Maritime Information Networks between Northern and Southern Europe during the Eighteenth Century

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Maritime Information Networks between Northern and Southern Europe during the Eighteenth Century © 2019 Firenze University Press. Published version Ojala, Jari Ojala, J. (2019). Maritime Information Networks between Northern and Southern Europe during the Eighteenth Century. In G. Nigro (Ed.), Reti marittime come fattori dell'integrazione europea : Selezione di ricerche = Maritime Networks as a Factor in European Integration : Selection of essays (pp. 183-194). Firenze University Press. Atti delle "Settimande di Studi" e altri Convegni, 50. https://doi.org/10.36253/978-88-6453-857-0.10 2019 Atti delle “Settimane di Studi” e altri Convegni 50 OP03934_int_stampa.indd 1 03/04/19 20:13  PRESIDENTE DELLA FONDAZIONE: Giammarco Piacenti Segretario generale: Giampiero Nigro Comitato scientifico Presidente: Erik Aerts Vicepresidente: Laurence Fontaine Direttore scientifico: Giampiero Nigro Giunta esecutiva: Erik Aerts, Hilario Casado Alonso, Laurence Fontaine, Sergej Pavloviÿ Karpov, Olga Katsiardi-Hering, Maryanne Kowaleski, Paolo Malanima, Giampiero Nigro, Michael North, Luciano Palermo, Gaetano Sabatini Altri membri del Comitato scientifico: Cátia Antunes, Philippe Bernardi, Markus A. Denzel, Giulio Fenicia, Gerhard Fouquet, Maria Fusaro, Darius Koâodziejczyk, Carlos Laliena Corbera, Germano Maifreda, Luca Molà, Gerardo Pellegrino Nicolosi, Erol Özvar, Giuseppe Petralia, Paola Pierucci, Renzo Sabbatini, Mario Taccolini, Simon Teuscher, Diana Toccafondi, Michael Toch Comitato d’Onore Maurice Aymard, Michel Balard, Wim Blockmans, Giorgio Borelli, Michele Cassandro, Marco Cattini, Giovanni Cherubini, Murat Çizakça, Philippe Contamine, Mario Del Treppo, Antonio Di Vittorio, Arnold Esch, Luciana Frangioni, Richard Goldtwhaite, Alberto Grohmann, Alberto Guenzi, Paulino Iradiel Murugarren, Miguel Ángel Ladero Quesada, Elio Lodolini, Adam Manikowski, Paola Massa, Anthony Molho, Giovanni Muto, Hans Pohl, Christopher Smout, Henryk Samsonowicz, Jean-Pierre Sosson, Rolf Sprandel, Hermann van der Wee, Valentín Vázquez de Prada, Immanuel Wallerstein, Giovanni Zalin  PRESIDENTE DELLA FONDAZIONE: Giammarco Piacenti Segretario generale: Giampiero Nigro Comitato scientifico Presidente: Erik Aerts Vicepresidente: Laurence Fontaine Direttore scientifico: Giampiero Nigro Giunta esecutiva: Erik Aerts, Hilario Casado Alonso, Laurence Fontaine, Sergej Pavloviÿ Karpov, Olga Katsiardi-Hering, Maryanne Kowaleski, Paolo Malanima, Giampiero Nigro, Michael North, Luciano Palermo, Gaetano Sabatini Altri membri del Comitato scientifico: Cátia Antunes, Philippe Bernardi, Markus A. Denzel, Giulio Fenicia, Gerhard Fouquet, Maria Fusaro, Darius Koâodziejczyk, Carlos Laliena Corbera, Germano Maifreda, Luca Molà, Pellegrino Gerardo Nicolosi, Erol Özvar, Giuseppe Petralia, Paola Pierucci, Renzo Sabbatini, Simon Teuscher, Diana Toccafondi, Michael Toch Comitato d’Onore Maurice Aymard, Michel Balard, Wim Blockmans, Giorgio Borelli, Michele Cassandro, Marco Cattini, Giovanni Cherubini, Murat Çizakça, Philippe Contamine, Mario Del Treppo, Antonio Di Vittorio, Arnold Esch, Luciana Frangioni, Richard Goldtwhaite, Alberto Grohmann, Alberto Guenzi, Paulino Iradiel Murugarren, Miguel Ángel Ladero Quesada, Elio Lodolini, Adam Manikowski, Paola Massa, Anthony Molho, Giovanni Muto, Hans Pohl, Christopher Smout, Henryk Samsonowicz, Jean-Pierre Sosson, Rolf Sprandel, Hermann van der Wee, Valentín Vázquez de Prada, Immanuel Wallerstein, Giovanni Zalin FONDAZIONE ISTITUTO INTERNAZIONALE DI STORIA ECONOMICA “F. DATINI” PRATO RETI MARITTIME COME FATTORI DELL’INTEGRAZIONE EUROPEA MARITIME NETWORKS AS A FACTOR IN EUROPEAN INTEGRATION Selezione di ricerche Selection of essays Firenze University Press 2019 OP03934_int_stampa.indd 3 03/04/19 20:13 Reti marittime come fattori dell’integrazione europea = Maritime Networks as a Factor in European Integration : selezione di ricerche = Selection of essays. – Firenze : Firenze University Press, 2019. (Atti delle “Settimane di Studi” e altri Convegni, 50) http://digital.casalini.it/9788864538570 ISBN 978-88-6453-856-3 (print) ISBN 978-88-6453-857-0 (online) La Settimana di Studi è stata realizzata con il contributo di: Ministero dei beni e delle attività culturali e del turismo La Fondazione Datini si