Interventions in urban geopolitics

Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 1& Interventions*in*Urban*Geopolitics* 1Rokem,&J.&and&Fregonese,&S.;&2Ramadan,&A.&and&Pascucci,&E.A.;&Rosen,&G.&and&Charney,&I.;& Paasche,&T.F.&and&Sidaway,&J.&D.& These&interventions) in) urban) geopolitics)recognise&that&it&is&timely&to&develop&a&research& agenda&that& reinforces,& broadens& and®enerates& this&field,& bridging& the&disciplines& of&political& geography,& urban& studies,& planning&and& architecture&in& renewed& ways.& Tracing& the&“changing& cartography&of&danger”&(Dalby,&2010:&285)&in&the&post(&9(11&world,&critical&geopolitics&have&posited&a& reformulation&of&geopolitics&“from&a&state(towards&a&city(centric&focus”&(Agnew,&2003:&10)&where& micro(sites&and&urban&battlefields&ought&to&be&given&as&much&thought&as&more&conventional¯o(& military& reasoning&(Dalby,&2010).& These& ideas& have& shaped& much& of& what& we& frame& here& as& an& emerging&‘urban&geopolitical&turn’&(Graham,&2004a,&2010;&Sidaway,&2009;&Fregonese,&2009,&2012;& Yacobi,&2009;&Rokem&&&Boano,&In&Press).&& Urban& geopolitics& has& traditionally& stemmed& from& two& main& and& intrinsically& diverse& strands& of& research.& Authors& in& both& strands& have& employed& the& term&“urban& geopolitics”&in& more& or& less& 1&Interventions,editors,and,authors:& Corresponding&author&and&editor:&Dr.&Jonathan&Rokem,&University&College&London,&UK.&([email protected])& Co(author&and&editor:&Dr.&Sara&Fregonese,&University&of&Birmingham,&UK.&& 2&Contributing,authors:,,, Dr.&Adam&Ramadan,&University&of&Birmingham,&UK&and&Dr.&Elisa&Pascucci,&University&of&Tampere,&Finland.&& Dr.&Gillad&Rosen,&Hebrew&University&of&Jeruaslem,&Israel&and&Dr.&Igal&Charney,&University&of&Haifa,&Israel.& Dr.&Till&F.&Paasche,&Soran&University,&Kurdistan&Region,&Iraq&and&Prof.&James&D.&Sidaway,&National&University& of&Singapore.& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 2& & & different& ways,&some& engaging&with& it&more& explicitly& than& others,& but& all& have& attempted& to& conceptualise&and&produce&empirical&knowledge&about&the&complex&and&intimate&relations&between& urban&space&and&diverse&and&multi(scalar&political&geographies.&Here,&geopolitically&charged&urban& sites&act&as&connectors&between&localised&experiences&of&violence&and&wider&geopolitical&processes,& a& link& already& theorized& –& albeit& not& in& an& explicitly& urban& fashion& –& by& feminist& geopolitics& (Hyndman,& 2004;& Pain& && Smith,& 2008;& Smith,& 2012).&The& first& research& strand,&focusing& on&the& militarization&of)urban) space,&surveillance&and&security&(Graham&and&Wood&2003;&Coaffee,&2004;& Graham,&2004a,&2010),&the&performative&spaces&and&geographical&imaginations&of&late(modern&war& (Gregory,& 2016;& Ramadan,& 2009)& and& the& vertical/aerial& geometries& of& urban& and& asymmetric& conflicts&(Weizman,&2007;&Gregory,&2011;&Elden,&2013)&has&led&to&a&deeper&scrutiny&of&cities&and& their&encounters&with&and&endurance&of&material&damage&and&targeted&violence.&Second,&in&the&past& two& decades,&a&fast&evolving& strand&of&research&has&focused& more&specifically&on& urban) conflicts& within& ethno(nationally& contested& cities,& especially& in& relation& to& the& role& of& planning&and& architecture&&(see,&e.g.!Hepburn(2004;&Fregonese&2009;&Fregonese,&2012;&Anderson,&2010;&Pullan& 2011;&Bollens,&2012)&as&well&as&to&the&role&of&“myriad&of&urban&networks&and&infrastructures&that&are& not& bound& by& official& planning& procedures”&(Leshem,& 2015:& 35)&through& which& cities& experience& ethno(national&conflict.& & Although& the& architecture& of& cities& has& historically& been& both& medium& and& target& of& political& violence&(Hirst,&2005),&as&researchers&and&residents&in&a&predominantly&urbanized&world&we&can&no& longer&ignore&expanding&violence,&disaster,&and&division&in&cities.&Urban&environments&across&the& planet&are&becoming&hypersecuritised&and&yet&insecure.&The&Paris&and&Brussels&terrorist&attacks&in& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 3& & & November&2015&and&March&2016&and&subsequent&citywide&lock(downs&have&questioned&the&state&of& security&of&European& capital& cities&in& the& wake& of& new& types& of& violent& urban& emergencies.&& Meanwhile,& armed& police& in& the& streets& of& London& is& being& increased& by& 20%& to& make&the& environment& “hostile”& for& potential& attackers& (BBC&News,&2016);& airports,&hotels,&shopping& malls& and& concert& venues&from& Germany& to& Sinai,& from& France& to& Tunisia& and& the& Somali& coast,&have& become&predominant&soft&targets.&Entire&cities&are&starved&and&sieged&throughout&Syria.