Vicarious learning in the translation classroom: How can it influence students' self efficacy beliefs?

English Studies at NBU, 2019 pISSN 2367-5705 Vol. 5, Issue 1, pp. 92-113 eISSN 2367-8704 https://doi.org/10.33919/esnbu.19.1.5 www.esnbu.org 92 VICARIOUS LEARNING IN THE TRANSLATION CLASSROOM: HOW CAN IT INFLUENCE STUDENTS’ SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS? María del Mar Haro-Soler Department of Translation and Interpreting, University of Granada, Spain Abstract This action research study aims to analyse the ways in which vicarious learning, one of the sources of selfefficacy beliefs according to Social Cognitive Theory, can materialise in the translation classroom. To achieve this aim, a mixed methodological approach was adopted based on the following techniques: the interview, the survey, classroom observation and focus groups. Results show that vicarious learning took place in the translation classroom where this study was performed both through the students’ comparison with professional translators and between peers. More particularly, a collaborative learning environment and practices such as the presentation of translation projects by the students, role-plays or discovering the careers of previous graduates favoured vicarious learning and thus positively influenced the participant students’ self-efficacy beliefs, according to their perception. The results obtained contribute to shedding light on some ways to incorporate students’ self-efficacy beliefs in translator education, satisfying the need underlined by several authors. Keywords: translator education, self-efficacy beliefs, vicarious learning, action research, students’ perceptions, mixed research Article history: Received: 24 April 2018; Reviewed: 25 April 2019; Accepted: 3 May 2019; Published: 1 June 2019 Copyright © 2019 María del Mar Haro-Soler This open access article is published and distributed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 International License which permits non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available at [email protected]. If you want to use the work commercially, you must first get the author’s permission. OpenData: Data for this study are available under a CC-BY 4.0 license at https://doi.org/10.17632/5tpm6rwbfw.1 Citation: Haro-Soler, M. M. (2019). Vicarious learning in the translation classroom: how can it influence students’ self-efficacy beliefs? English Studies at NBU, 5(1), 92-113. https://doi.org/10.33919/esnbu.19.1.5 María del Mar Haro-Soler holds a PhD in Translation and Interpreting from the University of Granada, Spain, where she currently teaches on translation courses. From 2014 to 2018 she held a grant for the Training of Higher Education Teachers and Researchers from the Spanish Ministry of Education. She has published several chapters in prestigious publishing houses, such as John Benjamins, as well as several papers in journals, all of them on translator education. She is author of the forthcoming book Creencias de autoeficacia del estudiantado de traducción: ¿cómo favorecer su desarrollo? [Translation Students’ Selfefficacy Beliefs: How to Develop their Self-efficacy Beliefs]. She completed two research stays as a visiting scholar at Kent State University (Ohio) and Johannes Gutenberg Universität Mainz (Germany). María del Mar is a certified sworn translator. This study was funded by a research grant from the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports. Grant number FPU13/03381 awarded from 2014 to 2018. E-mail: [email protected] https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8467-8932 María del Mar Haro-Soler 93 Vicarious learning as a source of self-efficacy beliefs Self-efficacy beliefs play a central role in Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura 1986, 1997), where they represent a self-perception of one’s ability to perform a particular task, as the following definition illustrates: ‘the belief[s] in one’s capability to execute required actions and produce outcomes for a defined task’ (Wood, Atkins, & Tabernero, 2000, p. 431). It must be noted that the terms self-efficacy beliefs and self-efficacy are used as synonyms in the literature on (Educational) psychology. However, in this study the term self-efficacy beliefs will be employed consistently, thus following the terminological proposal by Haro-Soler (2018a, 2019b). This terminological decision aims to avoid the confusion that may arise from the association of self-efficacy with one’s ability, instead of with what someone believes that can achieve thanks to their ability. As Bandura (1997, p. 391) highlights: ‘[self-efficacy beliefs are] concerned not with the skills one has but with judgment of what one can do with whatever skills one possesses’. With reference to conceptual and terminological aspects and in order to clearly delimit the meaning of the object of this study, it is important to distinguish self-efficacy beliefs from other similar concepts which also constitute forms of self-perceptions, such as self-confidence, self-esteem and self-concept. As shown in Figure 1, a hierarchical relation exists between self-confidence and self-efficacy beliefs. Both constitute a selfperception of one’s own abilities, but whereas self-efficacy beliefs are task specific, selfconfidence refers to the general abilities that a person has and is not related to a particular activity (Haro-Soler, 2018a; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016). Figure 1. Self-perceptions. Translated from Haro-Soler (2018a) VICARIOUS LEARNING IN THE TRANSLATION CLASSROOM: ... 