dichiara fin d’ora disponibile ad assolvere i suoi obblighi per l’utilizzo delle immagini contenute nel volume nei confronti di eventuali aventi diritto. CRITERI DI CERTIFICAZIONE SCIENTIFICA I testi pubblicati in questa collana raccolgono i risultati di ricerche originali attivate dalla Fondazione Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica “F. Datini”, sulla base di un progetto varato dai suoi organi scientifici. Gli autori vengono selezionati a seguito di una Call for papers che indica gli obiettivi scientifici del progetto; la selezione è effettuata sulla base di proposte circostanziate contenenti indicazioni sulle questioni storiografiche che si intende affrontare, l’area e il periodo storico preso in considerazione e la tipologia delle fonti da utilizzare. La Giunta del Comitato scientifico, eventualmente integrata da specialisti, analizza le proposte e seleziona quelle ritenute più valide e coerenti con il progetto generale di ricerca. La commissione può anche decidere, ove lo ritenga opportuno, di effettuare inviti diretti a studiosi che si siano distinti per la qualità della loro produzione scientifica sul tema. I testi risultanti dalle ricerche vengono presentati e discussi in occasione della Settimana di Studi. Nel mese precedente al suo svolgimento, essi vengono messi a disposizione dei partecipanti, per consentire il necessario approfondimento della discussione. A seguito delle osservazioni e del dibattito svolto durante il convegno, gli autori inviano i loro testi definitivi. Tutti i testi vengono sottoposti a duplice peer review anonimo. Questo volume raccoglie solo quelli che hanno registrato un giudizio positivo. The works published in this series represent the collected original research works initiated by the “F. Datini” International Institute of Economic History (Fondazione Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica “F. Datini”), based on a project launched by its scientific bodies. The authors are chosen following a Call for Papers indicating the scientific objectives of the project; the selection is performed on the basis of detailed proposals containing indications regarding the researched economic history topics, the area and historical period considered, as well as the sources used. The Scientific Committee analyzes the proposals, choosing those considered the most valid and coherent with the general research project. The Committee may decide, if it deems adequate, to invite individual scholars who have distinguished themselves for the quality of their scientific work on the topic. The works resulting from research are presented and discussed during the Study Week. During the month preceding the Study Week, the works are made available to the participants to ensure a more detailed discussion. Following the comments and the debate held during the conference, the authors send their final texts, which are submitted to two anonymous peer reviewers. This book only contains the essays recording a positive judgment. Certificazione scientifica delle Opere Tutti i volumi pubblicati sono soggetti a un processo di referaggio esterno di cui sono responsabili il Consiglio editoriale della FUP e i Consigli scientifici delle singole collane. Le opere pubblicate nel catalogo FUP sono valutate e approvate dal Consiglio editoriale della casa editrice. Per una descrizione più analitica del processo di referaggio si rimanda ai documenti ufficiali pubblicati sul catalogo on-line (www.fupress.com). Consiglio editoriale Firenze University Press M. Garzaniti (Presidente), M. Boddi, A. Bucelli, R. Casalbuoni, A. Dolfi, R. Ferrise, M.C. Grisolia, P. Guarnieri, R. Lanfredini, P. Lo Nostro, G. Mari, A. Mariani, P.M. Mariano, S. Marinai, R. Minuti, P. Nanni, G. Nigro, A. Perulli. L’edizione digitale on-line del volume è pubblicata ad accesso aperto su www.fupress.com. La presente opera è rilasciata nei termini della licenza Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode). La licenza permette di condividere l’opera con qualsiasi mezzo e formato, a condizione che ne sia menzionata la paternità in modo adeguato, non sia modificata né utilizzata per scopi commerciali e sia fornito un link alla licenza. © 2019 Firenze University Press Pubblicato da Firenze University Press Firenze University Press Università degli Studi di Firenze via Cittadella, 7, 50144 Firenze, Italy www.fupress.com This book is printed