&Conflict& and&violence&in&all&their°rees&and&nuances&have&become&a&political&and&humanitarian&concern& that&is&predominantly&urban&and&affecting&the&everyday&life&of&city&dwellers.&There&is&an&increasing& need,& therefore,&to& critically& re(examine&and& establish&urban) geopolitics&as& a& necessary& sub( disciplinary&lens&through&which&to&make&sense&of&the&impact&these&grand&challenges&have&on&the& global&urban&present.&& & As&a&result&of&these&shifts&in&global&and&local&forces,& the&political&geographies&of&cities& are&being& reshaped,& frequently&in& unpredictable& ways,& their& populations&coming& together& or& becoming& polarised&with&often&un(ordinary&and&underexplored&patterns.&One&question&remains&open:&whether& it&is&time&to&challenge&the&canonical&differentiation&between&urban&phenomena&of&socio(economic& spatial&segregation,&socio(political&division,&and&of&militarized&urban&conflict,&and&–&ultimately&–&the& very&distinction&between&‘conflict&cities’&and&more&peaceful&ones&(Rokem,&2016a:&406).&As&such,&this& intervention&suggests&that&Urban&Geopolitics&ought&to&move&beyond&its¤tly&restricted&focus&on& cities&as&direct&targets&of&terror&and&violence,&as&fully&militarized& grounds&of&open& conflict,&or&as& vertical/aerial&geometries&of&urban&asymmetric&warfare&(Harries&2015;&Rosen&&&Chareny,&2016).&& & Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 4& & & For& this& purpose,& we& present& here& five& renewed&themes,& to& a& certain& extent& interrelated& and& overlapping,&aimed&at&opening&up&the&scope&of&urban&geopolitics&to&account&for&a&number&of&urban& grand& challenges& of& the& 21st¢ury.& These& are:& (1)& Ordinary) urban) geopolitics;&&(2)&Towards) domestic) urban) geopolitics;&(3)& Urban) geopolitics) of) refuge;) (4)&Geopolitics) of) Urban) Verticality:) Beyond) Unidimensionality;&(5)& a& concluding& contribution;) The) urban) and) the) geopolitical) as) categories)of)theory)and)practice:)frontAline)reflections.)While&the&first&four&contributions&serve&as& anchor&points&to& step& beyond& the& technocentric,&militaristic& and& ethno(national&approaches&that& have&been&at&the¢re&of&urban&geopolitics’&conceptualisations&and&empirical&case&studies&so&far,& the& fifth& text& moves& us& back& from& the& more& ordinary& and& everyday& domains& to& the& militaristic& sphere&of&contemporary&urban&warfare&and&its&brutal&consequences&on&the&ground&in&Iraq&and&Syria;& in&so&doing,&it)conveys&some&broader&observations&deriving&from&a&first&hand&–&albeit&clearly&partial&–& account&of&the&urban&battlefields&that&nowadays&are&informing&much&of&the&geopolitical&thinking& about&that&portion&of&the&Middle&East.&Through&these&five&contributions,&we&propose&a&way&to&start& re(engaging& in& a& critical& reading& of&contestation&in& cities,& and&specifically&towards& a& renewed& understating&of&urban&geopolitics&that&accounts&for&the&postcolonial,&ordinary,&domestic,&embodied& and& vertical)dimensions& in& order&to& better& comprehend& recent& global& shifts& and& their&urban& challenges.&&& & & & & & Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 5& & & Ordinary*Urban*Geopolitics* * Dr.,Jonathan,Rokem,,University,College,London,,UK.,, * The)compositional,)messy,)uncontrollable)and)recombinant)nature)of)the)present)urbanism,)and)the) differential) knowledge) at) play) in) the) construction) of) the) urban,) is) anything) but) straightforward)) (Peck,)2015:161).) ) A&growing&concern&has&developed&among&urban&studies&scholars®arding&the&need&to&re( think& the& discipline,& from& theoretical& and& epistemic& assumptions,& to& methodological& and& ethical& issues&(Amin&&&Thrift,&2002;&Allegra&at&el,&2013;&Peck,&2015;&Robinson,&2006,&2016;&Roy&2016).&This& on(going&debate,&however,&has¬&yet&investigated&geopolitics&and&its&relevance&to&urban&studies& and&planning&in&any&significant&detail.&This&brief&intervention&aims&to&advance&the&cross(disciplinary& field&of&urban&geopolitics,&by&bringing&geopolitics&into&the&mainstream&of&urban&studies&and&planning& research.&From&a&planning&standpoint,&there&is&a&need&to&enhance&our&understanding&of&cities&as& significantly& shaped& by& everyday&manifestations& of& political& faultlines,& and& of& how& this& affects& a& multiplicity&of&outcomes&across&geographical&scales.&& & The&geographies& of& cities& are& restructuring,& frequently& in& unpredictable& ways,& with& their& urban& populations& coming& together& and& becoming& polarised& within& often(underexplored&migration,& segregation& and& mobility& patterns&(Rokem& && Vaughan,& 2017).