Investigating the direct and indirect effects of a school-based leadership program for primary school students : Rationale and study protocol for the ‘Learning to Lead’ cluster randomised controlled trial

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Investigating the direct and indirect effects of a school-based leadership program for primary school students : Rationale and study protocol for the ‘Learning to Lead’ cluster randomised controlled trial © 2023 Wade et al. Published version Wade, Levi; Beauchamp, Mark, R.; Nathan, Nicole; Smith, Jordan, J.; Leahy, Angus A.; Kennedy, Sarah G.; Boyer, James; Bao, Ran; Diallo, Thierno M. O.; Vidal-Conti, Josep; Lubans, David, R. Wade, L., Beauchamp, M., Nathan, N., Smith, J., Leahy, A. A., Kennedy, S. G., Boyer, J., Bao, R., Diallo, T. M. O., Vidal-Conti, J., & Lubans, D. (2023). Investigating the direct and indirect effects of a school-based leadership program for primary school students : Rationale and study protocol for the ‘Learning to Lead’ cluster randomised controlled trial. PLoS ONE, 18(1), Article e0279661. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 2023 STUDY PROTOCOL Investigating the direct and indirect effects of a school-based leadership program for primary school students: Rationale and study protocol for the ‘Learning to Lead’ cluster randomised controlled trial Levi Wade 1,2,3 , Mark R. Beauchamp 4 , Nicole Nathan 5,6,7 , Jordan J. Smith 1,2,3 , Angus A. Leahy 1,2,3 , Sarah G. Kennedy 8 , James Boyer 9 , Ran Bao 1,2,3 , Thierno M. O. Diallo 10 , Josep Vidal-ContiID 11 , David R. LubansID 1,2,3,12 * 1Centre for Active Living and Learning, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia, 2College of Human and Social Futures, School of Education, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia, 3Active Living Research Program, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales, Australia, 4School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 5Hunter New England Population Health, Wallsend, New South Wales, Australia, 6School of Medicine and Public Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia, 7Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, New South Wales, Australia, 8School of Health Sciences, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia, 9New South Wales Department of Education, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, 10 School of Social Sciences, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia, 11 The University of the Balearic Islands, Palma, Spain, 12 Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyva ¨skyla ¨, Jyva ¨skyla ¨, Finland *[email protected] Abstract Background Leadership is a valuable skill that can be taught in school, and which may have benefits within and beyond the classroom. Learning to Lead (L2L) is a student-led, primary schoolbased leadership program whereby older ‘peer leaders’ deliver a fundamental movement skills (FMS) program to younger ‘peers’ within their own school. Aim The aims of the study are to determine the efficacy of a peer-led FMS intervention on: (i) peer leaders’ (aged 10 to 12 years) leadership effectiveness (primary outcome), leadership self-efficacy, well-being, and time on-task in the classroom; (ii) peers’ (aged 8 to 10 years) physical activity levels, actual and perceived FMS competency, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular power, and executive functioning; and (iii) teachers’ (referred to as ‘school champions’) work-related stress and well-being. Method L2L will be evaluated using a two-arm parallel group cluster randomised controlled trial. Twenty schools located within a two-hour drive of the University of Newcastle, Australia will PLOS ONE PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 1 / 16 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 a1111111111 OPEN ACCESS Citation: Wade L, Beauchamp MR, Nathan N, Smith JJ, Leahy AA, Kennedy SG, et al. (2023) Investigating the direct and indirect effects of a school-based leadership program for primary school students: Rationale and study protocol for the ‘Learning to Lead’ cluster randomised controlled trial. PLoS ONE 18(1): e0279661. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 Editor: Lucinda Shen, Public Library of Science, UNITED KINGDOM Received: November 30, 2022 Accepted: December 8, 2022 Published: January 20, 2023 Copyright: ©2023 Wade et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability Statement: No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study. All relevant data from this study will be made available upon study completion. Funding: The study is funded by the Australian Research Council (https://www.arc.gov.au/) (DP22010099) and the NSW Department of Education School Sport Unit (https://app. education.nsw.gov.au/sport/). DRL is funded by a be recruited. We will recruit 80 students (40 peer leaders and 40 peers) from each school (N= 1,600). L2L will be implemented in three phases: Phase 1 –school champions’ training via a professional learning workshop; Phase 2 –school champions’ delivery of leadership lessons to the peer leaders; and Phase 3 –peer leaders’ delivery of the FMS program to their younger peers. The FMS program, consisting of 12 x 