on acid-free paper Printed in Italy OP03934_int_stampa.indd 4 03/04/19 20:13 CRITERI DI CERTIFICAZIONE SCIENTIFICA I testi pubblicati in questa collana raccolgono i risultati di ricerche originali attivate dalla Fondazione Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica “F. Datini”, sulla base di un progetto varato dai suoi organi scientifici. Gli autori vengono selezionati a seguito di una Call for papers che indica gli obiettivi scientifici del progetto; la selezione è effettuata sulla base di proposte circostanziate contenenti indicazioni sulle questioni storiografiche che si intende affrontare, l’area e il periodo storico preso in considerazione e la tipologia delle fonti da utilizzare. La Giunta del Comitato scientifico, eventualmente integrata da specialisti, analizza le proposte e seleziona quelle ritenute più valide e coerenti con il progetto generale di ricerca. La commissione può anche decidere, ove lo ritenga opportuno, di effettuare inviti diretti a studiosi che si siano distinti per la qualità della loro produzione scientifica sul tema. I testi risultanti dalle ricerche vengono presentati e discussi in occasione della Settimana di Studi. Nel mese precedente al suo svolgimento, essi vengono messi a disposizione dei partecipanti, per consentire il necessario approfondimento della discussione. A seguito delle osservazioni e del dibattito svolto durante il convegno, gli autori inviano i loro testi definitivi. Tutti i testi vengono sottoposti a duplice peer review anonimo. Questo volume raccoglie solo quelli che hanno registrato un giudizio positivo. The works published in this series represent the collected original research works initiated by the “F. Datini” International Institute of Economic History (Fondazione Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica “F. Datini”), based on a project launched by its scientific bodies. The authors are chosen following a Call for Papers indicating the scientific objectives of the project; the selection is performed on the basis of detailed proposals containing indications regarding the researched economic history topics, the area and historical period considered, as well as the sources used. The Scientific Committee analyzes the proposals, choosing those considered the most valid and coherent with the general research project. The Committee may decide, if it deems adequate, to invite individual scholars who have distinguished themselves for the quality of their scientific work on the topic. The works resulting from research are presented and discussed during the Study Week. During the month preceding the Study Week, the works are made available to the participants to ensure a more detailed discussion. Following the comments and the debate held during the conference, the authors send their final texts, which are submitted to two anonymous peer reviewers. This book only contains the essays recording a positive judgment. OP03934_int_stampa.indd 5 03/04/19 20:13  INDICE ERIK AERTS, A titolo introduttivo: 50 anni Datini ...................................................... pag. 1 MICHAEL NORTH, Mari connessi .................................................................................. » 5 IN CHE MODO LE ROTTE DI NAVIGAZIONE SONO SERVITE COME ELEMENTO DI CONNESSIONE? HOW DID SHIPPING ROUTES SERVE AS A CONNECTING FORCE? LUCIANO PALERMO, Il sistema degli scambi nel Mediterraneo occidentale tra XIV e XV secolo e il porto di Roma ....................................................................... pag. 29 ANGELA ORLANDI, Between the Mediterranean and the North Sea: Networks of Men and Ports (14th-15th Centuries) ......................................................................... » 49 DAVID IGUAL LUIS, Movimento portuale, reti marittime e diversità dei mercati a Valenza nel XV secolo .................................................................................................. » 71 WENDY R. CHILDS, England’s Maritime and Commercial Networks in the Late Middle Ages .................................................................................................. » 89 NENAD FEJIC, Extension, ramification, temporalité et dangerosité d’un grand réseau, situant Raguse (Dubrovnik) au point nodal des échanges entre la Péninsule Ibérique et l’Orient méditerranéen (XIII-XV siècle) .................................................. » 117 RENARD GLUZMAN, GERASSIMOS PAGRATIS, Tracking Venice’s Maritime Traffic in the First Age of Globalization: A Geospatial Analysis .......................................... » 135 PIERRICK POURCHASSE, Les réseaux négociants européens et les échanges entre la France et l'Europe du Nord (XVIIe-XIXe siècles) ........................................ » 155 JARI OJALA, Maritime Information Networks between Northern and Southern Europe during the Eighteenth Century .............................................. » 183 IN CHE MODO I PUNTI NODALI HANNO MESSO IN RELAZIONE SFERE COMMERCIALI DIVERSE? HOW DID NODAL POINTS BRING TOGETHER DIFFERENT COMMERCIAL SPHERES? LOUIS SICKING, Funduq, Fondaco, Feitoria. The Portuguese Contribution to the Globalisation of an Institution of Overseas Trade ..................................................... pag. 197 WERNER SCHELTJENS, The Dutch Republic as Example of Maritime Transport Services Clusters in Preindustrial Europe (ca. 1650-1800) ........................................ » 209 MARIA RYABOVA, Venetian Trading Firm of the Soranzo Brothers (1406-1434) and Its Commercial Network ........................................................................................ » 229 BENEDETTO LIGORIO, Un ponte tra ottomani e cristiani. Il network degli ebrei di Ragusa tra Balcani e Adriatico (1585-1635) ............................................................ » 255 OP03934_int_stampa.indd 7 03/04/19 20:13 INDICE V III LUISA PICCINNO, ANDREA ZANINI, Genoa: Colonizing and Colonized City? The Port City as a Pole of Attraction for Foreign Merchants (16th-18th centuries) pag. 281 FRANCIS BRUMONT, Deux ports semblables, mais que tout oppose: Bordeaux et Rouen au XVIe siècle ................................................................................. » 297 MANUEL F. FERNANDEZ CHAVES, RAFAEL M. PEREZ GARCIA, Textiles Market in 16th-Century Seville: Business and Mercantile Groups .......................................... » 317 JOANA SEQUEIRA, FLÁVIO MIRANDA, ‘A Port of Two Seas.’ Lisbon and European Maritime Networks in the Fifteenth Centur y ............................................................... » 339 GELINA HARLAFTIS, Black Sea and its Maritime Networks, 1770s-1820s. The Beginnings of Its European Integration .............................................................. » 355 IN CHE MISURA IL LIBERO SCAMBIO E IL PROTEZIONISMO FACILITARONO L’INTEGRAZIONE DI RETI MARITTIME? TO WHAT EXTENT DID FREE TRADE AND PROTECTION FACILITATE THE INTEGRATION OF MARITIME NETWORKS? JUSTYNA WUBS-MROZEWICZ, Maritime Networks and Premodern Conflict Management on Multiple Levels. The Example of Danzig and the Giese Family ......................... pag. 385 GUILLAUME CALAFAT, Un réseau corse entre l’Afrique du Nord et l’Europe. Commerce maritime, institutions et enrichissement au tournant des XVIe et XVIIe siècles ........ » 407 QUALI CARATTERISTICHE DELLO SCAMBIO CULTURALE O DI PRODOTTI PARTICOLARI SONO SERVITI A INTEGRARE LE RETI MARITTIME? WHICH FEATURES OF CULTURAL EXCHANGE SERVED TO INTEGRATE MARITIME NETWORKS OR WERE THEIR PARTICULAR PRODUCTS? RICHARD W. UNGER, Markets and Merchants: Commercial and Cultural Integration in Northwest Europe, 1300-1700 .............................................................. pag. 431 LEOS MÜLLER, Swedish Trade and Shipping in the Mediterranean in the 18th Century .............................................................................................................. » 453 SCAMBI INTERCONTINENTALI INTERCONTINENTAL EXCHANGES STEFANIA MONTEMEZZO, Ships and Trade: The Role of Public Navigation in Renaissance Venice ...................................................................................................... pag. 473 RENATO GHEZZI, Italian Ports and the Levant in the 16th and 17th Centuries .......... » 485 HELMUT RIZZOLLI, FEDERICO PIGOZZO, Economic and Social Aspects of the Trade of Luxury Goods between Africa and Europe: Ostrich Feathers ........ » 507 PAOLO CALCAGNO, Attraverso la porta di Lisbona: i generi coloniali volano del commercio luso-genovese tra XVII e XVIII secolo ................................................ » 519 LUCA LO BASSO, Traffici globali. Corallo, diamanti e tele di cotone negli affari commerciali dei Genovesi in Oriente ............................................................................... » 533 Abstract ................................................................................................................................ » 555 Erik Aerts A titolo introduttivo: 50 anni Datini Nella storia recente, l’anno 1968 ha un significato affascinante ma rappresenta anche qualcosa di tragico. Quel periodo viene associato alla rivolta degli studenti che iniziò a Nanterre e si diffuse rapidamente in Francia e in altri paesi. Portò anche all’inizio e alla fine della cosiddetta Primavera di Praga nell’ex Cecoslovacchia. Negli Stati Uniti furono assassinati Martin Luther King e Robert Kennedy. Il 1968 è stato un anno importante anche per Prato1. Il 5 e 6 gennaio 1968 si riuniva per la prima volta il comitato scientifico dell’Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica. Un incontro così a ridosso dell’inizio dell’anno implicava chiaramente che fosse già stato fatto qualche lavoro preparatorio durante i mesi precedenti. Infatti, il 16 di ottobre del 1967, presso l’Azienda Autonoma di Turismo di Prato, in via Luigi Muzzi 51, si riunirono i rappresentanti degli Enti Promotori con all’ordine del giorno la costituzione di un Centro Internazionale di Storia Economica Medievale. Questo limite cronologico sarebbe presto decaduto e in pratica il periodo da studiare sarebbe stato esteso a tutta l’età preindustriale. Nel 1969 anche il termine “Centro” fu sostituito con “Istituto”, soprattutto per distinguerlo dal Centro di Spoleto. La vera forza trainante per la nascita dell’Istituto Datini fu Federigo Melis. Dal 1963 egli ricopriva la cattedra di Storia economica dell’Università di Firenze (dove rimase fino alla morte il 26 dicembre 1973). In una lettera del 18 novembre 1967 egli informò Fernand Braudel della sua intenzione di avviare una istituzione scientifica responsabile dell’organizzazione di un convegno internazionale con cadenza regolare. L’evento si sarebbe potuto tenere all’Archivio Datini di Prato “dove vi sono le sale sufficienti ed adatte per tenere annualmente una settimana di studio”. Melis e Braudel si conoscevano dal 1954, periodo in cui Melis stava elaborando i progetti per la mostra dedicata all’Archivio Datini. A quel tempo, Braudel era già un “gran signore” della storiografia europea, autore di quello che divenne uno studio classico sul Mediterraneo e di una serie di importanti articoli pubblicati sugli Annales, la rivista storica più importante del mondo. Braudel accettò l’invito dell’amico e 1 Questa piccola cronaca degli avvenimenti è basata in particolare sulle pubblicazioni dei professori A. ORLANDI (sul sito web http://www.istitutodatini.it/ “Braudel, l'Istituto Datini e Prato 1954-1985”) e G. NIGRO, L’Istituto Datini e la storia economica (secc. XIII-XVIII), in Dove va la Storia Economica? Metodi e prospettive secc. XIII-XVIII, a c. di F. AMMANNATI, Firenze-Prato 2011 (Firenze University Press, Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica “F. Datini”, Atti delle “Settimane di Studi” e altri Convegni, 42), pp. 3-12. OP03934_int_stampa.indd 8 03/04/19 20:13 Jari Ojala Maritime Information Networks between Northern and Southern Europe during the Eighteenth Century* INTRODUCTION “In 1766 a small vessel, the Carolus, sailed from Finland to Marseilles. The vessel was the first one from its home port to sail beyond the Baltic Sea – and even to the distant Mediterranean area. The tradesmen in its hometown of Kokkola (in Swedish GamlaKarleby) had just obtained so-called staple rights, which allowed them to engage in foreign trade and shipping. To fit out and provisioning a ship for such a long voyage was exceptionally expensive and, thus, risky. The ship had been built in its home port at the owners’ own expense, and its valuable cargo of tar had been bought from peasants in the surrounding rural area – the cargo was about as valuable as the vessel itself. In practice, all merchants in the town owned small shares in the vessel. However, due to the valuable cargo and the price of the vessel itself, even small shares were expensive for relatively poor merchants in the town. Thus it is easy to imagine that the shipowners must have had reservations about the idea of sending the vessel on such a long voyage. The more so because none of the traders had ever visited the Mediterranean, no-one spoke French, nor did any of them know any businessmen in Marseilles with whom they might trade. It took about a month to deliver a letter to Marseilles – and it took another month to