& The& emerging& ‘urban& geopolitical& turn’&(Rokem&&&Fregonese,&this&issue;&Rokem&&&Boano,&In&press)&has&so&far&predominantly&engaged& with%extreme%urban%combat,%and%the%total%breakdown%and%rapture%of%urban%systems%during%conflict% (Graham,&2004a,&2010;&Weizman,&2007;&Gregory,&2016).#While#these#debates#have#been#significant# Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 6& & & in# bridging# the# field% of% geopolitics!and$ its!traditional) focus) on) national) and) regional) territorial) conflicts)to)a)more)urban)scale)(Agnew,)2003;)Fregonese,!2012),&they&have&generally&overlooked&the& more%ordinary%everyday%understandings%of%urban%contestation,%segregation%and#mobility.#& && Conceptualising&urban)geopolitics&beyond&the&total&rapture&and&breakdown&of&municipal&systems& and& cities& as& a& war(torn& battlefields,& allows& developing& a& renewed& look& more& attuned& to& the& everyday& manifestations& across& the& messier& ordinary& processes& of)segregation) and) mobility&and& their&connection&to&questions&of&migration&and&refuge&(see:&Pascucci&&&Ramadan,&this&issue).&In&the& last&few&decades,&urban&protest&in&several&countries&worldwide&has&augmented&to&new&summits&as&a& result&of&the&expanding&and&deepening&neo(liberal&inequalities&andðno(racial&contestation&of&the& urban&sphere.&Some&prominent&examples&include&the&Afro(American&urban&riots&in&the&1960s&and& the&French&early&2000s&North&African&immigrant&riots&in&the&banlieues.&These&events&among&others& have& reconstructed&and& divided& urban& territory,& producing& patterns&of& contested& socio(spatial& formations& and& creating& new& local& geopolitical& trajectories& and& zones& for& the& urban& outcasts& (Wacquant,&2008).&The&present&international&geopolitical&turmoil&in&the&Middle&East&and&Africa&has& intensified&these&processes&shaping&large(scale&forced&migration&and&growing&local&opposition&and& dissent&(Allegra&at&el,&2013).&Further&attention&needs&to& be& placed& on& the& impact&of&the¤t& unstable&geopolitical&conditions&worldwide&and&their&affect&on&the&ordinary&daily&life&and&(lack&of)& planning&to&accommodate&growing&tensions&in&cities.&& & Segregation)and)mobility)are)proposed&here&as&two&overarching&themes&to&capture&the&more&open( ended&nature&of&ordinary&and&often&unplanned& and& informal&urban&geopolitical&processes.&More& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 7& & & than&emphasizing&a&set&of&given&qualities&associated&with&the&urban&environment,&segregation&and& mobility&suggest&ways&to&explore&everyday&movements&with&a&geopolitical&significance&at&the&urban& and&local&scale.&In&other&words,&while&segregation&distinguishes&geographically&between&different& groups,&without&mobility&mixing&of&different&groups&cannot&occur&(Rokem&&&Vaughan,&2017).&This& enables&us&to&delineate&the&contours&of&the&city&as&a&meaningful&site&to&analyse&mobility&and&borders& between&different&groups,&with&more&attention&given&to&the&‘planning&politics&nexus’;&the&relation& between& planning& and& politics,& as& a& non(hierarchical& set& of& interactions,& negotiated& within& the& specific&historical,&geographical,&legal&and&cultural&context&(Rokem&&&Allegra,&2016).&& & Urban& segregation& is& regarded& as& a& universal& academic& framework& relating& to& socio(economic,& ethnic&and&political&divisions&in&cities&(Nightingale,+2012).&It&contains&a&wide&spectrum&of&theoretical& and&conceptual&principles,&ranging&from&the&effects&of&neo(liberal&globalisation&on&social&inequalities& in&cities&(Smith,&2002;&Marcuse&&&van&Kempen,&2002),&the&injustices&of&state(led&spatial&planning&and& housing&policies&(Sandercock,&2003;&Lees,&2012)&and&howðnicity&and&race&affect&the&more&long( term&formation&of&spatial&and&social&segregation&in&cities&(Marcuse,&1997;&Musterd&&&Ostendorf,& 2013).& Historically,& debates& surrounding& urban& segregation& stem& from& the& Chicago& School’s& biological&model&of&the)city&(Park&et&al,&1925)&and&the&North&American&racial&typology&of&the)ghetto& (Marcuse,&1997,&2006;&Wacquant,&2008,&2016).&Its&U.S.&origins&are&one&of&the&main&reasons&that&the& subject&(at&least&in&the&English&language&literature)&has&historically&been&dichotomized&as&a&(literally)& black/white&race(based&urban&problem,&rather&than&the&more&multi(facetedðno(racial,&economic& and&spatial&condition&that&manifests&itself&worldwide&(Nightingale,&2012).&This&is&also&manifested&in& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 8& & & the& recent& call&to& pay& more& attention& to& intersectionality& of& multiple& identities& within& urban& segregation&research&(Vaughan&&&Arbaci,&2011).&& & Literature&on&urban&segregation&(Smets&and& Salman,&2008)&and& contested&cities&(Hepborn,&2004;& Bollens,&2012)&tends&to&overlook&mobility&and&its&important&role&in&fostering&co(presence&leading&to& interactions& within& cities.