with TENORM added in consumer products. Radiat. Prot. Dosimetry 167 (1-3), 255– 259. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncv257. Yoo, D.H., Lee, J., Min, C.H., 2018. Effective Dose Calculation Program (EDCP) for the usage of NORM-added consumer product. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 139, 1–6. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2018.03.023. Yoo, D.H., Shin, W.G., Lee, H.C., Choi, H.J., Testa, M., Lee, J.K., Yeom, Y.S., Kim, C.H., Min, C.H., 2016. An effective dose assessment technique with NORM added consumer products using skin-point source on computational human phantom. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 118, 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2016.08.014. N.Z.H. Abu Hanifah, S. Hashim, H.J. Hassan et al. Journal of King Saud University – Science 34 (2022) 101850 8