30-minute lessons, will be delivered over the course of one school term (10 weeks). Study outcomes will be assessed at baseline (between mid-March to June, Terms 1 and 2), intervention end (mid-August to September, Term 3), and follow-up (November to mid-December, Term 4. This trial was prospectively registered on the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR); registration number: ACTRN12621000376842. Introduction ‘Leadership’ refers to the behavioural processes through which an individual influences others toward achieving specific goals or objectives [1], and is a valuable life skill that can be developed in the school setting. Providing children with opportunities to develop their leadership skills has been shown to improve their academic outcomes [2], increase their likelihood to take initiative in the classroom [2], and may improve learning autonomy (e.g., studying, completing homework, reviewing lessons etc) [3]. Improving leadership skills at school may also transfer to non-school settings and other life stages (e.g., employment in early adulthood). Surprisingly, there have been very few school-based programs focussed on developing students’ leadership ability. Further, previous peer-led programs have predominantly focused on the benefits for those being led (i.e., peers) [4–6], rather than exploring benefits for the leaders themselves. Schools have been identified as key settings for physical activity promotion in children and adolescents [7]. Participating in moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) is vital for children’s physical, social, psychological, and cognitive development [8,9]. Concerningly, less than 20% of Australian children are sufficiently active [10]. Additionally, many children finish primary school without mastering important fundamental movement skills (FMS); e.g., throwing, catching, running, and kicking [10]. While schools are an ideal environment to target children’s physical activity and movement skills, the effects of such interventions are typically modest [11]. The average effect of school-based physical activity interventions on objectively measured MVPA is less than two minutes per day [12]. Further, when interventions are scaled-up, they often experience significant ‘voltage drop’ [13–15]. For example, a 2021 systematic review found that when physical activity interventions are scaledup, they typically achieve less than 60% of their pre-scale effect size [16]. School-based physical activity interventions can be challenging to implement [17], the problems of which are further compounded when teachers lack the necessary competencies, time, and support to enable effective program delivery [18]. Accordingly, schools require physical activity interventions that are both effective and scalable. Australian teachers report high levels of work-related stress and burnout [19]. Sources of stress for school teachers include managing student discipline, high workloads, poor working conditions, and lack of support from school administrators [20,21]. A recent study of Australian teachers (N= 960) concluded that improving measures for managing student behaviour was among teachers’ top priorities to improve their own well-being [22]. In line with this, negative student-teacher relationships are associated with lower occupational well-being among PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 2 / 16 National Health and Medical Research Council Senior Research Fellowship (APP1154507). NN is supported by a Medical Research Future Fund (MRFF) Investigator Grant (GS2000053). The funders had and will not have a role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. teachers [23]. Providing students with opportunities to develop their leadership skills may help to manage their behaviour within and beyond the classroom. This may improve the relationship with their teacher, mitigating teacher stress and improving teacher well-being. We conducted a pilot study to evaluate a school-based peer leadership program in two primary schools in New South Wales (NSW), Australia (N = 224 students) [24]. The intervention resulted in large improvements in peer leaders’ effectiveness (d= 1.09) and peers’ FMS competency (d= 0.95). Importantly, the program was well received by teachers and students, increasing the likelihood of program dissemination. Although classroom behaviour was not formally measured, teachers anecdotally reported improvements in students’ classroom behaviour following participation in our leadership program. Despite these positive findings, the pilot study involved a quasi-experimental design in two schools and our findings need to be confirmed using a robust cluster randomised controlled trial (RCT). Previous investigations have demonstrated that peer leadership programs can have a range of benefits for those being led, such as improvements in physical activity [25], mathematical ability [26], and nutrition knowledge [6]. The current project builds upon the findings of our previous pilot study and will examine the effects of a student-led, school-based leadership program known as Learning to Lead (L2L) on students’ behavioural, psychological, and cognitive outcomes. In Australia, students in their last two years