& “[I]t& has& long& been& recognized& that& mobility& or& mobilities& are& both& generating&and&an&outcome&of&inequalities&and&exclusion”&(Kwan&&&Schwanen,&2016:&248)&As&such,& the&availability&of&public&transportation&and&personal&mobility&has&critical&implications&for&access&to& employment& and& it&affects& housing& and& education& opportunities.& Immobility,& or& being& trapped& within&one’s&neighbourhood,&constitutes&one&of&the&main&causes&of&social&exclusion&(Massey,&1994;& Leitner& et& al,& 2008).& Urban& segregation& should& be& viewed& as& more& multifarious& and& complex,& suggesting& it& is& simultaneously& a& political,& social,& economic& ethnic& and& racial& artefact& of& an& individual’s&potential&mobility&in&the&city.&Segregation&alone&is¬&necessarily&a&problem&and&can&be& seen& more& positively& as& spatial& congregation,& but& overcoming& a& combination& of& segregation& and& immobility&is&an&urgent&challenge&in&seeking&spatial&and&social&justice&(Rokem&&&Vaughan,&2017).& Increased&segregation&and& immobility& lead& to& urban&generated&violence&and&fear&entangled&with& processes&of&societal&change&producing&new&forms&of&exclusion&in&cities.&Impoverished&and&spatially& disconnected&neighborhoods&in&European&cities,&especially&in&the&North&are&becoming&widespread.& Examples&such&as&Fittja&in&the&South&and&Rinkeby&North&Stockholm,&both&neighborhoods&with&more& then&90&percent&of&the&population&born&abroad&(Rokem,&2016b).&&&&& & Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 9& & & It&is&important&to&bring&geopolitics&into&the&mainstream&of&urban&studies&to&expose&the&impact&of& daily& events& on& long(term& planning& processes& negotiated& within& specific& historical,& geographical,& legal& and& cultural& context.& Ordinary) urban) geopolitics&is& suggested& as& a& more& open(ended& framework& covering& segregation& and& mobility& across& an& expansive& range& of& cities.& Through& this& lense,&cities&can&be&studied&as&both&sites&of&division&and&risingðno(religious&politics,&and&as&places& of&opportunity&for&the&emergence&of&new&political&arrangements,&enabling&the&reconstruction&of& citizenship&(Holston,&2008)&and&fostering&localðnic&minority&integration.&Bringing&geopolitics&into& the& mainstream& of& urban& studies& becomes& critical& in& an&era& of& growing& neo(liberalization,& ethno& nationalism& and& international& migration,&where& urban) geopolitics&can& be& a& practical& lens& to& encapsulate&recent&shifts&in&the&contemporary&urban&present&across&a&multitude&of&continents&and& geographical&scales.& & & & & & & & & & & & Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 16& & & solidarity&and&hospitality&are&being&forged&and&new&infrastructures&of&refuge&assembled,&opening&up& new&political&possibilities&for&refugees&and&the&cities&where&they&live.&& The&mass&migration&and&refugee&crisis&affecting&Europe&has&generated&outright&political&hostility&and& a&resurgence&of&nationalist&and&far&right&parties&across&the&continent,&with&calls&for&international& border&closures,&patrols,&and&walls.&At&the&same&time,&it&has&generated&new&forms&of&solidarity&and& hospitality:&from&citizens&welcoming&refugees&at&railway&stations&to&the&proliferation&of&squats&in& which&migrants&and&refugees&live&and&mobilize&politically&alongside&locals&(Belloni,&2016),&theðical& and& political& potential& of& hospitality& is&transformative&for& hosts& and& guests,& and& for& cities& themselves.&Refugees&can&extend&welcome&too:&at&the&Magdas&Hotel&in&Vienna,&refugee&employees& welcome&tourists&to&their&adopted&city&(Rose,&2016;&see&also&Ramadan,&2008).&The&repurposing&of& hotels&as& refugee& and& asylum& seeker& accommodation& highlights& the& overlaps& between&the& geopolitics&of& refuge& and& tourism&(Fregonese& && Ramadan,& 2015;& Squire,& 2016;& Williams&&& Hall,& 2000),& as& well& as& the& heterogeneity& of& emerging& urban& infrastructures& and& practices& between& hospitality&as&‘sharing&the&city&as&common&space’&and&refuge&as&shelter&created&‘in&the&absence&of& hospitality’&(Agier,& 2012:& 266).& As& Darling& (2010:& 133)& has& argued,& the& ethics& and& politics& of& a& geographical&agenda&focused&on&the&city&as&a&space&of&sanctuary&‘pose(s)&the¢ral&question&of&a& relational&spatial&politics,&of&how&best&to&negotiate&the&spatial&juxtapositions&of&living&with&others,& and&the&influence&of&others,&both&‘within’&and&‘beyond’&the&city’.&If&heterogeneity&is&the&defining& characteristic&of&the&urban&(Coward,&2007;&Wirth,&1938),&then&such&projects&and&struggles&go&to&the& heart&of&what&a&city&is&and&can&be.