Friend influence and susceptibility to influence on emotions towards math : The role of adolescent temperament

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Friend influence and susceptibility to influence on emotions towards math : The role of adolescent temperament © 2024 The Author(s). British Journal of Educational Psycholog y published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Psychological Society. Published version Kiuru, Noona; DeLay, Dawn; Tervahartiala, Katja; Polet, Juho; Hirvonen, Riikka Kiuru, N., DeLay, D., Tervahartiala, K., Polet, J., & Hirvonen, R. (2024). Friend influence and susceptibility to influence on emotions towards math : The role of adolescent temperament. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Early View. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12710 2024 Br J Educ Psychol. 2024;00:1–16. | 1 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/bjep Received: 27 February 2024 | Accepted: 16 July 2024 DOI: 10.1111/bjep.12710 ARTICLE Friend influence and susceptibility to influence on emotions towards math: The role of adolescent temperament Noona Kiuru1 | Dawn DeLay2 | Katja Tervahartiala1,3,4 | Juho Polet1,4 | Riikka Hirvonen5 This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2024 The Author(s). British Journal of Educational Psycholog y published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Psychological Society. Noona Kiuru1 and Dawn DeLay Shared first authorship. 1Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland 2Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA 3Department of Psychology and SpeechLanguage Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland 4Centre of Excellence in Learning Dynamics and Intervention Research (InterLearn), University of Jyväskylä and University of Turku, Turku, Finland 5School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland Correspondence Noona Kiuru, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland. Email: [email protected] Abstract Background and Aims: Peer relationships during adolescence play an important role in shaping academic outcomes. The present study examined friend influences on emotions towards math, as well as the role of temperament in these influences. Sample: The sample consisted of 350 Finnish students (mean age 13.29 years; 64% girls) who were involved in stable friendship dyads from fall to spring of Grade 7. Methods: In this twowave study, information on adolescents' temperament (i.e., negative emotionality, extraversion, effortful control) and on seven emotions towards math (i.e., enjoyment, hope, pride, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and boredom) was collected during grade 7. The data were analysed using longitudinal actorpartner interdependence models. Results: The results showed that friends resembled each other in all the investigated mathrelated emotions. Furthermore, over and above these initial similarities, friends mutually influenced each other's mathrelated enjoyment and anger towards math. Students characterized by higher negative emotionality also influenced their friends with lower levels of negative emotionality towards an increase in mathrelated anger and a lack of effortful control made adolescents more susceptible to friend influence over mathrelated shame and anxiety. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate that friends influence each other over time in mathrelated enjoyment 2 | KIURU et al. INTRODUCTION Peer relationships play an important role in shaping adolescent academic outcomes (Fuligni et al., 2001; Steenberghs et al., 2023; Valiente et al., 2020). Peer interactions can motivate and encourage academic success or become sources of discouragement and distraction from learning (Crosnoe et al., 2008; Wentzel, 2017). Similarly, emotions associated with learning tasks may promote or hinder academic success (Pekrun, 2017). While peer interactions impact all aspects of the learning environment, mathematics education may be particularly susceptible to the types of learning fears and anxieties that could benefit from supportive peer interactions in the classroom (Foley et al., 2017; Leaper, 2015; Robnett, 2013). Indeed, previous research demonstrates that positive peer interactions in the classroom may influence mathematics success (DeLay et al., 2015). Success in mathematics during adolescence is, in turn, associated with subsequent academic and career outcomes (Lazaraides & Watt, 2015), demonstrating the longerterm impact of early experiences with mathematics. The goal of this study is to investigate the influence of peers on a variety of achievementrelated emotions across one school year. Furthermore, we aim to better understand how the temperamental characteristics of youth may open or close the door to peer influence over achievementrelated emotions. The findings of will inform our understanding of the possible impact of adolescent peer relationships in influencing achievementrelated emotional outcomes. Student achievement emotions and peer relations The current study is based on the ideas of the controlvalue theory of achievement emotions (see Pekrun, 2006, 2017). Many different types of achievementrelated emotions are housed under this theory, such as enjoyment, frustration, and boredom as examples of activity emotions, and hope, pride, anxiety, hopelessness, shame, and anger defined as outcome emotions. Finally, the theory holds that control and value are central to the achievementrelated emotional arousal that, in turn, impacts academic success or failure outcomes. The controlvalue theory of achievement emotions (Pekrun, 2006, 2017) also addresses the issues of antecedents for achievementrelated