of primary school are referred to as Stage 3 students and are typically between the ages of 10 and 12. Henceforth, these students will be referred to as ‘peer leaders’. Students in the preceding two years of schooling are referred to as Stage 2 students and are typically between the ages of 8 and 10. These students will be referred to as ‘peers’. The primary aim is to determine the impact of L2L on peer leaders’ leadership effectiveness. The secondary aims are to determine the impact of L2L on i) peer leaders’ self-reported leadership effectiveness, leadership self-efficacy, well-being, and time ontask in the classroom; ii) peers’ physical activity levels, executive functioning, health-related fitness, and actual and perceived FMS competency; and (iii) teachers’ work-related stress and well-being. We will also examine whether changes in FMS competency mediate changes in executive functioning. Further, this study will be the first to test the hypothesis that improving children’s leadership skills may have ‘spill over’ effects for leaders’ time ‘on-task’ in the classroom and teachers’ work-related stress and well-being. Materials and methods Research design L2L will be evaluated using a two-arm parallel group cluster RCT. Schools will be randomly allocated to a group by an independent researcher via a computer-based random number generator to either an intervention or wait-list control. In Australia, the school year is divided into four terms, each approximately 10 weeks in duration. The study will be conducted across two cohorts (2022 and 2023), with assessments at baseline (between mid-March to June, Terms 1 and 2), intervention end (mid-August to September, Term 3), and follow-up (November to mid-December, Term 4). See Fig 1 for the SPIRIT Schedule Of Enrolment, Interventions, And Assessments. The trial has been prospectively registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (registration number: ACTRN12621000376842). The design, conduct and reporting will adhere to CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) [27] and TIDieR (Template for Intervention Description and Replication) [28] checklists. The trial has been approved by the University of Newcastle’s ethics committee (reference number: H2020-0109) and the NSW Department of Education’s State Education Research Applications Process (SERAP; reference number: 2020143). PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 3 / 16 Sample size calculation To ensure 80% power to detect a conservative effect of d= 0.50 for leadership effectiveness (adjusted between-group difference of *0.4 units with standard deviation of 0.8), we required 128 peer leaders for a non-clustered trial (two-tailed, p<0.05). However, as recommended by CONSORT [27], we adjusted our power calculation for the clustering of effects at the school level using a correction factor of [1+ (m −1) ×ICC], where m = participants per school and ICC = intraclass correlation coefficient. Assuming an average class size of 20 participating students, two classes per school and an ICC for leadership effectiveness of 0.15, the correction factor is 5.68 [i.e., 1 + (40−1) ×0.15]. The required sample size to achieve 80% power with α levels set at p<.05 is 727 (i.e., 128 x 5.68). Operating under the assumption that each school has approximately 60 x Stage 3 students (two classes), with a conservative response rate of 67% and allowing for an expected 10% loss to follow-up, we will aim to recruit at least 40 Stage 3 students from each of 20 schools (N= 800). We will also recruit 40 Stage 2 students per school (N= 800). School recruitment and selection Government primary schools located within a two-hour drive of the main campus of the University of Newcastle, Australia will serve as the sampling frame. Schools will be eligible if they have at least two Stage 3 classes and are not participating in any other leadership or physical activity programs. Schools will be invited via email and follow-up phone call. In 2022 (Cohort 1), we will randomly select 10 schools from the list of eligible and consenting schools and identify up to 10 replacement schools. Once we have 10 schools, we will pair-match schools according to their size and level of socio-economic disadvantage [29]. The same process will be repeated for Cohort 2 in 2023, until we reach our total sample size of 20 schools. Fig 1. SPIRIT schedule of enrolment, interventions, and assessments. At the time of this paper’s submission, we have begun participant recruitment. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661.g001 PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 4 / 16 Participants Two Stage 2 (Grades 3 and 4) and two Stage 3 (Grades 5 and 6) classes from consenting schools will be invited to participate. If schools have more than two Stage 2 or Stage 3 classes, the schoolteachers, in consultation with their principal will determine which classes participate. Children from other grades (i.e., Grades 1 and 2) may participate in the FMS program, but they will not be involved in the data collection. Students aged between 7 and 13 are eligible for inclusion. To be included in the research evaluation, parents of students will be required to provide written informed consent, and students will provide assent. Teachers of the Stage 3 classes at consenting schools will be invited to participate in data collection. They must provide written consent to be included in the study. Theoretical framework L2L is guided by transformational leadership theory (not to be confused with transformative leadership) [30], which has a well-established evidence base [31,32] and is appropriate for educational settings [33]. Research conducted across different settings has demonstrated that transformational leadership is associated with positive outcomes, including higher levels of empowerment [34], motivation [35], and performance [36]. Transformational leaders demonstrate behaviours that empower and inspire others, they transcend their own self-interests and provide others with the confidence to achieve high levels of functioning [30]. Research conducted across different settings has demonstrated that transformational leadership provides a range of positive outcomes for those being led [34–36]. Transformational leadership theory consists of four interrelated behavioural dimensions: (i) Idealised influencefostering trust and respect by role modelling ideal behaviour, (ii) Inspirational motivationdisplaying optimism, enthusiasm, and having high expectations of others, (iii) Intellectual stimulationencouraging others to consider issues from a different perspective, and (iv) Individualised considerationrecognising and supporting others’ physical and psychological needs. Of particular relevance to the current study, it has been demonstrated that: (i) teachers can learn to utilise transformational teaching practices and inspire adolescents to be more physically active [37]; and (ii) Grade 6 students can become transformational leaders in their schools and improve younger children’s fundamental movement skill (FMS) competency [24]. Intervention description L2L is a multi-component primary school program co-developed with an advisory group consisting of key stakeholders (education experts, physical activity experts, teachers, and school principals). The program is informed by the tenets of transformational leadership theory [31] and based on previous interventions designed by our research team [24,38]. Importantly, key stakeholders have recommended the L2L program align with existing school-based leadership opportunities. As such, our research team will work with schools to ensure the tenets of transformational leadership theory are operationalised during the program. The L2L program is guided by the conceptual framework developed by Kelloway and Barling [39] and refined by Beauchamp [31]. This framework involves the following components: (i) explanation of transformational leadership principles, (ii) demonstration of leadership behaviours using realworld examples that are relevant for children, (iii) providing opportunities for children to practice the leadership behaviours, (iv) receiving feedback on the implementation of leadership behaviours, and (v) development of self-regulatory strategies to support sustained implementation. Integral to this framework is the opportunity for peer leaders to intellectually engage with the meaning of ‘leadership’ and how their own behaviours can influence others in positive and (if not enacted appropriately) negative ways. PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 5 / 16 A description of the intervention components and the evaluation of their implementation is provided in Table 1, and a visual depiction of the three phases of the program are shown in Fig 2. 1) Professional learning workshop for school champions The school champions will attend a full-day professional learning workshop (approximately 6-hours) held at the University of Newcastle. The workshop will be led by members of the research team, and will focus on providing the school champions with the knowledge, skills, support, and resources necessary to conduct the L2L program in their schools. The workshop will introduce the program, provide a summary of the findings from the pilot study, explain the how to encourage students to be leaders, highlight the importance of physical activity and physical literacy for children, and provide teachers with the opportunity to participate in a L2L session. During their L2L session, each school champion is given the opportunity to take on the role of peer leader (by running part of a session) and as a peer (via participation in part of a session). The workshop will conclude by assisting teachers to make an action plan for delivery of L2L in their schools. Here, the school champions will be provided with all the curricular materials, equipment, and resources necessary to deliver the program. 