A comparison of personality maturity among Japanese youth and Finnish young adult students: a cross-sectional study using Erikson psychosocial stage inventory and sense of coherence scale

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rady20 International Journal of Adolescence and Youth ISSN: 0267-3843 (Print) 2164-4527 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rady20 A comparison of personality maturity among Japanese youth and Finnish young adult students: a cross-sectional study using Erikson psychosocial stage inventory and sense of coherence scale Hiroe Niiyama, Irene Kontkanen, Eija Paavilainen & Kiyoko Kamibeppu To cite this article: Hiroe Niiyama, Irene Kontkanen, Eija Paavilainen & Kiyoko Kamibeppu (2018) A comparison of personality maturity among Japanese youth and Finnish young adult students: a cross-sectional study using Erikson psychosocial stage inventory and sense of coherence scale, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 23:4, 482-495, DOI: 10.1080/02673843.2018.1435418 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2018.1435418 © 2018 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. Published online: 07 Feb 2018. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 690 View Crossmark data https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2018.1435418 A comparison of personality maturity among Japanese youth and Finnish young adult students: a cross-sectional study using Erikson psychosocial stage inventory and sense of coherence scale HiroeNiiyamaa, IreneKontkanenb, EijaPaavilainenc and KiyokoKamibeppua aschool of Integrated health sciences, tokyo university, tokyo, Japan; bfaculty of nursing, laurea university of applied sciences, espoo, finland; cschool of health sciences, university of tampere, tampere, finland ABSTRACT Objective: This study aimed to clarify the child-rearing improvement approach in Japan by evaluating the ‘Personality Maturity’ of Japanese youth and Finnish young adult students. Methods: The cross-sectional survey was carried out on the Internet with youth aged 18–25 using the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) and Sense of Coherence (SOC) scales. In total, 865 Japanese youth were recruited from GMO-Research Monitors and 898 Finnish young adult students were recruited from Tampere University; 762 Japanese youth and 896 Finnish young adult students responded to all 13 SOC and 42 EPSI questions. Results: Mean total and subscale scores of Japanese youth were lower than those of Finnish young adult students for both EPSI and SOC. We found a strong, negative correlation (r=−.685) in Japan and a strong, positive correlation in Finland (r=.831) between total EPSI and SOC scores. Conclusions: Japanese youth showed stronger development of either EPSI or SOC. Introduction The social response to the declining Japanese birth rate and rapidly aging population is of international concern. In the beginning of the twenty-first century, low morale of Japanese youth was viewed as a problem (Miyahara et al., 2001), and the Japan Child and Family Research Institute (JCFRI) conducted research in 2001 with a hypothesis that a delay in the maturity of Japanese youth may have had some significance as a background to the falling birth rate (Miyahara et al., 2002, 2005; Miyahara, Saito, Takei, Uchiyama, & Hoshiyama, 2003; Miyahara et al., 2004; Saito & Miyahara, 2004). In 2006, the issue was discussed as a serious problem at the Central Council for Education of Japan, but no clear solution has been suggested to date (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology, 1998). Japanese youth are at a high standard in terms of learning achievement as measured by the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), which has been long used internationally as an indicator of youth ability (PISA, 2015). Thus, to investigate causes of the declining morale (Miyahara et al., 2001; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology, 1998) in Japanese youth, new scales for ARTICLE HISTORY received 14 november 2017 accepted29 January 2018 KEYWORDS Young adult; personality maturity; ePsI; soc; Japan; finland © 2018 the author(s). Published by Informa uK limited, trading as taylor & francis Group. