Introduction : Affective spaces in European literature and other narrative media

Kaukiainen, K., Kurikka, K., Mäkelä, H., Nykänen, E., Nyqvist, S., Raipola, J., Riippa, A. & Samola, H. (Eds) (2020). Narratives of fear and safety. Tampere: Tampere University Press, 11–32. http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-359-014-4 On 18 August 2017, less than a week before the 7th Biennial Congress of the European Network for Comparative Literary Studies (encls) “Fear and Safety” took place in Helsinki, Finland, a Moroccan asylum seeker, Abderrahman Bouanane, stabbed ten people in the south-western city of Turku, less than 200 kilometres away. The Turku knife attack constituted the first crime legally classified as a terrorist act in Finland and led to the death of two female victims. In June 2018, Bouanane was found guilty of two murders and eight attempted murders with terrorist intent. Bouanane considered himself a soldier of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (isis), whereas the police judged him to be “a lone wolf” with no direct contact with the organization. The attack was followed by a public discussion about the need Elise Nykänen University of Helsinki ORCID ID: 0000-0001-8812-6510 Introduction Affective spaces in European literature and other narrative media Hanna Samola Tampere University ORCID ID: 0000-0002-3810-6105 Kaukiainen, K., Kurikka, K., Mäkelä, H., Nykänen, E., Nyqvist, S., Raipola, J., Riippa, A. & Samola, H. (eds) 12 Elise Nykänen & Hanna Samola to enhance national security through more rigorous intelligence and surveillance practices, possibly even by enforcing the deportation of rejected asylum seekers such as Bouanane. On the other hand, in her tweet on 19 August 2017, the Interior Minister of Finland, Paula Risikko, emphasized the need for collective tolerance and trust: “Terrorists want to pit people against each other. We will not let this happen. Finnish society will not be defeated by fear or hatred”. Like the debate following the Turku attack – or the more recent discussion on the global covid-19 pandemic – demonstrate, fear and a sense of safety are not only physiological and biological states or processes. When emotional experiences are expressed in the media, political arena, or everyday communication, they become communicative practices that trigger further social interaction and action. As such, emotions can become driving forces that trigger far-reaching historical developments in communities. As Ute Frevert (2014, 9) points out, emotions start “a chain of communication” that enables people not only to experience emotions, but also to consciously “work on them, mold them, and change them in a dynamic process”. The very nature of emotions, serving as social fuel and a powerful instrument of rhetoric (and manipulation), has made them a susceptible object for many intellectuals in favour of reason and rationalization. Emotions have historically been considered a threat per se, paving the way for uncontrollable and primitive mass behaviour and hysteria if not properly regulated. (Ibid., 6−7.) The essays in this volume examine how various issues of fear and safety are represented, worked on, and re-assessed in European literature and other narrative media, as well as considering what kinds of affective spaces are created in the process. The essays are based on the presentations given in the bilingual encls/reelc (Réseau européen d’études littéraires 13Narratives of fear and safety Introduction comparées in French) congress “Fear and Safety” that took place on 23–26 August 2017 in Helsinki. The variety of essays reflects the wide range of topics discussed in the congress amongst the globally transforming events of the first decade of the 21st century. Due to the efforts of enlsc/reelc to support linguistic diversity and international cooperation between researchers, the essays are written in English and in French. Even though the use of languages in this conference proceedings is limited to these two languages for practical reasons, the book aims to a wider cultural inclusion by introducing works from a variety of European cultures. Each article addresses local and transnational contexts, genres, and aesthetic practices that affect the ways in which the works of art are produced, circulated, and translated in and between “systems” of cultures and cultural peripheries inside and outside Europe (cf. Moretti 2000, 58). The representations of fear and safety are approached on two different levels. Firstly, we examine how fear and safety are represented and expressed by using genre-specific means of world-making in literature and other narrative media. Secondly, we explore the ways in which the artistic representations of fear and safety shape and reshape the cultural conceptions of emotion that have dominated in European societies. How do works of art influence the social and collective emotions that frame our everyday experience? The main themes of this volume – fear and safety – are approached from various perspectives that touch upon the challenges that the European community has encountered. In addition to terrorist attacks, Europe continues to face the ongoing coronavirus pandemic, refugee crisis, economic