2) Lessons taught by school champions to peer leaders The school champions will deliver 6 x 40-minute lessons to peer leaders in Term 2. The six lessons will include a combination of practical activities and information to support peer leaders to deliver the FMS program. The information component will address the four aforementioned dimensions of transformational leadership [30], which have been reframed to support leaders’ understanding as follows: i) Role modelling,ii) Motivating others,iii) Considering others, and iv) Helping others to think. Leaders will also be taught the correct movement skill patterns for six object control skills (i.e., catch, underarm throw, overarm throw, bounce, kick, and straight drive [a cricket skill]). Peer leaders will be provided with models of the ideal structure of an FMS session which includes: i) brief skill introduction, ii) fast start activity, iii) skill development with key teaching points, iv) skill application in a small-sided game and v) reflection.Peer leaders will be trained to provide basic teaching cues, individualised feedback, and opportunities to practice movement skills in a supportive, fun, and encouraging environment. 3) Lessons taught by peer leaders to peers Over the course of a school term (10 weeks), peer leaders will deliver 12 x 30-minute FMS sessions to peers.Peer leaders will form pairs or groups of three, which will then be paired with a group of 4–6 peers (i.e., peer leader:peer ratio of 1:2) by the school champions and the peers’ classroom teachers. To have the opportunity to apply transformational leadership principles, these peer leaders will remain with the same peers for the entire 10-week duration. The peer leaders will be provided with a class set of age-appropriate and purpose-designed “lessonplans” to use (see [S1 Fig]). While peer leaders will be provided with resources and a recommended session structure, they will have guided autonomy in their delivery of sessions. Based on feedback from our initial pilot study [24], peer leaders will be provided with some simple behaviour management techniques to assist managing children’s behaviour, but will also be assisted by supervising classroom teachers in situations where required. Control group To prevent compensatory rivalry and resentful demoralisation, we will use a wait-list control group. Schools allocated to the control group in cohorts 1 and 2 will receive the program in Term 4 of 2022 and 2023, respectively. PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 6 / 16 Table 1. Intervention description. Level Intervention component Dose Description Implementation evaluation School External change agent A minimum of two inschool observations + ongoing support One external change agent will be allocated to each school. The change agents will come from NSW DoE School Sport Unit or the University of Newcastle. The role of external change agents is to support program implementation. Specifically, they will provide training and on-going support to the school champions. They will also observe two sessions per school over the 10-week study using a structured observation checklist. This information will be provided back to teachers, who will then share this information privately with leaders. Post-program questionnaire–to gauge acceptability and appropriateness Sporting equipment One pack per Stage 3 class Each of the participating Stage 3 classes will be provided with a sports equipment pack (i.e., balls, marker cones, cricket bats etc.) to assist in the delivery of the program (valued at ~$1,000 AUD). Post-program questionnaire–to gauge use and appropriateness of materials Posters Three posters per school Schools will be provided with L2L posters explaining and promoting the transformational leadership principles. Post-program questionnaire–to gauge use and appropriateness of materials Teacher Professional learning Workshop One full-day workshop The school champions (teachers of involved Stage 3 classes) will attend a professional learning workshop. The aim of the workshop is to prepare teachers to implement the L2L program in their schools. The workshop includes the following: (i) introduction to the program, (ii) summary of the findings from the pilot study, (iii) importance of physical activity and physical literacy for children, (iv) opportunity for teachers to participate in a L2L session, and (v) opportunity for teachers to make a plan for L2L delivery in their schools. Workshop evaluation questionnaire Curricular materials One pack per Stage 3 teacher At the workshop, school champions will be provided with the following curricular materials to deliver the program: L2L unit of work and lesson plans, lesson materials, film clips, and experiential activities and games. All curricular materials will be aligned with the Stage 3 Personal Development, Health and Physical Education curriculum. Post-program questionnaire–to gauge use and appropriateness of materials Learning to Lead– leadership lessons Six x 40-minute lessons The school champions will deliver 6 x 40-minute lessons on the program to peer leaders in Term 2. The seven lessons will include a mixture of practical activities and information to support leaders to deliver the program. It will address the following four dimensions of leadership: i) Role modelling,ii) Motivating others,iii) Considering others, and iv) Helping others to think. Leaders will also be taught the correct movement skill patterns for five object control skills (i.e., catch, underarm throw, overarm throw, bounce, and kick). Peer leaders will be trained to provide basic teaching cues, individualised feedback, and opportunities to practice movement skills in a supportive, fun, and encouraging environment. Post-program questionnaire–to gauge use and