emotional outcomes. For example, these antecedents may be found at both the individual level (e.g., individual characteristics of the target child) and the social level (e.g., peer group characteristics and influences of the target child). During adolescence individuals have an intensified need to be accepted by their peers and, thus, peers become an increasingly important socialization agent for academic behaviours and attitudes (Altermatt & Pomerantz, 2003; Fuligni et al., 2001; Laursen & Veenstra, 2021; Steenberghs et al., 2023). The process of peer influence occurs when peers exert influence on students' academic development across time, resulting in increased similarity among peers (see also Delay et al., 2015). and frustration. Furthermore, high negative emotionality may make adolescents more influential over their friends' mathrelated anger and a lack of effortful control may make adolescents more susceptible to friend influence over mathrelated shame and anxiety. Thus, the current findings have implications for how peer relations may impact individual outcomes in mathematics, for better or worse. KEYWORDS achievement emotions, adolescence, mathematics, peer influence, temperament 20448279, 0, Downloaded from https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12710 by University Of Jyväskylä Library, Wiley Online Library on [08/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License | 3 FRIEND INFLUENCE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INFLUENCE ON EMOTIONS Most previous research on peer influences has focused on the role of friendships in amplifying different problem behaviours (for a review, see Dishion & Tipsord, 2011; Fuligni & Eccles, 1993; Laursen & Veenstra, 2021). However, contagion and spread of emotions between friends are equally plausible and have received increased attention during the past decade. Accordingly, peer influences have been found to operate in depressive symptoms (Kiuru et al., 2012; Stevens & Prinstein, 2005), school engagement (Kindermann, 2008; Steenberghs et al., 2023), and happiness (van Workum et al., 2013). Although there is some evidence to suggest that friends resemble each other in achievement emotions and that achievement emotions of friends may predict adolescents' subsequent achievement (Reindl et al., 2018), only little is known about the extent of emotion transmission between friends. Adolescent temperament and peer influence in achievement emotions Adolescence is a developmental period during which adolescents undergo multiple changes in themselves and their social environment (e.g., Denham et al., 2009). It has been assumed that adolescent temperamental characteristics may play a role in the outcomes associated with this developmental period (Sanson et al., 2004), and these assumptions have been supported by vast empirical research demonstrating the associations between temperament and socioemotional, academic, and schoolrelated wellbeing (e.g., de Haan et al., 2013; Hirvonen et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2010). The current study is largely guided by the developmental model of temperament by Rothbart and colleagues (e.g., Rothbart, 2011; Rothbart et al., 2001). In this model, temperament is seen as constitutionally rooted individual differences in reactivity as well as in the selfregulation processes modulating this reactivity. It is also suggested that extraversion, negative emotionality, and effortful control are the three broader dimensions of temperament that drive behavioural and emotional outcomes. Extraversion is characterized by characteristics of positive emotionality and the types of approach behaviours that allow youth to be comfortable with new people and when engaging in new behaviours. Negative emotionality is characterized by characteristics that make individual more susceptible to negative environmental cues and more likely to dwell on intense negative feelings with facing disappointment. Finally, effortful control is characterized by the forms of selfregulation that will allow adolescents to maintain attention as well as to control their behavioural and affective responses. The onset and progression of the types of achievementrelated emotions that have been demonstrated to impact academic success and failure may also be driven by both temperamental features of the target child (see also Lehikoinen et al., 2019) or perhaps by these same characteristics existing in influential peer relationships. Based on Rothbart's model (e.g., Rothbart, 2011; Rothbart et al., 2001) it may be that the more reactive aspects of temperament (e.g., extraversion, negative emotionality) make some individuals more influential over their peers' achievementrelated emotional outcomes. The model suggests that higher levels of extraversion are likely to make individuals more approachable and pleasant to be around in the academic setting. Thus, it is likely the case that individuals high in extraversion may have a positive influence towards better peer achievementrelated emotional outcomes. In contrast, the model suggests that higher levels of negative reactivity may make individuals more disruptive and less pleasant to be around in the academic setting. Thus, individuals high in negative reactivity may have a negative influence towards worsened peer achievementrelated emotional outcomes (see also Belsky & Pluess, 2009). Although the ideas presented here related to the intersection of peer influence and individual temperament have not been empirically tested, they are not only supported by theory but also by individuallevel analyses linking temperament to achievementrelated emotional outcomes (e.g., Lahdelma et al., 2021; Lehikoinen et al., 