94 Self-esteem is an individual’s perceived sense of self-worth (Schunk, 1991), that is, a self-perception of one’s social and personal value (Pajares, 2000), not of one’s abilities. Finally, self-concept ‘represents one’s general perceptions of the self in given domains of functioning’ (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003, p. 5) and includes perceptions of one’s abilities together with a perceived sense of self-worth (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003; Pajares & Miller, 1994). This is why self-concept is considered to embrace self-confidence and self-efficacy beliefs (self-perceptions of one’s abilities), as well as self-esteem (sense of self-worth) (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016; Shavelson & Bolus, 1982). Once the meaning of self-efficacy beliefs and the differences between this and other forms of self-perceptions have been clarified, it is time to analyse the effects that self-efficacy beliefs can have and, especially, the sources from which they can be generated, among which is vicarious learning. According to Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997) and subsequent studies, self-efficacy beliefs can influence decision-making and the effort and persistence used when performing a task. In other words, individuals who trust their abilities to successfully complete a task tend to persevere longer in the pursuit of adequate strategies and solutions, discarding less appropriate ones (Bandura, 1995; Tabernero, 2004; Zeldin & Pajares, 2000). Selfefficacy beliefs can also increase motivation, as those who trust their real abilities tend to establish challenging objectives that function as motivational incentives (Bandura, 1997). Finally, self-efficacy beliefs facilitate the control of emotional states such as stress or anxiety. These emotions may prevent individuals from making the best use of their internal resources and from identifying adequate strategies to solve the problems arising during task-performance (Bandura, 1997; Cabanach, Valle, Rodríguez, Piñeiro, & González, 2010). As for the sources of self-efficacy beliefs, this self-perception generates from the information provided by four sources: mastery experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states and vicarious learning. In mastery experience, successes can foster the confidence one has in their abilities to perform a particular task, whereas failures can diminish it (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1997). Verbal persuasion must be understood as comments delivered by others with the aim of ‘convincing people that they have the ability to succeed at a particular task’ (Lunenburg, 2011, p. 3). Nevertheless, persuasive comments must be based on the individual’s real abilities, as, María del Mar Haro-Soler 95 otherwise, subsequent failures will disconfirm unrealistic self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2016). In a different direction, the appearance of certain physiological and emotional states, such as pain or stress, during task-performance can be perceived by the individual as a sign of incapacity and vulnerability and thus impact negatively on their self-efficacy beliefs (confidence) to complete the task. Finally, whereas mastery experience is based on the results of one’s actions, vicarious learning, also called observational learning, is based on the performance of others that the individual perceives as models. In this sense, the successes attained by the model are interpreted by the individual as his/her own successes and can increase his/her selfefficacy beliefs, whereas the model’s failures can lead the individual to doubt his/her abilities to complete the task that the model was unable to successfully perform (Bandura, 1995, 1997). Therefore, the perceived similarity to the models becomes crucial for the impact that vicarious learning can have on self-efficacy beliefs: The impact of modeling on beliefs of personal efficacy is strongly influenced by perceived similarity to the models. The greater the assumed similarity, the more persuasive are the models' successes and failures. If people see the models as very different from themselves their beliefs of efficacy are not much influenced by the models' behavior and the results it produces. (Bandura, 1995, p. 8) Apart from the interpretation of the models’ successes or failures as one’s own performance, vicarious learning can influence the observers’ self-efficacy beliefs to the extent that individuals can learn effective skills and strategies to manage particular tasks by observing the behaviour of competent models (Bandura, 1995, 1997). This means that vicarious learning allows observers to develop their abilities and to attain subsequent mastery experiences that eventually boost their self-efficacy beliefs. In this section we have defined self-efficacy beliefs, have distinguished it from other similar concepts and have presented its sources and effects, paying special attention to vicarious learning. In the following section we will move to the field of Translation Studies and, more particularly, to the Didactics of Translation in order to analyse the situation of research on self-efficacy beliefs in translator education. VICARIOUS LEARNING IN THE TRANSLATION CLASSROOM: ... 