appropriateness of materials. (Continued) PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 7 / 16 Measures All assessments will be conducted at the study schools by trained research assistants blinded to intervention assignment. Questionnaires will be completed in exam-like conditions using an online survey with electronic tablets. Standard demographic information will be collected at baseline. Primary outcome (peer leaders). Completed by school champions at baseline (Term 1: weeks 8–10 to Term 2), and intervention end (Term 3: weeks 5–10): Leadership effectiveness.School champions will be asked to rate peer leaders’ leadership skills using an adapted version of the Transformational Teaching Questionnaire [40]. The questionnaire was developed to assess the tenets of transformational leadership theory: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. Using the common stem ‘The student that I’m rating. . .’, the questionnaire includes the following items: ‘behaves as someone that other students can trust’ (idealized influence), ‘is enthusiastic about what other students are capable of achieving’ (inspirational motivation), ‘encourages students to think for themselves’ (intellectual stimulation), and ‘shows that s/he cares about the students s/he is teaching’ (individualised consideration)’. The measure requires respondents to answer four questions for each student, using a five-point scale ranging from ‘0 –not Table 1. (Continued) Level Intervention component Dose Description Implementation evaluation Leaders Lesson plans One set per leadership group Intervention schools will be provided with a class set of age-appropriate and purpose-designed laminated “lesson-plans” for leaders to use. The peer leaders will be provided with models of the ideal structure of a fundamental movement skill session which includes: (i) Brief skill introduction, (ii) Fast start activity, (iii) Skill development with key teaching points, (iv) Skill application in a smallsided game and (v) Reflection. While peer leaders will be provided with resources and a recommended session structure, they will have guided autonomy in their delivery of sessions. Post-program questionnaire–to gauge use and appropriateness of materials Leaders and Peers Fundamental movement skills (FMS) program 12 lessons Over the course of a school term, peer leaders will deliver 12 FMS lessons to the peers. The sessions will be delivered by 2–3 leaders to a group of 4–6 peers (at a ratio of 1:2). In line with transformational leadership principles, peer leaders will remain with the same peers for the 10-week duration. External change agents will collect data on leaders’ adherence to the proposed session delivery. Using a checklist, they will also assess leaders’ adherence to the transformational leadership principles. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661.t001 Fig 2. The three phases of learning to lead program. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661.g002 PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 8 / 16 27. Moher D, Hopewell S, Schulz KF, Montori V, Gøtzsche PC, Devereaux PJ, et al. CONSORT 2010 explanation and elaboration: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. British Medical Journal. 2010; 340: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c869 PMID: 20332511 28. Hoffmann TC, Glasziou PP, Boutron I, Milne R, Perera R, Moher D, et al. Better reporting of interventions: template for intervention description and replication (TIDieR) checklist and guide. British Medical Journal. 2014; 348:g1687. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g1687 PMID: 24609605 29. Murray DM. Design and analysis of group-randomized trials: Oxford University Press; 1998. 30. Bass BM, Riggio RE. Transformational Leadership. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2006. 31. Beauchamp MR, Morton KL. Transformational teaching and physical activity engagement among adolescents. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. 2011; 39(3):133–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/JES. 0b013e31822153e7 PMID: 21552132 32. Wang G, Oh I-S, Courtright SH, Colbert AE. Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of research. Group and Organization Management. 2011; 36(2):223–70. 33. Slavich GM, Zimbardo PG. Transformational teaching: Theoretical underpinnings, basic principles, and core methods. Educational Psychology Review. 2012; 24(4):569–608. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648012-9199-6 PMID: 23162369 34. Kark R, Shamir B, Chen G. The two faces of transformational leadership: Empowerment and dependency. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2003; 88(2):246–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.2. 246 PMID: 12731708 35. Piccolo RF, Colquitt JA. Transformational leadership and job behaviors: The mediating role of core job characteristics. Academy of Management Journal. 2006; 49(2):327–40. 36. Barling J, Weber T, Kelloway EK. Effects of transformational leadership training on attitudinal and financial outcomes: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology. 1996; 81(6):827–32. 