2019). Furthermore, individual characteristics in selfregulative aspects of temperament, such as effortful control, may serve to either create susceptibilities to or defences against, these forms of social influence. The Rothbart model suggests that higher levels of effortful control are likely to make individuals less susceptible to peer influence. This is assumed to be because those with heightened levels of effortful control are more likely to maintain focus from the external distractors, such as peer behaviours and 20448279, 0, Downloaded from https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12710 by University Of Jyväskylä Library, Wiley Online Library on [08/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 4 | KIURU et al. social pressures. These ideas are supported by empirical research demonstrating the power of effortful control in predicting positive attention related outcomes, socialdevelopmental outcomes, and academic success outcomes (Lonigan & Vasey, 2009; Moran et al., 2013; Valiente et al., 2010). Although no empirical evidence has directly assessed how differing levels of reactive emotionality and effortful control within peer relationship dyads will direct the processes of peer influence on academicrelated emotional outcomes, we do know that individual levels of emotional reactivity and effortful control predict individual outcomes associated with academic success (e.g., Lonigan & Vasey, 2009; Moran et al., 2013; Valiente et al., 2010). There is also some evidence to suggest that high negative emotionality is related to attentional bias to threat stimuli, but only when accompanied by low effortful control (Lonigan & Vasey, 2009). THE CURRENT STUDY The broad goal of the current twowave study is not only to understand if there is evidence of peer influence on achievement emotions during early adolescence but also to take these ideas one step further by beginning to understand how and for whom this influence is likely to occur. Thus, as a first step we will assess whether there is any evidence of peer influence over achievementrelated emotional outcomes within one school year. Then, as a next step, we will begin to investigate how individual temperamental characteristics may drive the influence process for achievementrelated emotional outcomes. Specific research questions and related hypotheses follow. 1. Do adolescent friends influence each other's emotions towards mathematics (i.e., enjoyment, hope, pride, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and boredom)? Concerning this research question, we predict that friends will influence each other's emotions in mathematics (Hypothesis 1; see also, DeLay et al., 2015; Valiente et al., 2020). 2. Do reactive aspects of adolescent temperament (i.e., extraversion, negative emotionality) contribute to transmission of mathrelated emotions between friends? Concerning this research question, we predict that extraversion will promote transmission of positive mathrelated emotions (e.g., enjoyment) and that negative emotionality will promote transmission of negative mathrelated emotions (e.g., anger) between friends (Hypothesis 2; see also Rothbart, 2011). 3. Does the level of adolescents' effortful control (i.e., selfregulative dimension of temperament) moderate their susceptibility to the influence of their friends on emotions towards mathematics? Concerning this research question, we expect that low effortful control increases adolescents' susceptibility to their peers' influence, especially on negative achievement emotions (Hypothesis 3; Lonigan & Vasey, 2009). The effects of adolescent gender and initial levels of mathematics abilities were controlled in the current study. This is because we know that boys and girls may face different sorts of pressure and influence on mathematicsrelated outcomes (e.g., Leaper, 2015) and because we know that individuals with heightened mathematics abilities at the onset may also have few vulnerabilities to social disruptions, or external influences, on mathematicsrelated outcomes (e.g., Foley et al., 2017). METHOD Participants This study is part of a broader longitudinal study that follows a community sample of Finnish students across the transition from primary school to lower secondary school. The students were recruited from central Finland. This study focused on a sample of 350 (225 girls, 125 boys) adolescents 20448279, 0, Downloaded from https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12710 by University Of Jyväskylä Library, Wiley Online Library on [08/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License | 5 FRIEND INFLUENCE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INFLUENCE ON EMOTIONS in stable, reciprocated, samesex friendship dyads during the first year of lower secondary school (i.e., grade 7). The participants' age ranged from 12 to 14 years (mean = 13.29 years; SD = .33), and native language was Finnish in 98% of cases. Most participants lived with both parents in one household (76%) or alternated between their mother and father (10%). In turn, 14% of students lived with only one parent, in blended families, or with somebody else. Four per cent of the mothers and 8% of the fathers reported no vocational education after comprehensive school; 28% of the mothers and 42% of the fathers had completed vocational upper secondary school; 39% of the mothers and 28% of the fathers had completed vocational postsecondary college; and 29% of the mothers and 22% of the fathers had a Master's degree or higher educational level. Procedure The original sample consisted of 841 students who participated in the study in Grade 7. Parent consent and child assent were required for participation. All the tests and