depression, climate change, and military interventions. Many of these challenges pose existential threats that influence our lives on a global level. As Linke and Smith (2009) argue, the neoliberal, capitalist world-order has also introduced new forms Kaukiainen, K., Kurikka, K., Mäkelä, H., Nykänen, E., Nyqvist, S., Raipola, J., Riippa, A. & Samola, H. (eds) 14 Elise Nykänen & Hanna Samola of nationalism and patriotism that feed on cultures of fear. According to them, such words as ‘safety’, ‘security’, ‘protection’, and ‘defense’ are used in public discourse to justify the control and surveillance of citizens, including different minority groups, and to legitimize war and other acts of violence in far-away countries. In Europe, the refugee crisis has produced border militarism and a border war as a consequence of national boundary fortification, which seeks to protect space from the invasions of enemy outsiders. The cultures of fear, delineating new territories in geopolitics, threaten the ideals of civil society, human rights, and diplomacy that were held dear by 20th century liberal-democratic states. (Linke & Smith 2009, 3−4.) The normalization of militarism relates to the erosion of trust in capitalist security states. Modern, liberal-democratic societies were built on what Frevert (2014) calls “moral economies of trust”. The instrumental value of trust adheres to the role of trust as a glue that makes social integration and cooperation possible, whether we are talking about business, politics, or any other domain of social life. Without trust, societies fall apart. In the service industries of Western economies, the language of trust, however, has come to serve the goals of global capital, which has emptied out its original meanings of equality, mutual dependency, fairness, and generosity. Trust is generally accompanied by moral obligations, including the acknowledgement of the potential vulnerabilities of both parties in the exchange. The diminished sense of financial and social stability in neoliberal capitalist states is connected to the instrumentalization of trust in the strategic semantic politics used by banks and corporations. (Frevert 2014, 20, 33−41.) Recent events, such as Brexit, show us that today’s global environment is characterized by people’s distrust towards political and economic elites. New kinds of threats arise from this landscape of insecurity and unpredictability, including the 15Narratives of fear and safety Introduction fear of technology. The Brexit campaign and the 2016 Trump presidential campaign exemplify how the algorithms created by transnational technology giants to engage consumer-citizens can have unexpected effects on global politics. In collecting and reselling their customers’ data, Facebook weakened their customers’ privacy but potentially also the stability of the democratic system. The cultural politics of fear are connected to experiences of threat, both imagined and real. A sense of security arises from the absence of threat, which allows communities to create emotionally balanced societies. The emotional economies of European societies are challenged especially by humanitarian crises that pose serious ethical questions about the value of human life and suffering. The refugee crisis, in particular, has called for the critical evaluation of the European community’s moral integrity. During the covid-19 pandemic, those under the greatest risk are people staying in refugee camps, the homeless, and minority groups living in the most densely packed and poor neighbourhoods in big cities. European countries face problems that are caused not only by crises themselves but also by postconflict situations, which prevent people from accessing a more peaceful future. Even when people are able to escape their unsafe home countries, conflicts leave people injured and traumatized. The regimes of fear and othering also follow people from their home countries to refugee camps, and further, to the public places of their new home countries, where distrust and aggression towards those who are not “us” prevail. (Linke & Smith 2009, 12, 14.) Europe as a whole is divided into several territories that are not all included in the “ideal Europe”: European Union territories, like other federated entities (the United States), are defined by “open” borders in the interior – the so-called Schengen space Kaukiainen, K., Kurikka, K., Mäkelä, H., Nykänen, E., Nyqvist, S., Raipola, J., Riippa, A. & Samola, H. (eds) 16 Elise Nykänen & Hanna Samola – where European citizens can traverse national borders without passport and identity checks. This inner “open” space, which guarantees the freedom of mobility for nationals, is protected by the simultaneous fortification of exterior borders. This is one snapshot of fortress Europe: an imagined political community with an interior borderland that is envisioned as open, liberal, democratic, and an exterior security border that is monitored, policed, and protected against refugees, immigrants, non-Europeans, and political enemies. (Linke & Smith 2009, 7−8.) The artistic representations of fear and safety that are analysed in the essays of this volume show that social inequalities emerge also in the lives of