&& In&these&emerging&infrastructures,&human&sociality&and&political&agency&are&embedded&in&materiality& and&forms&of&incremental&presence.&In&cases&of&long(term&refugee&displacement,&the&very&material& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 17& & & fabric& of& camps& and& other& spaces& of& refuge& are& assembled& incrementally& –& tents& replaced& with& corrugated&iron&replaced&with&concrete;&shelters&and&rooms&adapted&and&remade&–&while&the&slow& accumulation&of&experiences&and&memories&also&builds&up&a&sense&of&place&and&meaning&(Ramadan,& 2010:&50–51).& Relations& with& neighbours& and& host& communities,& and& alliances& forged&to& find& responses& to& infrastructural& crises&in& housing,&transportation& or& connectivity,& can&carve& out& new& spaces&of&belonging&at&theµ(local&scale.&Material&precariousness&and&disrupted&temporalities&–& such&as&those&associated&with&lengthy&asylum&procedures,&or&laborious&daily&practices&of&mobility& and&care&–&might&therefore&facilitate,&rather&than&threaten,&coexistence&(Pascucci,&2016).&Through& such& practices& of& urban& dwelling& characterised& by& precarious& informality& –& makeshift,& marginal,& transient&and&provisional&–&political&communities&are&built&through&everyday&sociality&and&care.&& This&‘subaltern&urbanism’&(Vasudevan,&2015:&354),&however,&is&also&increasingly&ground&for&policy& intervention& and& attempts& at& refugee& control.& UNHCR’s& Emergency) Handbook)sees& ‘dispersed& settlements’,& such& as& community& shelters,& networks& of& hospitality,& or& rent& accommodation,& as& opportunities&for&greater&affordability,&flexibility&and&capacity&for&fostering&independence&(Pascucci& forthcoming).&In&a&time&of&shrinking&budgets&for&direct&humanitarian&assistance&in&the&south&and& welfare& states& in& the& north,& informality& is& effectively& treated& as& a& resource& for& self(reliance& promotion,& while& community(based& networks& of& support& become& a& source& of& resilience& and& substitute&for&traditional&infrastructures&of&relief,&such&as&the&emergency&shelters&provided&in&camps& (Pascucci,&forthcoming,&see&also&Fawaz,&2016).&By&promoting&the&integration&of&displaced&persons&in& the& urban& fabric& of& first& countries& of& asylum,& UNHCR& also& acknowledges& and& normalizes& a& new& temporality& of& refuge,& in& which& protracted& displacement& has& become& the& norm,& rather& than& the& exception.& The& constrained& temporalities& of& transient& camps& are& thus& being& extended& to& life& in& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 18& & & cities.& As& attempts& at& governing& displacement& through& urban& adaptability,& these& dynamics& are& essential&to&the&broader&geopolitics&of&refuge.&However,&they&do¬&erase&the&political&potential& that&living&together&in&cities&entails,&and&are&increasingly&contested&by&refugees&themselves&through& collective&political&mobilization&(Moulin&&&Nyers,&2007;&Pascucci,&Forthcoming).& & The&world&is&in&the&midst&of&an&unprecedented&refugee&crisis.&That&crisis&is&increasingly&urban,&and& marked& by& multi(scalar& connections& between& the& global& dynamics& underpinning& the& political& geographies&of&displacement&and&the&shifts&in&international&humanitarian¶digms,&and&theµ( geographies&of&solidarity&and&adaptability&in&cities.&These&connections&at&multiple&scales&between& different&geographies&of&violence&and&coexistence&are&what&makes&the&urban&condition&of&refugees& a&geopolitical&question.&With&a&focus&on&urban&heterogeneity&and&modalities&of&sharing,&hosting&and& caring,& studying& these& new& spaces& of& refuge& is& essential& for&‘opening& up& the& scope’& of& urban& geopolitics&to&the&spatialities&and&temporalities&of&forced&displacement.&In&doing&so,&we&must¬& simply&reproduce&the&epistemologies&of&‘informality’&that&underpin&the&policing&of&urban&poverty& and&marginality,&but&remain&attentive&to&the&ways&the&government&of&displacement&subsumes&and& institutionalizes& urban& coexistence,& and& attempts& to& control& the& contentious& consequences& of& protracted& displacement.& Refuge& is& today& a& heterogeneous& space& of& struggle& where& solidarities,& political&mobilization,&biopolitical&control,&socio(economic&marginality,&infrastructural&precarity,&and& new&forms&of&racialized&and&nationalist&violence&converge.&The&new&geopolitics&of&refuge&emerging& in&our&cities&are&thus¬&only&fragile&ways&of&living,&but&also&and&most&importantly&transient&spaces& of&struggle.&& & Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 19& & & Geopolitics*of*Urban*Verticality:*Beyond*Unidimensionality** * Dr.,Gillad,Rosen,,Hebrew,University,of,Jeruaslem,,Israel,and,Dr.,Igal,Charney,,University,of,Haifa,, Israel., Fifteen&year&ago,&terrorists&hijacked&and&rammed&jetliners&into&major&symbols&of&American& economic&supremacy,&military&force,&and&political&power.&New&York&City’s&iconic&Twin&Towers,&an& epicenter&of&international&commerce&and&American&capitalism,&were&obliterated&in&the&9/11&attacks,& while&the)Pentagon,&an&archetypical&groundscraper&home&to&the&nation’s&Department&of&Defense,& suffered& severe& damage.& These& cataclysmic& events& striking& at& the& heart& of& the& urban& landscape,& coupled& with& the& proliferation& of& urban& warfare& and& terror& have& been& afflicting& an& increasing& number& of& cities& across& the& globe.& This& has& encompassed& cities& engulfed& by& enduring& wars& and& conflicts&(Baghdad,&Jenin,&and&Kabul)&and&cities&situated&outside&immediate&battle&zones,&but&which& have& suffered& terror& attacks& (Brussels,& London,& and& Paris).& Consequently,& research& has& explored& issues&such&as&the&urbanization&of&war,&security&and&surveillance,&aerial&warfare,&immigration&and& border& regimes.& This& growing& body& of& research& has& brought& together& and& stimulated& cross( disciplinary& dialogue& between& various& fields& of& knowledge,& specifically,& politics,& militarism,& and& economics&(Amoore,&2006;&Coaffee,&2009;&Graham,&2008;&2010).& & Within&the&context&of&urban&warfare,&the&pioneering&work&of&Weizman&(2007)&has&called&upon&the& need& to& move& from& flat& to& vertical& conceptualizations& of& space,& especially& in& contested& environments.& The& vertical& dimensions& of& above& and& below& ground& in& regions& of& conflict& have& introduced& an& innovative& and& exciting& research& agenda& (Bridge,& 2013;& Elden,& 2013;& Graham& and& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 20& & & Hewitt,& 2013).& Vertical& scoping& regimes& operate& at& three& different& dimensions& through& the& deployment&of&surveillance,&securitization&devices,&and&(para)&military&actions.&In&the&air,&growing& numbers&of&drones,&air&traffic&and&satellite&surveillance&are&used&to&sense&human&activity.&On&the& surface,& the& construction& of& walls,& fortifications,& security& towers,& and& checkpoints& profoundly& impact& daily& life& experiences.& Underground& vertical& spaces& used& for& transporting& people& and& materials,& mining& and& infrastructure,& bunkers& and& archeological& digs,& are& less& visible,& but& nonetheless,& of& great& importance.& This& multifaceted& interplay& between& warfare,& ethno(national& conflict,&planning,&and&architecture&is&explored&through&the&idea&of&volumetric&geographies,&a&body& of&knowledge&suggesting&that&space&should&be&analyzed&through&a&three(dimensional&perspective& (Graham,&2016;&Leshem,&2015;&McFarlane,&2016).&& & Despite&these&new&and&exciting&research&trajectories&in&the&study&of&verticality,&much&research&has& become&path(dependent&and&unidimensional&in&character&in&that&it&has&focused&chiefly&on&specific& settings& (e.g.& geopolitically& sensitive& cities& and& global& cities)& and& types& of& structures& (the& tallest& skyscrapers&and&architectural&spectacles).&Following&the&work&of&colleagues&(Harker,&2014;&Harris,& 2015;&Kaika,&2010),&we&advocate&the&use&of&a&multidimensional&prism&to&explore&controversies&over& sovereignty,& legitimacy,& capital& and& identities,& in& a& range& of& urban& environments.& If& we& are& to& engage& in& the& exploration& of& urban& verticality,& it& is& essential& to& study& a& range& of& urban&political& environments,& examine& both& exceptional& edifices& and& more& ordinary& structures& and& sites,& and& acknowledge&the&plurality&of&theories&and&theoretical&perspectives.&& & Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 21& & & Urban& verticality& has& expressed& itself& in& the& form& of& towers,& architectural& wonders,& and& monumental&structures&for¢uries.&Beginning&as&imagined&towers&(Tower&of&Babel),&celebrated& structures&of&an&epic&scale&(Pyramids),&impressive&places&of&worship&(cathedrals),&and&finally,&ever( taller&skyscrapers,&vertical&structures&have&come&to&dominate&real&and&imagined&urban&skylines.&At& present,&towers&of&unprecedented&height&are&trademarks&of&global&and&globalizing&cities.&Supertall& buildings& are& used& as& instruments& for& switching& between& different& forms& of& capital& and& for& increasing& global& urban& competitiveness& (Acuto,& 2010;& King,& 2004).& However,& the& recent& rise& of& exceptional&skyscrapers&in&the&City&of&London&and&Manhattan,&for&example,&does¬&necessarily& reflect& just& the& desire& to& secure& and& enhance& the& global& economic& position& of& cities.