questionnaires were administered by trained research assistants during normal school days through pen/pencil and paper assessments. The procedures were in accordance with the principles of the Helsinki Declaration on research with human subjects. The research plan of the project was approved by the Human Sciences Ethics Committee of the University of Jyväskylä. From the original 841 participants, this study focused on the 350 students who were involved in stable, reciprocated friendship dyads during grade 7 (i.e., from fall to spring of the school year). Girls were overrepresented compared to boys among the students who had reciprocal stable friendships in their school class (χ2(1) = 23.34, p < .001, Cramer V = .17). Otherwise, there were no differences in any demographic or study variables between those with and those without stable reciprocated friends (all ps > .05). Measures Peer nominations Friendships were assessed in the fall and spring of grade 7 by using a sociometric nomination procedure (Bukowski et al., 2012; Kiuru et al., 2015). Adolescents were asked to nominate up to six rankordered classmates with whom they most like spending time during breaks. Friends were defined as students who reciprocated preferred affiliate nominations. Stable friends were defined as dyads in which the same students reciprocated nominations at both time points (Bagwell et al., 1998). Some participants had more than one stable samesex friendship. In this case, preference was given to highest rank friendships and every adolescent was included only in one friendship dyad (see also Delay et al., 2015). Achievement emotions in mathematics Students' achievement emotions concerning mathematics were measured in the fall and spring of grade 7 with the Finnish version of the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ; Pekrun et al., 2011; for validity in the Finnish sample, see Sainio et al., 2021), which was adapted for school age students. The students rated their achievement emotions (enjoyment, hope, pride, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and boredom) regarding learning, attending classes, and test situations in math on a fivepoint Likerttype scale (1 = I disagree; 5 = I agree). The Cronbach's alpha reliabilities were above >.70. 20448279, 0, Downloaded from https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12710 by University Of Jyväskylä Library, Wiley Online Library on [08/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 6 | KIURU et al. Adolescent temperament The adolescents' temperament was reported by parents in grade 6 using the Finnish version of the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire (Revised) (EATQR) (Capaldi & Rothbart, 1992; Ellis & Rothbart, 2001; for the validity in the Finnish sample, see Kiuru et al., 2019). The 56 statements of the questionnaire were designed to measure broader dimensions of temperament, namely, effortful control, negative emotionality, and extraversion. Mean scores for effortful control (α = .80), negative emotionality (α = .84), and extraversion (α = .74) were calculated. These data were used for the second set of analyses to define withindyad differences in temperament. Control variables Adolescent biological sex (1 = girl, 2 = boy) and math skills were included as the covariates in the analyses. Gender was selfreported, and math skills were assessed with the Basic Arithmetic Test (see also Räsänen et al., 2009). The test contains tasks of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The students were asked to do mental calculations and write their answers on the test paper. The test has 28 tasks (e.g., 527 + 31 =?; 15–? = 9; 12 × 28 =?), starting with easier tasks and getting more difficult throughout. The time limit for completing the test was 3 min. Students received one point for each correct answer, the maximum possible score thus being 28. The Cronbach's alpha reliability for the scale was .82. Plan of analysis Longitudinal ActorPartner Interdependence Model (APIM) analyses were conducted within a path analysis framework (see also Kenny et al., 2006) using the Mplus statistical package with FIML estimation and robust standard errors (Version 8.4; Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2021). First, indistinguishable dyad APIM analyses were carried out for stable friendships between two time points (350 adolescents in 175 dyads). Figure 1 illustrates the longitudinal APIMs of indistinguishable dyads for mathrelated achievement emotions with two waves of data. Our particular interest was in the partner effects, that is, whether friends explain some unique variance of each other's later achievement emotions. Reciprocal friend dyads are a classic example of indistinguishable dyads, that is, there are no meaningful differences that can be used to distinguish (or differentiate) two members of a friendship dyad (see also Kenny et al., 2006). Consequently, the covariance structure and correlations were constrained to be equal between friend 1 and friend 2. In other words, the resulting model is invariant between indistinguishable friends (friend 1 and friend 2). FIGURE 1 Theoretical model to test peer influence in mathrelated achievement emotions among indistinguishable dyads. 