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. CONTACT hiroe niiyama [email protected] this article was originally published with errors. this version has been corrected. Please see corrigendum (https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02673843.2018.1458468). OPEN ACCESS InternatIonal Journal of adolescence and Youth 2018, Vol. 23, No. 4, 482–495 evaluating capacities other than learning achievement have become necessary. In this study, psychological and social developmental changes in adulthood, which are achieved through the process of growing up were defined as ‘Personality Maturity’ (PM), and this new concept was measured through a new scale to evaluate young adult’s capacities. PM is similar to non-cognitive skills (motivation, socioemotional factors, regulation, time preference, personality factors, and the ability to work with others; Heckman, 2008) in terms of being an important factor in youth development evaluation other than learning achievement (Barnett, 2011; Heckman, 2013). In this research, PM is understood to be a higher-order conceptthat is present for the first time when desirable intellectual and physical development of young people is achieved. Declining morale among Japanese youth is thought to relate to unsuccessful establishment of self-identity, also known as Erikson’s identity diffusion (Ministry of Health Labour Welfare, 2016). Therefore, the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) was adopted to measure this factor (Erikson, 1956, 1982; Nobuo & Tetsuhiko, 2008; Rosenthal, Gurney, & Moore, 1981). Sense of coherence (SOC) among adolescents may affect stress and coping in much the same way as is seen in adults (Eriksson & Lindström, 2005; Vibeke Koushede & Holstein, 2009). Regarding SOC, according to ‘the Survey on the factual investigation of Young People’s Employability’ by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare in 2004, the rate of early turnover of Japanese youth (defined as leaving a job within three years) is 50.3% for high school graduates and 23.6 per cent for those aged 30years or younger, which has risen recently (Cabinet Office, 2004). It is speculated that one of the reasons for this is that Japanese youth today lack the ability (Cabinet Office, 2004; Torsheim & Aaroe, 2001) to deal with complex (adverse) situations successfully; thus, the SOC instrument was used as an index to measure this factor (Antonovsky, 1987; Eriksson & Lindström, 2005; Saito, 2014). The EPSI and SOC scale were used simultaneously as indices of PM to enable complex and comprehensive evaluation; the JCFRI has already used the EPSI and SOC scale simultaneously (Miyahara et al., 2004, 2005, 2006; Saito et al., 2007, 2008). It is said that because of artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things (machine-to-machine communication), young people looking for employment will increasingly encounter inexperienced and complicated situations which their parents or grandparents did not experience. To manage these situations, they will need to be equipped with entrepreneurship skills to think and act for themselves. It is speculated that, in young people, the higher the EPSI and SOC scores, the higher their chances of mastering entrepreneurship skills (Saito, 2014). The JCFRI conducted one study using the EPSI alone (Miyahara et al., 2003) and three studies combining the EPSI and SOC scale (Saito & Miyahara, 2004; Saito et al., 2007, 2008); thus, only four relevant studies have used these measures in Japan. Internationally, only two reports have used the EPSI alone: Galambos, Magill-Evans, and Darrah (2008); Rosenthal et al. (1981), in which identity achievement in youth fighting chronic diseases such as cerebral palsy was investigated. No studies evaluated PM using the EPSI and SOC scale together. In an international comparison of Japanese youth, only one EPSI report was recognized and there was no combination of SOC and EPSI together (Sakata & Nakanishi, 1986). In the survey conducted by the JCFRI, the analysis had been mainly focused on generativity among the eight EPSI subscales; however, there were no studies that focused on achieving identity, especially for the whole EPSI and all eight subscales. In a report by the JCFRI in 2004 (Saito & Miyahara, 2004), 355 men and women aged 15–25years were investigated. The Spearman correlation coefficient between EPSI and SOC scale was as high as .729, and both scores were higher with age; thus, evaluation of PM in