& Rather,& it& epitomizes&the&conjunction&of&political,&economic,&and&cultural&agendas&(Appert&and&Montes,&2015;& Charney,&2014;&Kaika,&2010),&thus&making&“…&tall&buildings&sites&as&a&nexus&of&power&made&visible…”& (McNeill,&2005:&53).&& & Notwithstanding& their& prominence,& exceptional& towers& in& global& and& divided& cities& are& not& necessarily&the&sole&manifestation&of&urban&verticality.&Studying&vertical&dynamics&in&more&ordinary& and&less&politically&or&economically&unique&settings,&and&exploring&verticality&in&exceptional&places,& albeit&from& diverse& theoretical&perspectives,&can& expose&additional&social& and& political&rationales& and& trajectories& in& our& understanding& of& vertical& urbanism& (Harker,& 2014).& Exploring& urban& verticality& requires& an& understanding& that& socio(spatial& relations& are& shaped& by& the& interplay& of& global&forces,&national&agendas,&local&divisions,&and&everyday&life&experiences&(Rosen&and&Charney,& 2016).& These& are& neither& separate& nor& isolated& forces,& but& rather& work& together& in& varying& constellations&to&shape&space&and&society.&For&example,&high(rise&development&in&Ramallah&and&in& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 22& & & the&new&city&of&Rawabi&does¬&merely&reflect&the&geopolitical&conditions&constraining&Palestinian& horizontal&expansion&(suburbanization)&and&dictating&upward&development.&Rather,&it&results&from& the&interplay&between&these&restrictive&conditions&and&the&greater&acceptance&of&residential&towers& in&Palestinian&society.&In&Jerusalem&–&an&archetypical÷d&and&contested&city&(Shlay&and&Rosen,& 2015)&–&different&manifestations&of&height,&e.g.,&unauthorized&ordinary&high(rises,&the&Separation& Wall,&and&impressive&towers&illustrate&the&intertwining&geopolitics&of&verticality&(Charney&and&Rosen,& 2014).& A& crucial& element& in& the& analysis& of& verticality& is& thus& the& need& to& move& beyond& a& unidimensional& perspective& and& explore& the& plurality& of& conditions& that& underpin& verticality.& Developing&a&more&complex&understanding&of&urban&arenas&involves&meshing&various&theoretical& streams& and& abandoning& “the&hopeless& efforts& to& apply& quasi(scientific& rigour& to& case& selection& based& on& attempting& to& control& for& difference& across& cities”& (Robinson,& 2016:& 194).& Despite& the& variance& in& urban& environments,& local& contexts,& and& experiences,& the& study& of& urban& verticality& should&facilitate&analyses&that&cut&across&differences.&Analysis&should¬&be&limited&to&a&specific& category& of& cities,& e.g.,& global& or& divided& cities,& nor& should& it& be& conducted& through& the& narrow& prism&of&a&single&field&of&knowledge.&It&should&apply&to&a&gamut&of&urban&settings&and&bridge&across& various&disciplines,&e.g.,&geography,&urban&studies,&architecture&and&planning&(Harris,&2015).&& & Graham&and&Hewitt&(2013),&expand&critical&debates&on&vertical&urbanism&by&linking&between&high( rise& construction& and& the& social& secession& of& elites.& Moving& upwards& and& employing& a& range& of& security& arrangements& parallels& gentrification& and& the& construction& of& enclaves& for& the& wealthy& (Pow,& 2011).& The& growing& popularity& of& inner(city& living& and& the& global& diffusion&of& high(end& condominiums&emphasize&the&increased&tendency&of&elites&to&escape&the&street&level&and&occupy& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 23& & & top& floors& of& luxury& towers.& Vertical& secession,& via& practically& living& in& the& skies,& challenges& the& dominant& perception& that& segregation& is& expressed& solely& horizontally& in& enclosed& and& gated& enclaves&(Graham,&2015;&2016;&Rosen&and&Walks,&2013).&Research&on&urban&verticality&in&cities&of& the&Global&South&provides&yet&another&vantage&point&from&which&to&understand&urban&geopolitics& under&conditions&of&informality.&For&eight&years,&Torre)de)David)in&Caracas&–&an&incomplete&office& tower&had&functioned&as&a&slumscraper&(or&the&world's&tallest&vertical&organized&favela),&an&informal& vertical&community&of&squatters&that&lacks&basic&infrastructure&such&as&working&elevators,&electricity,& and&running&water.&Examining&the&daily&life&experience&in&such&an&environment&draws&attention&to& another& set& of& issues& including& social& injustice,& homelessness,& activism& and& socio(economic& disparities.& Hence,& looking& at& a& variety& of& urban& settings& enables& the& study& of& urban& verticality& through&the&lens&of&the&lived&experiences&of&people&(Harker,&2014;&Robinson,&2006).&& & We& would& like& to& conclude& with& two& final& thoughts& on& the& connection& between& geopolitics& and& urban&verticality.