96 Self-efficacy beliefs in translator education Research on self-efficacy beliefs to translate, that is, a translator’s confidence in his/her ability to translate adequately, is relatively recent in Translation Studies. Although for the last decade several studies have been performed on this construct (Albin, 2012; Atkinson, 2012, 2014; Bolaños, 2014, 2015; Bolaños & Núñez, 2018; Ho, 2010; Muñoz, 2014; among others)1, further research is needed, especially from an educational perspective. Even though research on self-efficacy beliefs has been intense in a wide variety of fields (Torre, 2007), especially in Education (Bolaños-Medina, 2014; Pajares, 1996), little attention has been paid to self-efficacy beliefs in research on translator education (Atkinson & Crezee, 2014). This lack of attention contrasts with the previously stated benefits that self-efficacy beliefs can bring for (translation) students, and may be due to the difficulty of establishing didactic objectives for the development of realistic self-efficacy beliefs, as well as for other translator’s self-perceptions2 (Presas, 1998; Way, 2014). Within this framework, several authors (Fraser, 2000; Way, 2009; Atkinson & Crezee, 2014; Haro-Soler, 2018a) have underlined the need to empirically identify pedagogical approaches and teaching-learning practices that can have an impact on translation students’ self-efficacy beliefs, with the final aim of incorporating the explicit development of realistic self-efficacy beliefs in translator education programmes. In an attempt to contribute to satisfying this need and to overcoming the difficulty that this entails, a few empirical studies have recently been performed. Among them is the study by Atkinson (2012), who presents different practices that can be implemented in the translation classroom to foster students’ self-efficacy beliefs. These practices include self-reflection on one’s strengths and weaknesses in order to gain awareness of one’s real abilities to translate; positive and constructive feedback; and a theoretical explanation of the functioning of the concept of self-efficacy beliefs, followed by group discussion. 1 See Haro-Soler (2019b) for a detailed revision of the studies on self-efficacy beliefs to translate. 2 Among them are self-esteem and the translator’s self-concept. Due to space limitations and since these self-perceptions do not constitute the object of this research, we refer the reader to the studies by Ehrensberger-Dow & Massey (2013), Göpferich (2009), Gross (2003), Hunziker (2016), Kiraly (1990, 1995, 1997) or Muñoz (2014) on the translator’s self-concept, as well as the research by Cifuentes-Férez & Fenollar (2017) on self-esteem in Translation Studies. María del Mar Haro-Soler 97 Online collaborative work can also positively influence translation students’ selfefficacy beliefs according to the results of the longitudinal mixed-methods study carried out by Yang, Guo & Yu (2016). Similarly, the students participating in the qualitative study by Haro-Soler took part in other two focus group studies in which the perceptions of translation teachers (2017) and students (2018b) were collected in order to discover teaching practices that had influenced the latter’s self-efficacy beliefs during the fouryear degree in Translation and Interpreting that they were about to finish. Among the practices identified ware scaffolding, continuous assessment, constructive feedback, tutorial sessions, and gaining awareness of one’s real abilities as a translator. Of special relevance is the systematic quasi-experimental study that Haro-Soler (2018a, 2019d) performed to identify and analyse pedagogical approaches, teaching practices and teachers’ behavioural factors that can impact translation students’ self-efficacy beliefs. Even more recent is her research on the use of rubrics (Haro-Soler, 2019c), the use of self-assessment instruments (Haro-Soler, 2019e) and the adoption of the so called caring teaching approach (Haro-Soler, 2019f) to help students develop realistic selfefficacy beliefs as translators. The study presented here follows the line initiated by the authors cited in the previous paragraph and pursues the general aim of shedding light on some ways to incorporate self-efficacy beliefs in translator education programmes in a structured way. More specifically, this study aims to analyse the way in which one of the sources of self-efficacy beliefs, vicarious learning (Bandura, 1995, 1997), materializes in the translation classroom. This has allowed us to identify teaching-learning practices that can influence translation students’ self-efficacy beliefs through observational learning, as will be shown in the following sections. It must be noted that this is the only study on vicarious learning and its impact on the students’ confidence to translate that has been performed in the field of Translation Studies to date3. 3 Note that Atkinson (2014) presents vicarious learning as a potential practice to help translation and interpreting students understand explanatory style and locus of control (two of the components of his psychological skill model), but this author does not suggest the use of vicarious learning for the development of the students’ self-efficacy beliefs. VICARIOUS LEARNING IN THE TRANSLATION CLASSROOM: ... 