youth combining the ESPI and SOC scale seemed to be effective. In an international comparison, lower scores in youth in Japan were predicted compared to that of Australia and South Korea (Tetsuhiko & Nobuo, 1986). In this study, to clarify the new direction of child-rearing in Japan, it was necessary first to evaluate the PM of the Japanese youth, who were the foundation of the research. Therefore, we decided to do comparisons diversely with internationally reputed countries regarding child-rearing. To ensure the evaluation of Japanese youth in terms of both learning achievement and PM, I thought it necessary to select countries acknowledged internationally for their parenting. Given that their youth INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 483 as well as education system are internationally recognized in terms of academics, we selected Finland as a comparison country. In addition, Finland has a reputation for women’s social advancement, which has been late to come to Japan; therefore, interesting results can be expected (Khazan, 2009; The Economist, 2015; World Economic Forum, 2015). To evaluate PM of Japanese youth multilaterally, EPSI and SOC scale were used together. The aim of this study was to evaluate PM of Japanese youth (18–25years old) measured by the EPSI and SOC scale in comparison to Finnish young adult students of the same age. Methods This survey was conducted as a joint project between the Japanese team (author and JCFRI) and the Finnish team (Tampere University). Design and study population The subjects (aged 18–25years old) were recruited from youth in Japan and from university students in Finland. The aim was to recruit between 800 and 1000 participants. Data collection The main cross-sectional survey was carried out over the Internet in February 2014 in Japan and Finland. The participants were recruited as follows. In Japan, a pilot study was carried out by e-mail with 2,100,000 GMO Research monitors who were registrants of a GMO internet research company with a simple questionnaire about family members, their age, cohabiting family members, and disabled family members. A total of 5,000 applications from parents to participate in the survey were received. These parents were asked to administer the youth questionnaire with their children. In total, 865 responses, for a response rate of 17.3%, from youth in order of arrival were received in the main survey, of which data for 762 Japanese youth were analysed. In Finland, the questionnaire was sent to 3,701 young adult students of Tampere University. Tampere University is one of 10 national universities in Finland and students at Tampere University are the elite among Finnish youth. Using the university’s internet facility, data were analysed from 896 individuals (response rate 24.2%), who answered all EPSI and SOC questions. Measurements The Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) and Sense of Coherence (SOC) scale were used as scales. EPSI The EPSI measures how well respondents have resolved conflicts indicative of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development and is one of few measurements that evaluate the development of the personality from young adult to adult. A few studies have used the EPSI, including to assess young adults with congenital heart disease or a heart transplant (Galambos et al., 2008; Mackie et al., 2016). In Japan, the Nakanishi version of the EPSI with 56 questions and 8 subscales (trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, integrity) (Nobuo & Tetsuhiko, 2008) has been used, and in Finland, the Rosenthal version of the EPSI with 72 questions and 6 subscales (trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy; deleted generativity, integrity from the Nakanishi Version) and each subscale (stage) (Rosenthal et al., 1981) has been used. Items are rated on a 5-point scale, ranging from almost always true (5) to almost never true (1). For example, (‘I am able to take things as they come’ in autonomy, and ‘I know what kind of person I am’ in identity). Each subscale (stage) has its own distinctive goal to be attained if ‘healthy’ personality is to be achieved and it arises because a new dimension of social 484 H. NIIYAMA ET AL. interaction becomes possible with increasing maturity. If the adolescent succeeds in forming a strong identity rooted in family, race, or