European citizens. People might fear for their financial future or their threatened cultural identity, but also for their gender or sexual identities or their personal safety and integrity. Not everyone within the fortress Europe has equal opportunities to experience peace, freedom, security, and justice. Narratives of Fear and Safety tackles all of these aspects of fear and safety as experienced by collectives and individuals in life and artistic representations. Theoretical approaches to fear and safety Following Nelson Goodman’s philosophical ideas in Ways of Worldmaking (1978), this collection of essays perceives literary texts and other narrative media as forms of cultural imaginings of worlds. In other words, the essays in this volume approach the cultural representations of fear and safety from the perspective of creative world-making. In literary and artistic works, alternative worlds of fiction are built from our everyday experience or from 17Narratives of fear and safety Introduction already existing imaginary worlds that we know from other works of art. They can also be inspired by scientific or pseudo-scientific discourses. In what follows, we outline a conceptual framework of fear and safety as sensibilities that generate affective spaces, that is, affectively demarcated imaginary worlds. In neuroscience and psychology, fear is often listed among the basic or core emotions that are more or less universal and can be distinguished on the basis of facial expressions and other physiological, bodily responses. In everyday communication, the notions of ‘emotion’, ‘affect’, and ‘feeling’ are often used interchangeably, yet they are defined and employed differently in different disciplines. One way of making a distinction between these notions is to perceive of emotions as intentional mental states (being directed at or triggered by a particular object) or culturally coded interpretations of affects. Unlike emotions, affects or feelings can remain pre-intentional or non-conscious even when they influence one’s experiences and actions (e.g. Sedwick & Frank 1995; Ratcliffe 2015). The sense of unsafety, for instance, can stem from the emotion of fear (which is triggered by a particular object or situation), but it can also become an overall state of being in the world: a mood (Stimmung) of fearfulness (Furchtsankeit) or anxiety (Angst) in the terms of Heidegger (1978, 179–182, 228–235). Fear – and its relative emotion, anxiety – are among those emotions that are maintained by “a host of cognitive processes, including rumination, abstraction, risk assessment, mental time travel, and mental projection/simulation” (LaBar 2014, 751). From a biological perspective, the emotion of fear is useful in the sense that it helps the human mind to concentrate when it is engaging with unexpected and unpredictable circumstances, such as a global pandemic. On the other hand, a sense of risk and safety are social constructs that are interwoven into the Kaukiainen, K., Kurikka, K., Mäkelä, H., Nykänen, E., Nyqvist, S., Raipola, J., Riippa, A. & Samola, H. (eds) 18 Elise Nykänen & Hanna Samola overall atmosphere or mood of a given time or historical period. (Furedi 2002, viii, 8.) How we verbalize, express, and cognitively process our emotions influences the ways in which we feel them. Fear, for instance, has a long evolutionary history that we share with other species. However, the expression of fear – and the defensive mechanisms of aggression or avoidance that follow it – can be culturally learned (LaBar 2014, 762). Literature and other forms of artistic expression are communication practices that participate in this social regulation and negation of emotional norms and codes by creating affectively stimulating alternative worlds (Reddy 2001, also Polvinen 2017). They also affect and subvert the cultural narratives that circulate in the public domain. As the preceding discussion on the present-day politics of fear and safety shows, cultural narratives often work through the intensification of threats and risks – or they can do cultural work as counter stories that question culturally prominent master narratives (e.g. Nelson 1995). In the global economy of fear, narratives of othering flourish. Nationalist narratives, for instance, separate “us” from “them” and create what Ahmed (2014, 44–45) calls “affective economies” of hatred. The culture of fear often leads to racial profiling, as anybody can be suspected of being a terrorist or criminal and thus become a “passing object” of fear (ibid., 1, 75). Stereotypical figures, such as the international terrorist, illegal immigrant, or bogus asylum seeker, are used to categorize threats that might actualize in the present or future: “The more we don’t know what and who it is we fear the more the world becomes fearsome”, Ahmed (ibid., 69) writes. Conservative and populist political movements systemically use narratives of crisis to secure social norms in the present or to gain power by actively painting images of future threats. In farright nationalist rhetoric, the love for one’s nation is often attached 19Narratives of fear and safety Introduction to the idea of defending one’s people (especially “our women”) against invading others