37. Beauchamp MR, Barling J, Morton KL. Transformational teaching and adolescent self-determined motivation, self-efficacy, and intentions to engage in leisure time physical activity: A randomised controlled pilot trial. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being. 2011; 3(2):127–50. 38. Cohen K, Morgan PJ, Plotnikoff RC, Callister R, Lubans DR. Physical activity and skills intervention: SCORES cluster randomized controlled trial. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise. 2015; 47 (4):765–74. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000452 PMID: 25051389 39. Kelloway EK, Barling J. What we have learned about developing transformational leaders. Leadership and Organization Development Journal. 2000. 40. Beauchamp MR, Barling J, Li Z, Morton KL, Keith SE, Zumbo BD. Development and psychometric properties of the transformational teaching questionnaire. Journal of Health Psychology. 2010; 15(8):1123– 34. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105310364175 PMID: 20522503 41. Bandura A. Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In: Pajares F, Urdan T, editors. Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. 5. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing; 2006. p. 307–37. 42. McConnell J, Naylor P-J. Feasibility of an intergenerational-physical-activity leadership intervention. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships. 2016; 14(3):220–41. 43. Stewart-Brown S, Tennant A, Tennant R, Platt S, Parkinson J, Weich S. Internal construct validity of the Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): a Rasch analysis using data from the Scottish health education population survey. Health and quality of life outcomes. 2009; 7(1):1–8. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/1477-7525-7-15 PMID: 19228398 44. Melendez-Torres G, Hewitt G, Hallingberg B, Anthony R, Collishaw S, Hall J, et al. Measurement invariance properties and external construct validity of the short Warwick-Edinburgh mental wellbeing scale in a large national sample of secondary school students in Wales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes. 2019; 17(1):1–9. 45. Alberto P, Troutman AC. Applied behavior analysis for teachers. Australia: Pearson; 2003. 46. Webster EK, Ulrich DA. Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Test of Gross Motor Development—third edition. Journal of Motor Learning and Development. 2017; 5(1):45–58. 47. Barnett LM, Ridgers ND, Zask A, Salmon J. Face validity and reliability of a pictorial instrument for assessing fundamental movement skill perceived competence in young children. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2015; 18(1):98–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2013.12.004 PMID: 24485803 48. Chandler J, Brazendale K, Beets M, Mealing B. Classification of physical activity intensities using a wrist-worn accelerometer in 8–12-year-old children. Pediatric Obesity. 2016; 11(2):120–7. https://doi. org/10.1111/ijpo.12033 PMID: 25893950 PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 15 / 16 49. Mayorga-Vega D, Aguilar-Soto P, Viciana J. Criterion-related validity of the 20-m shuttle run test for estimating cardiorespiratory fitness: a meta-analysis. J Sports Sci Med. 2015; 14(3):536. PMID: 26336340 50. Ruiz JR, Castro-Piñero J, España-Romero V, Artero EG, Ortega FB, Cuenca MM, et al. Field-based fitness assessment in young people: the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery for children and adolescents. British journal of sports medicine. 2011; 45(6):518–24. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2010. 075341 PMID: 20961915 51. Weintraub S, Dikmen SS, Heaton RK, Tulsky DS, Zelazo PD, Bauer PJ, et al. Cognition assessment using the NIH Toolbox. Neurology. 2013; 80(11 Supplement 3):S54–S64. 52. Miyake A, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ, Witzki AH, Howerter A, Wager TD. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive psychology. 2000; 41(1):49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 PMID: 10945922 53. Boyle GJ, Borg MG, Falzon JM, Baglioni AJ Jr. A structural model of the dimensions of teacher stress. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 1995; 65(1):49–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279. 1995.tb01130.x PMID: 7727267 54. Collie RJ, Shapka JD, Perry NE, Martin AJ. Teacher well-being: Exploring its components and a practice-oriented scale. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 2015; 33(8):744–56. 55. Damschroder LJ, Aron DC, Keith RE, Kirsh SR, Alexander JA, Lowery JC. Fostering implementation of health services research findings into practice: a consolidated framework for advancing implementation science. Implementation Science. 2009; 4(1):50. 56. Bates D, Ma ¨chler M, Bolker B, Walker S. Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software. 2015; 67(1):1–48. 57. King T, Fazel M. Examining the mental health outcomes of school-based peer-led interventions on young people: A scoping review of range and a systematic review of effectiveness. PLoS One. 2021; 16 (4):e0249553. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249553 PMID: 33857174 PLOS ONE Protocol for a school-based leadership program PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279661 January 20, 2023 16 / 16