ideology, then genuine intimacy becomes possible along with stable long-term relationships (Rosenthal et al., 1981). The maximum possible score is 5 points because we used the Personal Mean Point (PMP) for the EPSI (the mean of each item; obtained by dividing the total score of 42 items by 42). These subscales have satisfactory construct validity and adequate alpha reliability coefficients. The mean EPSI score in healthy 20to 30-year-olds is 3.94±.44 (Galambos et al., 2008). SOC scale Antonovsky’s theory of sense of coherence included three core components of comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness (Antonovsky, 1987). A strong person in SOC seeks a balance between rules and strategies, between stored and potential information (Antonovsky, 1987). A short-form of the SOC scale with 13 items rated on a 7-point scale was used. Item 1 asks the question, ‘Do you have the feeling that you don’t really care about what goes on around you’? Response options ranged from very seldom or never to very often (Antonovsky, 1987; Miyahara et al., 2006). These subscales have satisfactory construct validity and adequate alpha reliability coefficients .84–.93 (Antonovsky, 1987). Language Both the EPSI and SOC scale were based on the English version. The Japanese team used the Japanese versions of the EPSI and SOC scale (Miyahara et al., 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006; Saito et al., 2007, 2008, 2009; Saito & Miyahara, 2004) and the Finnish team translated the English versions of the SOC scale (Eriksson & Lindström, 2005) and EPSI (Rosenthal et al., 1981) into Finnish. Statistical procedures In terms of the EPSI’s, each of the 6 subscales is made up of 7 items which are common to the Nakanishi version (Nobuo & Tetsuhiko, 2008) and Rosenthal version (Rosenthal et al., 1981); these were used for analysis. As for the SOC scale, 13 items were used for analysis. PMP were calculated for the EPSI as a whole and for each of the 6 subscales. As for the SOC scale, Personal Total Score (PTS; the total score of the relevant question item) means were calculated for the SOC scale as a whole and for each of the three subscales. Statistical analysis was conducted as follows: (1) Descriptive statistics were calculated for Japan (as a whole and young adult students only) and Finland, respectively. (2) For both the EPSI and SOC scale, Mann–Whitney U test was carried out for the result as a whole and for each of the subscales (deemed to be statistically significant at less than 5 per cent significance level), and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, effect size γ (comparison of difference among means), and Cronbach’s alpha were calculated. (3) The statistical difference was tested by the comparison of means, U test, and effect size γ (Cohen, 1988). Ethical approval Juntendo University Faculty of Health Care and Nursing (Juntendo Ethics Committee No. 25-28) gave ethical approval for this research, and the Ethics Committee of Tampere Region in Finland decided that this research can be carried out with this ethical approval. Results In total, data from 762 Japanese youth (male 388, 50.9%; female 374, 49.1%)were analysed. In Finland, data from 896 respondents (male 169, 18.9%; female 727, 81.1%) with responses to all EPSI and SOC questions were analysed. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 485 Separation or living together with parents (see Table 1) Overall, among the Japanese youth, 12.1% were currently separated from their parents and 87.9% were living with their parents. The rate during the infant and toddler period was the highest at 12.3% separated and 87.7% together, and declined gradually until the high school period at 9.5% separated and 90.5% together. In contrast, regarding 896 Finnish young adult students, 52 students (5.8%) were separated and 844 students (4.2%) were living together with parents during the childhood period. Main reasons for separation from parent(s) (see Table 2) In Japan, 45 mothers (5.91%) and 82 fathers (10.76%) were separated from their children, while in Finland, 745 mothers (83.15%) and 765 fathers (85.38%) were separated from their children. The most common reason why mothers or fathers lived away from Japanese youth or Finnish young adult students were that they had moved to their own apartment: 35 mothers (4.59%) and 50 fathers (6.56%) in