who are less rational, less human, and less “white”. These narratives also tap into the collective fears that the (collective) self might become other: more passive and feminine, more primitive and animal-like, softer and more easily manipulated. Often, it is the fear of emotionality itself that permeates cultures struggling to maintain their prominent social hierarchies. (Ahmed 2014, 2–3, 76–77.) The rhetoric of hardness serves as a way of justifying actions that stem from the culture of fear and hatred towards foreigners, while they are claimed to be actions of love and care for the nation. Emotions like fear or anxiety are “sticky” in the sense that they can cause mass behaviour. In psychology and sociology, there has been an ongoing discussion on “emotional contagion” and its relevance in studying collectively shared emotions and group psychology. (Le Bon 1895; McDougall 1920; von Scheve & Salmela 2014; see also Ahmed 2014, 9–10.) However, the idea of our age as an age of fear (see e.g. Furedi 2002) or an age of anxiety is not new. The psychology of masses was among the interests of the political theorist Franz L. Neumann. In his classical text “Anxiety and Politics” (1957), Neumann examines the political impact of anxiety. He uses alienation as a starting point for his inquiry into the historical situation after the Second World War. Drawing from Hegel’s, Marx’s, and Freud’s theories and critique of ideology, Neumann states that anxiety and alienation define the existence of modern man (or woman1) in political, economic, social, and psychological terms. This alienation – which haunts members of any class – explains why fascism and other regressive political movements remain actual threats in capitalist, wealthy societies. 1 Written in 1957, Neumann’s text reflects the gender politics of his time. Kaukiainen, K., Kurikka, K., Mäkelä, H., Nykänen, E., Nyqvist, S., Raipola, J., Riippa, A. & Samola, H. (eds) 26 Elise Nykänen & Hanna Samola yéti selon Hergé et Castelli-Manara”, is the anthropomorphic, monstrous, and legendary creature that is the Yeti, stories of which are typical especially in the Himalayan region but in the literature of other areas as well. Le Juez’s article examines the adaptation of the Yeti myth in two comics: Tintin au Tibet (1960) by Hergé and L’uomo delle nevi (1979) by Alfredo Castelli and Milo Manara. The third chapter, “Cultural and transcultural perspectives on fear and safety”, includes articles on the transition era of 1989 in Polish literature, Irish and Ukrainian famine fiction, Sharon Dodua Otoo’s transnational writing, contemporary Russian cinema, and the theme of instability in a contemporary novel by the Indian-American author Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni. The first article in this chapter is Olga Szmidt’s “Fear of unjust memory or desire for secure identity? Remembering the era of 1989 transition in contemporary Polish novel”, which explores the affective foundations of the transition era in the contemporary fictions of Dorota Masłowska, Michał Witkowski, and Dominika Słowik. Szmidt shows that these literary works use socially marginalized characters to comment on individuals’ simultaneous desire and fear regarding a new Polish identity, and their resistance towards unification in a post-communist country that yearns to be “normal”. Tatiana Krol’s article, “Fear of the other: Representations of otherness in Irish and Ukrainian famine fictions”, discusses the process of othering in Irish and Ukrainian novels that depict famine. The article offers imagological analyses of The Silent People (1962) by Irish writer Walter Macken and Maria: A Chronicle of a Life (1934) by Ukrainian author Ulas Samchuk. Krol argues that in these novels, the fear of the other is generated by a power imbalance between the ruling and the ruled classes, the oppressor and the oppressed. In her article, “The fear of 27Narratives of fear and safety Introduction cultural belonging: Sharon Dodua Otoo’s transnational writing”, Nora Moll analyses two narrative texts of the British Ghanaian writer and activist Sharon Dodua Otoo, who has lived and worked in Germany since 2006. According to Moll, “aside from being dealt with from the standpoint of the majority culture, over the last decades cultural conflicts, persisting racism and the lack of a broader acceptance of plural identities” have been thematised and elaborated by several ‘Afropolitan writers’. Moll explores the dialectic between the fear and the effort towards cultural belonging in Otoo’s works. Beata Waligórska-Olejniczak’s essay, “Fear and safety in contemporary Russian cinema: A transcultural perspective”, discusses three contemporary Russian films as representations of fear and safety using Mikhail Epstein’s concept of ‘transculture’ as a methodological tool. Waligórska-Olejniczak demonstrates how each of the three directors uses fear as the core emotion in portraying their protagonists’ individual and social struggles in a manner that overcomes cultural barriers. In her article, “Divakaruni’s Before We Visit the Goddess: Overcoming fears and instabilities” Metka Zupančič analyses Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s work Before We Visit the Goddess (2016), which features strong yet often distressed female protagonists who have experienced major life challenges linked to their difficulties in adapting to situations in which they feel insecure. Zupančič argues that Divakaruni’s work can be approached as a tool for healing, as her readers are offered an opportunity to witness the female characters’ growth after major adversities. The fourth chapter of the volume, “Coping with fear”, includes articles on post-traumatic stress disorder depicted in graphic novels, trauma narratives, surrealism and humour, and post-apocalyptic narratives. Lisa DeTora’s article, “Posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd) as posthumanity in graphic Kaukiainen, K., Kurikka, K., Mäkelä, H., Nykänen, E., Nyqvist, S., Raipola, J., Riippa, A. & Samola, H. (eds) 28 Elise Nykänen & Hanna Samola narratives”, applies narrative trauma theory (such as the works of Caruth, Felman, and LaCapra) most often associated with literary studies or historiography to comics, since this medium “enables the simultaneous mobilization of multiple elements on the page”. To the three established graphic novel genres – children’s entertainment (such as Peyo’s The Black Smurfs, 1963), more adult-oriented, ‘serious’ fiction and memoir (Art Spiegelman’s Maus: A Survivor’s Tale, 1986), and the superhero adventures published by the likes of dc and Marvel – DeTora adds a fourth genre, which is a sort of hybrid: A comic book series like Bill Willingham’s Fables (2002–2015) reinvents classic fairy tale characters by investing their supernatural immortality with the perpetual necessity to battle trauma in order to claim their posthuman heroism. Nathalie Ségeral’s article, “Of murdered babies and silenced histories: Gendering memory in two francophone trauma narratives”, explores gendering in traumatized memory in Algerian Malika Mokedamm’s Je dois tout à ton oubli (2008) and Rwandan Scholastique Mukasonga’s La Femme aux pied nus (2008). These works revolve around motherhood, infanticide, and mother-daughter relationships as crystallizations of memory issues. Ségeral analyses how Holocaust metaphors provide an echo chamber in narratives dealing with other traumas, such as the Rwandan genocide, colonial and postcolonial Algeria, and women’s oppression. Despite of the depiction of traumatic events, the works studied in the article move beyond victimology. JeanMarc Moura’s article, “Peur et humour : le cas de l’humour noir”, focuses on dark humour, ‘humour noir’. Moura examines the notion of humour, especially dark humour, and its conceptual ambiguities and its links to fear. Jasmin Hammon’s article, “L’Autre dans la fiction post-apocalyptique du xxie siècle”, discusses post-apocalyptic fictions that imagine the end of the 29Narratives of fear and safety Introduction modern civilisation and the reorganization of society. Hammon argues the apocalypse represents a moment of nothingness for humanity. In doing so, Hammon refers to Jean-Paul Sartre’s existential understanding of néant, nothingness. The final chapter of the volume, “The End of the world? From cultural ecologies to ecological disasters”, focuses on disaster and catastrophe narratives, for example stories of the Fukushima accident. Sam La Védrine’s article, “Michel Deguy’s l’être-comme and the poetics of ecological comparativism”, studies Michel Deguy’s poetic theories of l’être-comme and cultural ecology. La Védrine argues that the analogical potential of poetry comes to offer a vast but intimately radical alterity for community with others by speculatively creating a non-dialectical and therefore necessarily paradoxical expression of the ecological comparativism of planetary space. La Védrine positions Deguy’s work on cultural ecology as a continuation of this binding alongside questions of scale in ecocritical discourse. Laure Lévêque’s article, “Sans dessus dessous (1889) de Jules Verne : dernier avertissement avant l’Apocalypse”, discusses man’s will to power in the works by Jules Verne. The glorification of man’s unstoppable might is generally thought to be the main feature in Jules Verne’s From the Earth to the Moon (1865), but the will to power concealed behind this mastery has fallen into relative oblivion. Verne’s novels From the Earth to the Moon (1865) and Topsy-Turvy (1889) depict conquests due to force and violence, embodied by the Gun Club society, whose members launch the projects. Lévêque shows that the themes of failed conquest and mass extinction of the planet’s inhabitants are used by Verne as a form of final warning, to point out that something is rotten in Western civilisation. In her article, “Le Japon de Fukushima comme lieu de discours pour des auteurs francophones”, Sabine Kraenker examines the Kaukiainen, K., Kurikka, K., Mäkelä, H., Nykänen, E., Nyqvist, S., Raipola, J., Riippa, A. & Samola, H. (eds) 30 Elise Nykänen & Hanna Samola possibility for French-speaking writers depicting an ecological catastrophe that happens far from their home. Contamina asks what kind of discourse a foreign writer can have on Fukushima, and what kind of limitations the author may face when writing on a catastrophe that happened in Japan in 2011. 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