98 An action research mixed-methods study The study performed to meet our aim can be classified as action research, since it derives from a problem identified in translator education (the need to incorporate selfefficacy beliefs explicitly and in a structured way in translator education programmes) and seeks to find solutions for this situation, finally improving the educational context (Nunan, 2007). A mixed methodological approach was adopted in this study, in which both qualitative (interviews, focus groups and classroom observation) and quantitative techniques (survey) were implemented. Our decision to follow this mixed approach is in line with the view of Glackin & Hohenstein (2017), who point out that despite the fact that quantitative approaches have been traditionally adopted to study self-efficacy beliefs, a mixed methodological approach would allow researchers to perform more exhaustive and holistic research on this form of self-perception. In this line, Wyatt (2014, p. 16) explained that ‘mixed methods and qualitative research designs seem to have the potential to produce insightful findings that can make the study of […] selfefficacy beliefs of greater use to […] educators than has previously been the case’. This study was performed in a semester-long compulsory translation course taught in the third year of the undergraduate degree in Translation and Interpreting offered at the University of Granada (Spain). The selection of this course is due to the fact that the course teacher was willing to allow a researcher (the author of this paper) to observe her lessons. Moreover, we detected, through previous focus groups with teachers of the degree (Haro-Soler, 2017), that some practices that could support vicarious learning (such as the collaborative preparation of translation projects by students) were going to be implemented in this course. After selecting the environment for our study, the methodological flow described below was followed: 1. Interview with the course teacher. Before the beginning of the semester, a semi-structured interview was conducted with the course teacher. This interview allowed the author of this paper to familiarise herself with the teaching method that was going to be followed during the semester, the practices that were going to be implemented and the resources that were going to be used. The interview lasted approximately one hour. María del Mar Haro-Soler 99 2. Classroom observation. All the lessons during the course were observed by the author (four hours per week over 15 weeks), who also registered the practices implemented in the classroom in detail, as well as aspects related to their implementation (such as duration, teacher’s and students’ roles, frequency of implementation, resources used, etc.). To accomplish this task, the Observation Sheet designed and used in previous studies (Haro-Soler, 2018a) was used. 3. A questionnaire was distributed at the end of the semester to discover the students’ perceptions of the influence that the practices implemented during the course had had on their confidence as translators. The questionnaire included demographic questions, as well as a scale where the participant students had to indicate the type of influence that several practices had had on their self-efficacy beliefs (positive, negative or null), and the intensity of this influence (if any) (barely influential, quite influential, very influential). The questionnaire underwent a validation process consisting of the verdict of a panel of six experts in questionnaire design and Translation Studies, and a pilot study with 21 students. 4. After the distribution of the questionnaire, focus groups were organised with students enrolled in the course to collect rich and complex qualitative information (Krueger, 1991) on the reasons why the practices implemented during the course had influenced (or not) their self-efficacy beliefs. In other words, qualitative data obtained through classroom observation and focus groups would allow us to understand and interpret the quantitative data obtained through our questionnaire and to detect those practices that had favoured vicarious learning. Therefore, triangulation constituted the heart of our empirical study. The course teacher and the students enrolled in it were asked to sign a consent form at the beginning of the semester. In this form they agreed to voluntarily participate in this study, which would include classroom observation, the distribution of a questionnaire and group interviews whose audio would be recorded. They were also informed that the data collected would be anonymous and exclusively used for research VICARIOUS LEARNING IN THE TRANSLATION CLASSROOM: ... 100 purposes. The teacher also signed a similar form when participating in the interview conducted before the beginning of the course. As for the students participating in this study, 31 out of the 32 students enrolled in the course completed the questionnaire. The majority of them were women (87.1%) and all students were between 19 and 22 years old. After collecting the questionnaire in the last lesson of the course, the author obtained permission from the teacher to recruit volunteers to participate in a focus group session. A total of 14 students volunteered. They were distributed in two focus groups (6 participants and 8 participants) according to their availability and taking into account the recommended size of a focus group. In this sense, although no agreement has been reached on the exact number of participants in focus group sessions, Suárez (2005) recommends that this number should oscillate between 3 and 13 and Ibáñez (2015) suggests groups of between 5 and 10 participants. Both focus group sessions were held in the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting of the University of Granada in February 2017, were moderated by the author and each of them lasted approximately one hour and a half. The conversation was recorded (after obtaining written permission from the students) and later transcribed by the author. After that, the resulting textual material was reduced (classified and organised within different thematic blocks corresponding to each of the practices implemented during the course) and interpreted4. Before continuing, it is worth highlighting that the aim of focus groups is not to generalise the results obtained, but to understand the participants’ opinions of a particular situation. In our case, the information collected in the two focus group sessions organised allowed us to understand some of the reasons why, in the participants’ opinion, certain teaching practices had influenced (or not) their confidence as translators. Among these reasons was vicarious learning, as will be shown in the following sections. 