Japan, and 719 mothers (80.25%) and 577 fathers (64.39%) in Finland. There was a large difference in the ratio of subjects who had moved to their own apartment between countries. In addition, regarding the divorce rate in this study, one mother (.14%) and three fathers (.39%) in Japan, and 10 mothers (1.12%) and 150 fathers (16.74%) in Finland were divorced. These were low percentages compared with the divorce rates of each country (Statistics Finland, 2017). Characteristics of the research subjects The breakdown of characteristics of the Japanese youth was as follows: university students (27.0%), high school students (10.2%), students of special vocational high school students (3.9%), postgraduate students (1.8%), and 2-year college students and special high school students (.7%). Regarding employment, the sample comprised employed people (32.0%), housewives /husbands (8.7%), and those employed part-time (4.7%). The Finnish sample was entirely made up of young adult students (see Table 3). There was a statistically significant difference between Japan and Finland for both the EPSI (Total (EPSIW) and 6 subscales (EPSI6sub: trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, and intimacy) and SOC scale (Total SOC (SOCW) and 3 SOC subscales (SOS3sub: comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness)). The effect size γ was high at more than 1.0 for the EPSI as a whole and the 6 EPSI subscales, which means that the difference in means related to the EPSI (both EPSIW and EPSI6sub) was very large (see Table 4). In addition, the EPSI and SOC scale results of the Japanese youth and Japanese adult students were very similar and show a substantial divergence from the Finnish results (see Table 5 and Figures 1–4). In this paper, in reference to the correlation of the EPSI and SOC scale, when the absolute value of the correlation coefficient was more than .6, it was deemed to have a ‘strong correlation’ and if it was at or more than .4 and less than .6, it was deemed to have ‘some correlation’. Table 1.rate of Japanese youth living with parent(s) currently and during the infant and toddler, elementary, junior high, and high school periods (n=762). Current (n) Current (%) Infant and Toddler (n) Infant and Toddler (n) (%) Elementary school (n) Elementary school (%) Junior high (n) Junior high (%) High school (n) High school (%) separated from parent (s) 92 12.1 94 12.3 80 10.5 75 9.8 72 9.5 living with parent (s) 670 87.9 668 87.7 682 89.5 687 90.2 690 90.5 486 H. NIIYAMA ET AL. Correlation of total EPSI and total SOC There was a strong, negative correlation (r=−.685) in Japan and a strong, positive correlation (r=.831) in Finland. There was either a strong, negative correlation or some negative correlation in Japan, but in Finland, there was either a strong, positive correlation or some positive correlation. The correlations between the total EPSI and 3 SOC subscales (comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness) were as follows: in Japan, r=−.479～−.695; in Finland, r=.692～.796. The correlations between the Total SOC and 6 EPSI subscales were as follows: in Japan: r=−.498～−.632; in Finland, r=.525～.767. Finally, the correlations between the 6 EPSI subscales and the 3 SOC subscales were as follows: in Japan, r=−.338～−.662; in Finland, r=.400～.772). Table 2.comparison between Japanese youth and finnish young adult students on reasons for separation from parents. Mother Father Japan Finland Japan Finland n%n%n%n% Moved to own apartment 35 4.59 719 80.25 50 6.56 577 64.39 Work 0 .00 6 .67 20 2.62 3 3.35 divorce 1 .14 10 1.12 3 .39 150 16.74 death 2 .26 3 3.35 2 .27 26 2.90 other reason 7 .92 7 .78 7 .92 9 1.00 subtotal 45 5.91 745 83.15 82 10.76 765 85.38 overall total 762 100.00 896 100.00 762 100.00 896 100.00 Table 3.Basic information about the research subjects in Japan and finland (18–25years old). Items Classified items Student status classification Japan Finland No. of people Percentage of the whole Percentage of the university students No. of people Percentage of the whole the total number of analysis analysis subjects 762 100.0 896 100.0 Gender Male 388 50.9 169 18.9 female 374 49.1 727 81.1 Job classification student 333 43.7 100.0 896 100.0 university student 206 27.0 61.9 896 100.0 high school student 78 10.2 23.4 0 .0 special vocational high school students 30 3.9 9.0 0 .0 