&First,&following&Cowen&and&Smith&(2009),&it&is&possible&to&think&of&urban&verticality& as&being&situated&somewhere&on&the&spectrum&between&geopolitics&and&geoeconomics.&In&the&past,& imposing&urban&verticality&was&an&instrument&among&rival&private&corporations&and&interest&groups& that&sought&greater&market&share&through&public&exposure&in&urban&skylines&(Domosh,&1988;&Fenske& and& Holdsworth,& 1992).& More& recently,& as& cities& have& become& global& showcases,& emerging& economies& use& the& vertical&dimension& to& pursue& a&more& significant& role& in& global& affairs.& In& a& grandiose&display&of&a&well(orchestrated&state&showoff,&countries&such&as&Azerbaijan,&Saudi&Arabia,& United& Arab& Emirates,& and& Qatar& have& been& constructing& ever(taller& and& ever(impressive& skyscrapers&as&part&of&a&strategy&to&strengthen&their&claim&for&an&influential&position&in&the&global& Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 24& & & economy.&A&second& point&concerns&the& relationship&between&urban&verticality&and&iconicity.& The& construction& of& high(rise& towers& in& Jerusalem,& for& example,& highlights& the& interactions& between& urban&icons&and&ordinary&tall&buildings&and&exposes&how&the&multiplicity&of&socio(spatial&processes& (such&as&globalization,&geopolitics&and&day(to(day&experiences)&work&together&to&reshape&verticality.& Unpacking&local&conditions,&being&more&sensitive&to&the&interplay&between&forces,&and&accepting&the& plurality& of& theories& and& theoretical& perspectives& including& divided& cities,& militarization& of& space,& and&colonialism&provides&an&opportunity&for&a&more&comprehensive&exploration&of&geopolitics&and& political&geographies&through&the&lens&of&urban&verticality.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 25& & & The*urban*and*the*geopolitical*as*categories*of*theory*and*practice:**frontBline*reflections* , Dr.,Till,F.,Paasche,(Soran,University,,Kurdistan,Region,,Iraq,and,Prof.,James,D.,Sidaway,,National, University,of,Singapore., , , , ,“I’ll&begin&with&the&following&hypothesis:&Society&has&been&completely&urbanized.&This&hypothesis& implies& a& definition:& An& urban& society& is& a& society& that& results& from& a& process& of& complete& urbanization.&This&urbanization&is&virtual&today,&but&will&become&real&in&the&future.”&Henri&Lefebvre& (2003,&1)&[original&1970]& & We&want&to&“scale(up”&–&building&on&prior&writing&on&urban&geopolitics&–&the&theoretical)effort&of& connecting&geopolitics&and&the&urban.&However,&in&asking&what&happens&when&two&much&debated& terms& –& urban& and& geopolitical&(& are& combined,& we& draw& on& praxis& and& this& means& scaling& back& down&–&to&city&streets,&buildings&and&barricades.&For&Till,&this&has&been&as&a&participant&observer&as&a& frontline& medic&with& revolutionary& secular& Kurdish(led& forces& in& Syria’s& civil& war& and& then& as& member& of& an& NGO& team& of& medically& trained& veterans& providing& combat& casualty& currently& working& in& Mosul& (http://mermt.com/)& following& doctoral& research& on& geographies& of& private& security& in& neoliberalizing& Cape& Town& (Paasche& et& al.& 2014).& For& James,& the& reflections& relate& to& fieldwork&since&2009&with&Till&in&Cambodia,&Iraqi&Kurdistan&and&Mozambique&plus&our&earlier&joint& experiences&in&the&English&naval&port(city&of&Plymouth,&to&where&we&return&in&our&closing&words& here.&) & Rokem&et(al&(2017)&Intervention)in)Urban)Geopolitics,&Political&Geography&Journal&& Pre(publication&version&(Accepted&2nd&April&2017)&& 32& & & Funding& The&corresponding&author&Dr.&Jonathan&Rokem’s&time&preparing&this&paper&was&funded&by& the&European&Union’s&Horizon&2020&research&and&innovation&programme&under&the&Marie& Sklodowska(Curie& grant& agreement& No& 658742& and& is& part& of& the& outputs& from& the& Contested& Urbanism& Project,& for& further& information& visit:& https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/architecture/research/space(syntax/contested(urbanism, , , References,, Abujidi,&N.&(2014).&Urbicide)in)Palestine:)spaces)of)oppression)and)resilience.&London:& Routledge.& Acuto,&M.&(2010).&High(rise&Dubai&urban&entrepreneurialism&and&the&technology&of&symbolic& power.&Cities,&27(4),&272(284.& Agamben,&G.&(2015).&Stasis.)La)guerra)civile)come)paradigma)politico,)Homo)sacer,)II,)2.& Torino:&Bollati&Boringhieri.& Agier,&M.&(2012).&From&refuge&the&ghetto&is&born:&Contemporary&figures&of&heterotopias.&In& R.&Hutchinson&&&Bruce&D&Haynes&(Eds.),&The)Ghetto:)Contemporary)Global)Issues)and) Controversies&(pp.&265–292).&Boulder,&CO:&Westview&Press.&& 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