get a reply. Nevertheless the vessel was dispatched and months later it arrived in Marseilles, returning safely to its home port the following summer. The voyage was a success, providing to all who had invested to the ship and cargo with enormous profits.”1 * This essay is largely based on earlier articles by the author: J. OJALA, The Problem of Information in Late Eighteenth-and Early Nineteenth-Century Shipping: A Finnish Case, in “International Journal of Maritime History”, 14, 2002, n. 1, pp. 189-208 and J. OJALA, V. LUOMA-AHO, Stakeholder relations as social capital in early modern international trade, in “Business History”, 50, 2008, n. 6, pp. 749-764. – I would like to thank the participants of the Datini conference “Maritime Networks as a factor in European Integration” for the most useful comments to further develop this article. 1 The case of the Carolus is also discussed in: J. OJALA, Approaching Europe: The merchant networks between Finland and Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, in “European Review of Economic History”, 1, 1997, n. 3, pp. 323-352 and J. OJALA, Tehokasta liiketoimintaa Pohjanmaan pikkukaupungeissa: purjemerenkulun kannattavuus ja tuottavuus 1700-1800-luvulla [Efficient Business Activity in Small Ostrobothnian Towns: Profitability and Productivity of Shipping by Sail during the 18th and 19th Century], Helsinki 1999 (SHS), p. 312. JARI OJALA 190 The problem was not only one of obtaining information but also of the slow speed of communication. It took weeks rather than days to transmit data from important Mediterranean ports to the Northern extremities of the Baltic Sea. The time lag between sending a letter and getting an answer to it from a distant port could be at best weeks, but in the worst cases months. In one case, a Finnish businessman complained to his Portuguese business partner that he did not receive a circular letter dated in January until November.31 RELIABILITY OF INFORMATION The very same innovations that advanced the availability of merchant information also played an important role in improving the reliability of information.32 Personal contacts between the parties to transactions ensured the reliability; this is born out by the longevity of business contacts. Namely, in many cases business contacts between distant trading houses lasted for decades or even over a century. Furthermore, parties to transactions were ready to continue with reliable, old business partners, even though more profitable ones were available, as personal commitment and long-term economic relationships were efficient ways to minimize the risks related to information.33 The “weakness of strong ties”, however, might create challenges in cases of economic depression, as suggested by Mark Granovetter in his classic study. To a certain extent, however, the emerging brokerage firms and agencies were still impersonal in nature. In time, the parties involved in such contacts came to know a great deal about each other. As a result, these impersonal networks also acquired personal characteristics in the long run and eventually lowered transaction costs. Thus, frequency and repetition within the contacts were among the primary factors in building relationships and trust between the transacting parties.34 31 Ibid., p. 310. 32 H. VINNAL, The world refuses to shrink. The speed and reliability of information transmission in North and Baltic Sea region, 1750-1825, in “European Review of Economic History”, 18, 2014, n. 4, pp. 398-412. 33 J. OJALA, Tehokasta liiketoimintaa, cit., pp. 311-319. 34 M. GRANOVETTER, The strength of weak ties, in “American Journal of Sociology”, 78, 1973, n. 6, pp. 1360-1380 – See also: J. OJALA, Problem of information, cit., pp. 189-208; J. OJALA, V. LUOMA-AHO, Stakeholder relations, cit., pp. 749-764. MARITIME INFORMATION NETWORKS BETWEEN NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN EUROPE 191 Fig. 1. Availability and reliability of information over time AVAILABILITY RELIABILITY TIME Challenge Personalized networks were especially important in transferring information between parties to transactions; in this case shipowners and charterers. The very foundation of these networks was to serve as channels to provide reliable information, thereby reducing transaction costs caused by the asymmetric dissemination of information. For a shipowner and charterer it was vital to be a