Postgraduate students 14 1.8 4.2 0 .0 2-year college and special high school students 5 .7 1.5 0 .0 employed (full time) 244 32.0 0 .0 house wives/ husbands 66 8.7 0 .0 employed (part time) 36 4.7 0 .0 self-employment 35 4.6 0 .0 unemployed 15 2.0 0 .0 Irregular 13 1.7 0 .0 Managing a company 8 1.0 0 .0 side business 1 .1 0 .0 others 11 1.4 0 .0 other than students 429 56.3 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 487 Table 4.comparison between Japan and finland on soc and ePsI total and subscale scores. Comprehensibility Manageability Meaningfulness Total SOC Trust Autonomy Initiative Industry Identity Intimacy Total EPSI Japan (J) Mean 20.088 15.878 17.398 53.364 2.868 2.644 2.349 2.598 2.581 2.672 2.619 sd 4.337 3.334 3.966 10.059 .526 .582 .512 .594 .587 .563 .482 Median 20.000 16.000 17.000 53.000 2.857 2.714 2.429 2.571 2.571 2.714 2.643 Minimum 5.000 4.000 4.000 17.000 1.429 1.143 .857 1.000 1.000 1.143 1.262 Maximum 35.000 27.000 28.000 89.000 5.000 4.857 4.143 5.000 4.571 4.857 4.500 difference between maximum and minimum 30.000 23.000 24.000 72.000 3.571 3.714 3.286 4.000 3.571 3.714 3.238 finland (f) Mean 21.967 19.458 19.308 60.732 3.567 3.782 3.351 3.794 3.114 3.708 3.553 sd 4.794 4.127 4.303 11.612 .651 .660 .599 .661 .707 .678 .548 Median 22.000 20.000 20.000 62.000 3.714 3.857 3.429 3.857 3.286 3.857 3.631 Minimum 8.000 5.000 6.000 23.000 1.143 1.286 1.286 1.429 .857 1.143 1.714 Maximum 34.000 28.000 28.000 85.000 5.000 5.000 4.714 5.000 4.286 5.000 4.690 difference between maximum and minimum 26.000 23.000 22.000 62.000 3.857 3.714 3.429 3.571 3.429 3.857 2.976 statistical difference between Japan and finland u test .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 effect size γ .411 .954 .462 .678 1.182 1.827 1.798 1.903 .820 1.663 1.810 evaluation of effect size γ Moderate strong Moderate strong strong strong strong strong strong strong strong Mean −1.879 −3.580 −1.910 −7.369 −.700 −1.138 −1.002 −1.196 −.533 −1.036 −.934 difference in descriptive statistics between Japan and finland (J–f) sd −.457 −.793 −.337 −1.554 −.126 −.078 −.086 −.067 −.120 −.116 −.066 Median −2.000 −4.000 −3.000 −9.000 −.857 −1.143 −1.000 −1.286 −.714 −1.143 −.988 Minimum −3.000 −1.000 −2.000 −6.000 .286 −.143 −.429 −.429 .143 .000 −.452 Maximum 1.000 −1.000 .000 4.000 .000 −.143 −.571 .000 .286 −.143 −.190 difference between maximum and minimum 4.000 .000 2.000 10.000 −.286 .000 −.143 .429 .143 −.143 .262 488 H. NIIYAMA ET AL. Table 5.comparison of Japan and finland on soc and ePsI total and subscale scores. Comprehensibility Manageability Meaningfulness Total SOC Trust Autonomy Initiative Industry Identity Intimacy Total EPSI Japanese young adult students (206) Mean 20.364 16.607 17.908 54.879 2.785 2.589 2.326 2.551 2.515 2.604 2.562 sd 3.978 3.159 3.788 9.473 .510 .548 .480 .575 .528 .549 .450 Median 20.000 16.500 18.000 55.000 2.714 2.571 2.286 2.429 2.571 2.571 2.548 Minimum 6.000 4.000 4.000 17.000 1.429 1.286 1.000 1.143 1.143 1.143 1.310 Maximum 34.000 27.000 28.000 86.000 5.000 4.143 4.143 4.286 4.286 4.714 4.405 difference between maximum and minimum 28.000 23.000 24.000 69.000 3.571 2.857 3.143 3.143 3.143 3.571 3.095 finnish young adult students (896) Mean 21.967 19.458 19.308 60.732 3.567 3.782 3.351 3.794 3.114 3.708 3.553 sd 4.794 4.127 4.303 11.612 .651 .660 .599 .661 .707 .678 .548 Median 22.000 20.000 20.000 62.000 3.714 3.857 3.429 3.857 3.286 3.857 3.631 Minimum 8.000 5.000 6.000 23.000 1.143 1.286 1.286 1.429 .857 1.143 1.714 Maximum 34.000 28.000 28.000 85.000 5.000 5.000 4.714 5.000 4.286 5.000 4.690 difference between maximum and minimum 28.000 23.000 22.000 62.000 3.857 3.714 3.429 3.571 3.429 3.857 2.976 comparison between Japanese and finnish young adult students u test .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 all Japanese youth (762) Mean 20.088 15.878 17.398 53.364 2.868 2.644 2.349 2.598 2.581 2.672 2.619 sd 4.337 3.334 3.966 10.059 .526 .582 .512 .594 .587 .563 .482 Median 20.000 16.000 17.000 53.000 2.857 2.714 2.429 2.571 2.571 2.714 2.643 Minimum 5.000 4.000 4.000 17.000 1.429 1.143 .857 1.000 1.000 1.143 1.262 Maximum 35.000 27.000 28.000 89.000 5.000 4.857 4.143 5.000 4.571 4.857 4.500 difference between maximum and minimum 30.000 23.000 24.000 72.000 3.571 3.714 3.286 4.000 3.571 3.714 3.238 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 489