20448279, 0, Downloaded from https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12710 by University Of Jyväskylä Library, Wiley Online Library on [08/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License | 7 FRIEND INFLUENCE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INFLUENCE ON EMOTIONS Second, distinguishable dyad APIM analyses were carried out for stable friendship dyads that were distinguishable in regard to extraversion (n = 116 consisting of 58 dyads, d = 2.22 for distinguishability between dyads) and negative emotionality (n = 150 consisting of 75 dyads; d = 2.21 for distinguishability between dyads). The fact that friendship dyads were distinguishable in regards to temperament refers to the relative difference between the members of the same friendship dyad in terms of their temperament. Figure 2 illustrates the longitudinal APIMs for distinguishable dyads as a function of high and low levels of extraversion and high and low levels of negative emotionality as they impact the direction and strength of friend influence on mathrelated achievement emotions with two waves of data. In both models, correlations between partners in the first wave (c, preexisting similarity) were included in the model. Also, residuals in the second wave are allowed to be correlated. Paths (a) are actor paths that represent the longitudinal stability for each partner on achievement emotions. Paths (p) are partner paths that represent the influence that each partner has over the other. Because the model controls for the actor's previous level of achievement emotion, partner paths represent influence over change in achievement emotion between the two time points. The effects of adolescent gender and level of math skills were controlled for in all the analyses. RESULTS Descriptive statistics for the study variables are found in Table 1. Indistinguishable dyad APIM analyses for achievement emotions in mathematics The results of APIM analyses for indistinguishable friendship dyads showed that peer influence paths (p, Figure 1) were significant for two out of eight emotions, that is, for math enjoyment (β = .11, SE = .04, p = .006) and for mathrelated anger (β = .10, SE = .05, p = .048), when controlling for the rankorder stability effects and the effects of covariates (i.e., gender, math skills). In other words, friends were influenced by each other both in enjoyment and anger in math. However, no peer influence was detected in mathrelated hope, anxiety, boredom, hopelessness, pride, and shame (all ps > .05). In addition, initial similarity (c, Figure 1), that is the correlation between partners' emotions in the fall of the seventh grade, was statistically significant in five out of eight mathrelated emotions: r for hope = .23 (p = .005), r for enjoyment = .23 ( p = .008), r for boredom = .26 (p = .001), r for hopelessness = .20 (p = .01), and r for pride = .16 ( p = .035). By contrast, no initial similarity between friends (c, Figure 1) was found in anxiety (r = .09, p = .26), shame (r = .05, p = .51), and anger (r = .13, p = .08). FIGURE 2 Theoretical model to test peer influence in mathrelated achievement emotions for distinguishable dyads in regard to temperament. 20448279, 0, Downloaded from https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12710 by University Of Jyväskylä Library, Wiley Online Library on [08/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 8 | KIURU et al. Distinguishable dyad APIM analyses for achievement emotions in mathematics Distinguished on negative emotionality The results revealed differential peer influence in mathrelated anger for friends distinguished on the basis of negative emotionality. Higher negative emotionality friends influenced their lower negative emotionality friends towards an increase in mathrelated anger (p2 path: β = .18, SE = .09, p = .05), whereas lower negative emotionality friends did not influence their higher negative emotionality friends in mathrelated anger (p1 path: β = .09, SE = .10, p = .48). Next, the regulative dimension of temperament, that is, effortful control was tested as a moderator of the effects of reactive dimensions of temperament on peer influence. The results showed that the interaction effects of adolescent effortful control and peer influence effect of friends with high negative emotionality were statistically significant when predicting mathrelated anxiety (β = −. 2 4 , SE = .08, p = .002) and mathrelated shame (β = −. 2 5 , SE = . 0 8 , p = .001) of adolescents with lower negative emotionality. In other words, the level of adolescents' effortful control moderated their susceptibility to be influenced by their higher negative emotionality friends in regard to anxiety and shame (Figure 3 for anxiety and Figure 4 for shame). Specifically, low effortful control increased adolescents' susceptibility to detrimental peer influence towards an increase in anxiety and shame in mathematics. By contrast, if the level of adolescents' effortful control was high no peer influence from high negative emotionality friends was found. TABLE 1 Means and standard deviations of the study variables (N = 350). MSD Range of scale Math enjoyment (gr7, fall) 3.35 .94 1–5 Math enjoyment (gr7, spring) 3.03 .96 1–5 Math hope (gr7, fall) 3.84 .82 1–5 Math hope (gr7, spring) 3.52 .91 1–5 Math pride (gr7, fall) 3.61 .93 1–5 Math pride (gr7, spring) 3.37 .97 1–5 Math anger (gr7, fall) 1.56 .63 1–5 Math anger (gr7, spring) 1.89 .79 1–5 Math anxiety (gr7, fall) 1.67 .77 1–5 Math anxiety (gr7, spring) 1.95 .87 1–5 Math shame (gr7, fall) 1.54 .74 1–5 Math shame (gr7, spring) 1.77 .81 1–5 Math hopelessness (gr7, fall) 1.53 .78 1–5 Math hopelessness (gr7, spring) 1.88 .94 1–5 Math boredom (gr7 fall) 1.85 .99 1–5 Math boredom (gr7, spring) 2.31 1.11 1–5 Negative emotionality 2.24 .49 1–5 Extraversion 3.47 .65 1–5 Effortful control 3.66 .53 1–5 Math skills 15.45 3.56 0–28 Gender (1 = girl, 2 = boy) 1.36 .48 1–2 Note: gr7, 7th grade. 20448279, 0, Downloaded from https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12710 by University Of Jyväskylä Library, Wiley Online Library on [08/08/2024]. 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