part of these information networks, and for a newcomer to be able to use some existing network.35 The availability of information was at least partly solved through specialization of trade and shipping, namely, by established information networks. Later on technological development also reduced the challenge of obtaining information. Examination of the correspondence of shipowners suffices to show the challenges the entrepreneurs faced during the early modern era: how to select the most reliable and valuable information? Thus, whereas previously sheer availability of information might have been the key obstacle, now it was (also) its reliability – as indeed it is even today. Figure 1 aims to illustrate this challenge: in time the availability of information becomes less challenging, while its reliability may become more problematic. The shipowner, for example, could not be sure whether his business partner in some distant town was really acting in best interests of his principal. There are, indeed, some occasions in which a so-called “principal-agent” challenge occurred, when self-seeking agents tried to cheat their distant principals. Yet in practice such behaviour was fairly rare as the close networks of information were also quick to spread news of bad behaviour.36 The key to understanding why and how these information networks proved reliable is resource dependency; the parties involved in the transaction were dependent upon the resources they provided to one another. Finnish shipowners and 35 J. OJALA, Problem of information, cit., pp. 189-208. 36 IDEM, Tehokasta liiketoimintaa, cit., p. 311; M. CASSON, Entrepreneurial Networks, cit., pp. 17-18. JARI OJALA 192 exporters offered staples such as tar and timber that were needed in Southern Europe. They could offer these commodities, and also cargo capacity to carry tramp shipping at affordable prices, which made them valuable contacts for businessmen in the South. Conversely, Finnish merchant-shipowners were dependent on imports, exports and charter-parties offered by their Southern counterparts. In time, the parties to transactions had repeated dealings and they learnt more about each other over time – even though they did not necessarily knew each other personally. Moreover, the consular networks established by the Swedish government also ensured the establishment of trust between the transacting parties – especially as in many cases these consuls were local businessmen with whom the Swedish (and Finnish) merchants had transactions.37 Among all parties, whether they were shipowners, charterers, agents, brokers or ships’ masters, reputation was invaluable: to maintain a good reputation also ensured future opportunities for in business.38 USE OF INFORMATION The availability and reliability of information are only pre-conditions for activities; ultimately it is a matter of how the information is used. The information obtained had to be assessed and analysed in one way or another. Thus, it was a question of business acumen: the ability to exploit available information and to explore new possibilities.39 The long-term business relationships witness, on the one hand, the strategy of exploiting existing resources in businesses. Yet entrepreneurs were also constantly seeking for new opportunities, and their endeavours are apparent in the hundreds of letters sent to previously unknown businessmen. However, in most cases, new trade relationships were not achieved through these occasional contacts. How then could a merchant-shipowner in the early modern era best use the information he possessed? These capabilities were a complex mixture already then – as they are today – of personal abilities, including formal education, experience, entrepreneurial mindset, and sometimes, pure luck – or misfortune. The training of the future merchants can be roughly divided into two categories: formal education and practical training as an apprentice. Most often the training was a combination of these, although it is evident that during the 18th century practical training was still preferred among the Finnish merchant families. Also, the (Swedish) merchant legislation favoured practical skills over formal education. In fact, practical training was considered indispensable, while formal schooling was not. According to the Swedish law of 1734, up to twelve years of practical training was required before one could obtain the right to be a merchant. In reality, a much shorter time was considered acceptable, and in the cases of the sons of merchant families the notion “of 37 J. OJALA, Problem of information, cit., pp. 189-208 38 Examples of using networks, for example, in J. OJALA, Tehokasta liiketoimintaa, cit., p. 335. 