4 Focus groups were held in Spanish, so the students’ statements included later in this paper were translated by the author. María del Mar Haro-Soler 107 It helped me gain confidence to see how other teammates had played certain roles, to see how they had solved the difficulties encountered and to know what the teacher had told them, because this let me know what to do when I had to play the same role. (Participant 1) Other reasons why role-play positively and notably influenced the self-efficacy beliefs of most students relate to enactive learning, that is, to the development of the students’ abilities through direct experience, as will be described in future publications. Conclusions In an attempt to contribute to filling the vacuum identified in translator education with respect to the development of realistic self-efficacy beliefs by students, the action research study presented here was performed. More specifically, this study pursued the aim of analysing how vicarious learning, one of the sources of self-efficacy beliefs according to Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997), materialises in the translation classroom, in order to identify practices that can allow translator educators to help their students trust their real abilities as translators. To achieve this aim a mixed methodological approach was adopted. Before the beginning of the course where this study was performed we interviewed the course teacher, which allowed the collection of qualitative data about the pedagogical approach adopted. Moreover, classroom observation was applied and all lessons of the course were observed by the author. We also used the survey, which adopted the form of a questionnaire that the participant students completed at the end of the course and where they indicated their perceptions on the influence that practices implemented during the course had had on their self-efficacy beliefs. Finally, two focus group sessions were organised, which were essential to understand some of the reasons why the practices implemented had influenced (or not) the students’ confidence as translators, from their perspective. Several practices that support vicarious learning and that have positively influenced the self-efficacy beliefs of the majority of the participant students have been identified. These practices include sharing with the students information about the careers of previous graduates of the degree, classroom presentations of translation VICARIOUS LEARNING IN THE TRANSLATION CLASSROOM: ... 108 projects and role-play. In the first practice vicarious learning and its positive impact on the students’ self-efficacy beliefs take place through the comparison with former students, whose professional attainments were interpreted as future attainments by the participants. Similarly, classroom presentations of translation projects supported vicarious learning as they seemed to allow students to identify themselves with those responsible for the presentation and thus to realise that, like the team presenting, they were also able to successfully complete translation projects. Moreover, presentations led some participants to become aware of the fact that all students make mistakes and that there is no reason to doubt one’s abilities because of common errors that are part of the learning process. In a different direction, presentations constituted a space where students could learn from their peers (competent models), improve their abilities and attain mastery experiences, which finally fostered their self-efficacy beliefs. Vicarious learning based on the teaching of strategies by competent models did not only occur during presentations, but also within each team, where it was favoured by role-play. Consequently, the results obtained seem to indicate that a student-centred approach based on the collaboration between students within a team, between different teams of students and between the teacher and the students can help students trust their real abilities as translators. As the results presented show, we have met the aim pursued, since different practices that can positively influence students’ self-efficacy beliefs through vicarious learning have been identified. It must be noted that this is, to the best of our knowledge, the first study performed on vicarious learning and self-efficacy beliefs in Translation Studies. We hope to have contributed to shedding light on possible ways to incorporate self-efficacy beliefs in translator education, thus satisfying the need identified by several authors. Nevertheless, although this study represents a step forward, further research is necessary in this direction. Future research could include the replication of this study in different courses and different universities, as well as the development of quasiexperimental studies where self-efficacy beliefs are measured at the beginning and at the end of the course. Quasi-experimental studies would allow researchers to analyse the impact that certain practices, such as those that support vicarious learning, may have on self-efficacy beliefs. María del Mar Haro-Soler 109 References Albin, J. (2012). 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