39 D.J. TEECE, Explicating dynamic capabilities: the nature and microfoundations of (sustainable) enterprise performance, in “Strategic management journal”, 28, 2007, n. 13, pp. 1319-1350; M. CASSON, The entrepreneur: An economic theory. Totowa, New Jersey 1982 (Barnes & Noble Books). MARITIME INFORMATION NETWORKS BETWEEN NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN EUROPE 193 being with his father since a small boy” was sometimes enough. The Swedish merchant law on practical training remained active in Finland up to 1879.40 The merchant-shipowners had to be active in their networks, thus making use of information entailed hard work. However, the use of information was still constrained by its availability and reliability. The first of these meant that businessmen of the early modern era had to adjust their business operations to the speed of information transfer. That is, they were constantly forced to make long term plans. Even at the shortest, sending a vessel from Northern Europe to the South and back would take about half a year. But as ships were used to carry freight, this period was in many cases more than one year. Moreover, Finnish and Swedish shipowners had to take into account the forces of nature: in winter returning to the North was impossible due to the ice; storms were frequent in autumn and certain commodities like grain were needed especially in spring. The warehouses at home should be full when the vessels docked so that they could be loaded as soon as possible to reduce turnaround time and sent back to profitable business. Moreover the shipyards needed to be at the ready in case the vessels needed repairs. Thus correspondence with foreign business contacts formed just one part of the daily routines and long-term strategies of entrepreneurs engaged in foreign trade and shipping. In spite of constant complaints from Finnish shipowners, for example, about the slowness of information flows – and sometimes even the challenges of reliability, there was in fact not much they could do to speed things up. In most cases letters including information on the export cargo was carried on board the same vessel that was carrying the cargo in question.41 CONCLUSIONS The vessel Carolus made a successful voyage from the Northern shores of the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean in 1766-1767. How was this specific journey possible, how were the necessary contacts made? The answer lies in the complicated networks of information and the personal ties between the key parties involved. In this case, the answer is in the contact networks and role played by a certain Stockholm-based merchant house which had close contacts with Finnish merchants on the one hand, and with traders in Marseilles on the other. This Stockholm-based merchant house also owned a small share in the Carolus itself; thus, it was in the best interests of the owners of this Stockholm house to act in the best interests of the other owners of this business venture. Thus, this trading house acted as an intermediary that organized contacts, delivered letters and even organized a capable ship’s master from Stockholm for the Carolus, which sailed with and unexperienced crew from North to South and back. The access, reliability and use of information were problems for merchantshipowners during the 18th century. The solutions adopted were partly contradictory: the aim to reduce information asymmetry on the one hand, and this might incur 40 J. OJALA, Tehokasta liiketoimintaa, cit., p. 270-276. 41 Compare, though, H. VINNAL, Cost-distance ratio, cit. JARI OJALA 194 costs on the other. For example, using the services of specialized brokers and agencies certainly made information more easily available, but might at the same time pose challenges in terms of reliability of information. The merchant-shipowners therefore sought for long-term business contacts in which repeated dealings had created trust between the parties involved. Such contacts were preferred even if there were more profitable ones – but potentially unreliable – available.